Transportation Engineering Notes

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CE6504
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
V – SEMESTER
ww UNIT 1
w.E HIGHWAY PLANNING AND ALIGNMENT

Prepared by
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MR. L. RANJITH KUMAR M.E., (Ph.D)
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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR/CIVIL
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI - 123

HISTORY OF ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:

In India roads were developed during the following era.
 Ancient period (3500 BC)
 Mughal period (15th Century)
 British period (17 th and 18th Century)
 Free India (1950 onwards)
Ancient Roads:
The first mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would have been
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developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc.
The next major mode of transport was the use of animals for transporting both men and
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materials. Since these loaded animals required more horizontal and vertical clearances than
the walking man, track ways emerged. The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization
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led to the development of animal drawn vehicles. Then it became necessary that the road
surface should be capable of carrying greater loads. Thus roads with harder surfaces emerged.
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To provide adequate strength to carry the wheels, the new ways tended to follow the sunny
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drier side of a path. These have led to the development of foot-paths. After the invention of
wheel, animal drawn vehicles were developed and the need for hard surface road emerged.
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Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient civilization dated as old as
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3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was found from Assyrian empire constructed
about 1900 BC.
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The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed an
extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. They were a remarkable
achievement and provided travel times across Europe, Asia minor, and north Africa. Romans
recognized that the fundamentals of good road construction were to provide good drainage,
good material and good workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and some still exist.

Roman roads were always constructed on a firm - formed subgrade strengthened where
necessary with wooden piles. The roads were bordered on both sides by longitudinal drains.
The next step was the construction of the agger. This was a raised formation up to a 1 meter
high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials excavated during the side drain
construction. This was then topped with a sand leveling course. The agger contributed greatly
to moisture control in the pavement. The pavement structure on the top of the agger varied
greatly. In the case of heavy traffic, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal flag
stones were provided. A typical cross section of roman road is given in Figure. The main
features of the Roman roads are that they were built straight regardless of gradient and used
heavy foundation stones at the bottom. They mixed lime and volcanic puzzolana to make
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mortar and they added gravel to this mortar to make concrete. Thus concrete was a major
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Roman road making innovation.
British Road:
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The British government also gave importance to road construction. The British
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engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road
construction method. Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe. By empirical
observation of many roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken
angular stone would provide the same strength and stiffness and a better running surface than
an expensive pavement founded on large stone blocks. Thus he introduced an economical
method of road construction.
The mechanical interlock between the individual stone pieces provided strength and
stiffness to the course. But the inter particle friction abraded the sharp interlocking faces and
partly destroy the effectiveness of the course. This effect was overcome by introducing good
quality interstitial finer material to produce a well-graded mix. Such mixes also proved less
permeable and easier to compact. A typical cross section of British roads is given in Figure

Modern Roads:
The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use of
bituminous concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments. Various
advanced and cost-effective construction technologies are used. Development of new
equipments helps in the faster construction of roads. Many easily and locally available
materials are tested in the laboratories and then implemented on roads for making economical
and durable pavements.
Scope of transportation system has developed very largely. Population of the country
is increasing day by day. The life style of people began to change. The need for travel to
various places at faster speeds also increased. This increasing demand led to the emergence
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of other modes of transportation like railways and travel by air. While the above development
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in public transport sector was taking place,the development in private transport was at a much
faster rate mainly because of its advantages like accessibility, privacy, flexibility,
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convenience and comfort. This led to the increase in vehicular traffic especially in private
transport network. Thus road space available was becoming insufficient to meet the growing
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demand of traffic and congestion started. In addition, chances for accidents also increased.
This has led to the increased attention towards control of vehicles so that the transport
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infrastructure was optimally used. Various control measures like traffic signals, providing
implemented. ee
roundabouts and medians, limiting the speed of vehicle at specific zones etc. were
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With the advancement of better roads and efficient control, more and more
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investments were made in the road sector especially after the World wars. These were large
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projects requiring large investment. For optimal utilization of funds, one should know the
travel pattern and travel behavior. This has led to the emergence of transportation planning
and demand management.
Modern Developments:
The First World War period and that immediately following it found a rapid growth in
motor transport. So need for better roads became a necessity. For that, the Government of
India appointed a committee called Road development Committee with Mr.M.R. Jayakar as
the chairman. This committee came to be known as Jayakar committee.

JAYAKAR COMMITTEE:
In 1927 Jayakar committee for Indian road development was appointed. The major
recommendations and the resulting implementations were:
 Committee found that the road development of the country has become beyond the
capacity of local governments and suggested that Central government should take the
proper charge considering it as a matter of national interest.
 They gave more stress on long term planning programme, for a period of 20 years
(hence called twenty year plan) that is to formulate plans and implement those plans
with in the next 20 years.
One of the recommendations was the holding of periodic road conferences to discuss
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
about road construction and development. This paved the way for the establishment of
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
a semi-official technical body called Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934
The committee suggested imposition of additional taxation on motor transport which
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includes duty on motor spirit, vehicle taxation, license fees for vehicles plying for
hire. This led to the introduction of a development fund called Central road fund in
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1929. This fund was intended for road development.
A dedicated research organization should be constituted to carry out research and
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development work. This resulted in the formation of Central Road Research Institute
(CRRI) in 1950.
CENTRAL ROAD FUND:

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Introduction and Reason:
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The Central Road Fund was established by the Parliament in order to fund the
development and maintenance of National highways, State highways and Rural roads.
Establishment of Fund was first established by the Resolution of Parliament passed in 1988.
The Central Road Fund Act, 2000 gave the statutory status to the fund.
How it is financed?
In order to mobilise the fund, the Central Road Fund Act 2000 proposed to levy and
collect by way of cess, a duty of excise and duty of customs on petrol and high speed diesel
oil. Presently Rs. 2 per litre is collected as cess on Petrol and High speed Diesel oil.
Fund Utilization
The fund is utilised for the development and maintenance of National highways, State roads
and rural roads and for provision of road over bridges/under bridges and other safety features
at unmanned Railway Crossings.

The cess of Rs. 2 is being distributed as under –

 Cess of Rs. 0.5 per litre to be entirely allocated for development and maintenance of
National Highways.
 Cess of Rs. 1.50 to be allocated in
o 50% of high speed diesel (HSD) oil cess for development of rural roads
o 50% of cess on HSD and the entire cess collected on petrol to be allocated as
 57.5 % of such sum for the development and maintenance of National
highways
 12.5% for construction of road under or over bridges and for safety
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works at unmanned railway crossing
 30% on development and maintenance of State Roads. Of this amount,
w.E 10 % shall be reserved by the Central Government for implementation

of State Road Schemes of Inter-State Connectivity and economic
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importance to be approved by central govt.
Some states and districts have established road funds other than
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Central Road Funds in order to cater to local road network
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maintenance and development.
Inter State Connectivity and Economic importance scheme
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To promote the Interstate connectivity scheme and in order to assist states in
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economic development through better connectivity, the Central government provides a 100 %
grant for interstate connectivity projects and a 50 % grant for the projects of economic
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importance. The fund under the scheme will be financed through the Central Road Fund as
mentioned above.
Criticism et
It is being said that the large portion of the fund remain unutilized. However the
statistics shows that the southern states have utilised the fund in better way than the northern
states. The under utilisation is due to the slow progress of the projects and low proposals
from the states. The other grounds on which the fund is being criticised are
inappropriate allocation and mismanagement of Fund.
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS AUTHORITY OF INDIA:
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous agency of
the Government of India, responsible for management of a network of over 70,000 km

of National Highways in India. It is a nodal agency of the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways. The current chairman of the NHAI is Rajinder Pal Singh.
Establishment:
 The NHAI was created through the promulgation of the National Highways Authority
of India Act, 1988. In February 1995, the Authority was formally made
an autonomous body.
 It is responsible for the development, maintenance, management and operation of
National Highways, totaling over 71,772 km (44,597 m) in length.
National Highways In Length And Indian Road Network:
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National Highways (Already 4/6 lane)

LENGTH (KM)
16,000 km (9,900 mi)
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National Highways which are being 4 or 6 lane 25,000 km (16,000 mi)
State Highways
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Major and other district roads
154,522 km (96,016 mi)
2,577,396 km (1,601,520 mi)
Rural & other roads

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Total (approx)
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Projects: ee rin
The NHAI has the mandate to implement the National Highway Development
Project (NHDP). The NHDP is under implementation in Phases
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 Phase I: Approved in December 2000, at an estimated cost of INR 300 Billion, it
included the Golden Quadrilateral (GQ), portions of the NS-EW Corridors, and
connectivity of major ports to National Highways.
 Phase II: Approved in December 2003, at an estimated cost of INR 343 Billion, it
included the completion of the NS-EW corridors and another 486 km of highways.
 Phase IIIA: This phase was approved in March 2005, at an estimated cost of INR 222
Billion; it includes an upgrade to 4-lanes of 4,035 km of National Highways.

 Phase IIIB: This was approved in April 2006, at an estimated cost of INR 543
Billion; it includes an upgrade to 4-lanes of 8,074 km of National Highways.

 Phase V: Approved in October 2006, it includes upgrades to 6-lanes for 6,500 km
(4,000 mi), of which 5,700 km is on the GQ. This phase is entirely on a DBFO basis.

 Phase VI: This phase, approved in November 2006, will develop 1,000 km of
expressways at an estimated cost of INR 167 Billion.

 Phase VII: This phase, approved in December 2007, will develop ring-roads,
bypasses and flyovers to avoid traffic bottlenecks on selected stretches at a cost of

INR 167 Billion.
The progress of the NHDP can be tracked from the NHAI official website, which
updates maps on regular basis. NHAI helps in implementing Special Accelerated Road
Development Programme for North Eastern Region (SARDP-NE); a project to upgrade
National Highways connecting state capitals to 2 lane or 4 lane in north eastern region
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MINISTRY OF ROAD TRANSPORT AND HIGHWAYS (MORTH):
w.E An apex organization under the Central Government is entrusted with the task of
formulating and administering, in consultation with other Central Ministries/Departments,
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State Governments/UT Administrations, organizations and individuals, policies for Road
Transport, National Highways and Transport Research with a view to increasing the mobility
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and efficiency of the road transport system in the country. e Ministry has two wings: Roads
wing and Transport wing.
ROADS WING:
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Main Responsibilities: ee
Deals with development and maintenance of National Highway in the country
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 Planning, development and maintenance of National Highways in the country.
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 Extends technical and financial support to State Governments for the development of
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state roads and the roads of inter-state connectivity and economic importance
 Evolves standard specifications for roads and bridges in the country.
 Serves as a repository of technical knowledge on roads and bridges.
TRANSPORT WING
Deals with matter relating to Road Transport
Main Responsibilities:
 Motor Vehicle legislation.
 Administration of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
 Taxation of motor vehicles.
 Compulsory insurance of motor vehicles.
 Administration of the Road Transport Corporations Act, 1950.
 And promotion of Transport co-operatives in the field of motor transport.

 Evolves road safety standards in the form of a National Policy on Road Safety and by
preparing and implementing the Annual Road Safety Plan.

 Collects, compiles and analyses road accident statistics and takes steps for developing
a Road Safety Culture in the country by involving the members of public and
organising various awareness campaigns.
 Provides grants-in-aid to Non-Governmental Organisations in accordance with the
laid down guidelines.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD:

Objectives:
ww  To ascertain the nature and extent of research required.
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 To correlate research information from various organizations in India and abroad with
a view to exchanging publications and information on roads.
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 To co-ordinate and conduct correlation services.
 To sponsor basic research through universities and research organizations.
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 To collect and disseminate results of research.
 Any other matter related to road research.
Functions:
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 Learn field problems and to pass on information based on research or experiences of
other States, industry or educational institutions.
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 Learn fully research activity underway or contemplated and take steps to avoid
duplication.
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 Set up Committees consisting of experts who are concerned with the problems of
roads and road transport. The members of the Committees will work in honorary
capacity.
 The work of these Committees will be co-ordinate by the Board. The Indian Roads
Congress Secretariat will give necessary assistance to these Committees in their work.
 Act as an Advisory Organization to suggest to the Central and State Governments and
Research Organizations programmes of research and also assist various agencies in

selection of research projects. Process and transmit to the Central and State
Governments for the consideration such requests as may be received by it from
various organizations seeking funds for Highway Research.
 Select outstanding Papers on Research for awards and medals to be instituted by the
Board.

 Hold Periodical Research Sessions/Seminars where research problems and research
Papers are discussed in detail.

 Give advice on technical enquiries regarding roads and road transport problems.
Method of works:
The Research problems posed to the Indian Roads Congress at the Committees and
during the annual meetings or otherwise by the Central and State Governments will be
processed by respective research Committees and thereafter entrusted to different laboratories
as may be considered necessary.
CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE:
ww  CSIR-Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), a premier national laboratory
w.E established in 1952.

 A constituent of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is engaged in
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carrying out research and development projects on design, construction and
maintenance of roads and runways, traffic and transportation planning of mega and
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medium cities, management of roads in different terrains, improvement of marginal
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materials, utilization of industrial waste in road construction, landslide control,
ground improvements environmental pollution, road traffic safety and analysis &
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design, wind, fatigue, corrosion studies, performance monitoring/evaluation, service
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life assessment and rehabilitation of highway & railway bridges.
 The institute provides technical and consultancy services to various user organizations
in India and abroad.
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 For capacity building of human resources in the area of highway engineering to
undertake and execute roads and runway projects, Institute has the competence to
organize National & International Training Programmes continuing education courses
since 1962 to disseminate the R&D finding to the masses.
 Training is an important activity of the institute. CRRI offers several refresher/
training and development programmes designed to suit the requirement of different
target groups. More than 25,000 in-service highway engineers have been trained so
far at CRRI.
 The major R&D programmes of CRRI related to the entire spectrum of pavement
design and performance, road condition monitoring, pavement deterioration
modeling, maintenance planning and management, pavement management system,
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landslide management and hazard mitigation, geotechnical investigations & ground

improvement techniques, traffic engineering and management and improved
transportation planning technology for emerging urban needs.
 Besides these, applied research in the area of planning and engineering aspects of
rural roads, material characterization, pavement evaluation, highway instrumentation,
conditioning monitoring and rehabilitation of bridges, design of high embankments &
reinforced earth walls, subways & underpass construction, transportation planning,
traffic engineering, road safety and environmental problems, form an integral part of
the programme of the institute.
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Leadership:
Shri Narendra Modi (President, CSIR)
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Dr. Harsh Vardhan (Vice President, CSIR)
Minister of Science and Technology
Minister of Earth Sciences
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Dr. M. O. Garg (Director General - CSIR)
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FACTORS CONTROLLING HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:
Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the
in detail in the following sections.

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alignment. The highway alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are described
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Alignment
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 The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment.
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 Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment includes
level and gradients.
 Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost.
 Once an alignment is fixed and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase
in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the roadside.
Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are
 The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
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 The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
 It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at
slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
 The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
Factors controlling alignment
We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all
these requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
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The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
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 Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment.
These points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass
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and points through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:
o Bridge site: The Bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
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permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
The road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing
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should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment
may be changed.
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o Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various
alternatives are to either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The
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suitability of the alternative depends on factors like topography, site
conditions and construction and operation cost.
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o Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an
intermediate town or village nearby.
These were some of the obligatory points through which the alignment should pass. Coming
to the second category that is the points through which the alignment should not pass are:
 Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any
purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
 Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated not to
pass through that point.
 Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.
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Traffic:
 The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-destination
data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn.
 The new alignment should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow
pattern etc.
Geometric design:
 Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also
governs the alignment of the highway.
 To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be required to change the alignment of
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 The alignments should be finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not
w.E restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance.

 The design standards vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the
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highway should be aligned.
Economy:
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 The alignment finalized should be economical.
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 All the three costs i.e. construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be
minimum.
between cutting and filling. ee

 The construction cost can be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance
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 Also try to avoid very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction
cost will be very higher in these cases.
Other considerations:
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Various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage considerations, political factors
and monotony.
 Drainage
 Political - If a foreign territory comes across a straight alignment, we will have to
deviate the alignment around the foreign land.
 Monotony - For a flat terrain it is possible to provide a straight alignment, but it
will be monotonous for driving. Hence a slight bend may be provided after a few
kilometers of straight road to keep the driver alert by breaking the monotony.
 Hydrological (rainfall/water table):
Special consideration for hilly areas
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Alignment through hilly areas is slightly different from aligning through a flat terrain. For the
purpose of efficient and safe operation of vehicles through a hilly terrain special care should
be taken while aligning the highway. Some of the special considerations for highway
alignment through a hilly terrain is discussed below.
 Stability of the slopes: for hilly areas, the road should be aligned through the side
of the hill that is stable. The common problem with hilly areas is that of
landslides. Excessive cutting and filling for road constructions give way to
steepening of slopes which in turn will affect the stability.
 Hill side drainage: Adequate drainage facility should be provided across the road.
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Attempts should be made to align the roads in such a way where the number of
cross drainage structures required are minimum. This will reduce the construction
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 Special geometric standards: The geometric standards followed in hilly areas are
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different from those in flat terrain. The alignment chosen should enable the ruling
gradient to be attained in minimum of the length, minimizing steep gradient,
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hairpin bends and needless rise and fall.
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 Ineffective rise and fall: Efforts should be made to keep the ineffective rise and
excessive fall minimum.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS: ee rin

IRC (Indian Roads Congress) has classified the roads in the India in the following 5
categories:
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(a) National Highways
(b) State Highways
(c) Major District Roads
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(d) Other District Roads
(e) Village Roads
 National Highways (NH): National highways are the major arterial roads spanning
in the length and breadth of the country and connects the Capital to the various state
capitals of the country or with the neighboring countries. They also connect the
famous tourism places of the country. National highways are numbered and written as
NH-1, NH-2 etc. They have the highest design specifications
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 State Highways (SH): State highways are the roads which connect the state capital to
other states and to the district headquarters in the state. They have design
specifications similar to those of the National Highways because they carry enough
traffic.
 Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the district headquarters to the
main town centers in the district and to the headquarters of the other districts also.
They also connect these major town centers to the other state highways of importance.
They have lower design specifications as compared to the NH and SH.
 Other district roads (ODR): These roads connect the rural areas town centers to the
major district roads of higher importance. They provide the facilities for the
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
the rural towns to the higher markets and vice-versa.
Village Roads (VR): These roads connect the rural villages with one another and to
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the nearest higher level road or to the nearest town center. They have lower design
specifications and many of them are not even metaled.
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ENGINEERING SURVEYS AND THE LOCATION OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
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Location of the highway alignment is done after carrying out survey of the area; these
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surveys are called Engineering Surveys. We have to locate an alignment which fulfills the
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basic requirements like the path must be short, safe, economic, easy and useful. To check all
these basic requirements we can carry out the Engineering Surveys in the following phases:
 Map Study
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 Reconnaissance Surveys
 Preliminary Surveys
 Location Surveys
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Map Study:
This is the first step of the Engineering survey, using a topographic map of the area
under consideration, which can be availed from the Survey of India; we can propose different
alternatives of the road alignment. This topographic map in general has a contour interval of
around 30 m to 40 m. We can get the details of the natural and artificial features of the area
using the topographic map, and accordingly we can suggest a numbers of alternatives for the
road alignment. These routes are further studied in the Reconnaissance survey.
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Reconnaissance Survey:
So in the second phase/step a survey team is headed to the area under study with the
minor surveying instruments like Abney level, Tangent Clinometer etc. to do a rough survey
of the area under study. The rough survey is done along the alternatives proposed in the map
study and feasibility of the road alignment is checked along the different routes. Some of the
routes may be cancelled out or they may be changed if they appear to impossible in this
study. So finally they will have a set of routes which are to be further studies in the next step.
Preliminary Survey:
In this step the alternative routes which are proposed after a rough survey in the
second step are surveyed in details using some advanced instruments like levels, chain and
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theodolite. Aerial Photogrammetry is best suited for this type of survey. All the necessary
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details to carry out the comparative study of the different routes are collected and then finally
we have to decide one alignment best suited for the alignment of the road. Here various
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details are found out along the stretches of the routes, which can also be found using the
aerial techniques by taking photographs along the routes and then further processed to find
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out the final details of the area.
Different kind of surveys like, Soil investigations, cross sectioning and profiling, marine
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surveying, hydrology data collection, bligatory points, industries and population surveys are
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necessary along the routes and only then it is possible to have a fair comparison of the
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different routes. So finally one among all of them is chose and drawings are prepared on the
sheet which will show its alignment to be shifted on to the ground.
Location Survey:
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In this fourth phase of the Engineering Survey for the highway location, we have a
drawing of the alignment and we have to go through the further two processes:
 Location
 Detailed Survey
Location:-
Location of the center line of the road is done with very much precise instrument like
Theodolite and Chain using the drawing prepared or the details gathered in the third step (i.e.
Preliminary survey). This is done by staking the ground with the stakes inserted at the
intervals of 50 m to 100 m in the plain area, 50 m to 75 m in the rolling terrain and 30 m to
50 m in the hills and steep terrain. Pegs may drive at all the control points. At the curves
control points, starting of the transition curve, starting of the circular curve and terminal of
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the circular curve and the terminal of the transition curve the pegs/stakes are driven into the
ground to firmly locate these control points. Bench marks are located at and interval of 250 m
and they are necessarily located at the sites of the cross drainage works.
Detailed Survey:
In this part we have carry out the detailed study of the final route using some very
precise instruments like Theodolite and Chain to gather all the necessary data for the final
estimation, design and preparing drawings using which the construction can be started. A
detailed project report is to be prepared and all the necessary data is collected to prepare that
report. So the profiling, cross-sectioning and soil investigation are carried out very precisely.
CBR values are also found to find out the design thickness of the pavement. After collecting
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the data a final drawing a report is prepared which concludes the highway planning part.
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ROAD ECOLOGY IN SOUTH INDIA:
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India is a rapidly growing developing country and plays a substantial role in the
global economy. India is the second most populated country in the world and is home to four
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of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. Studies on the impacts of roads on wildlife in India
have primarily focused on documenting the rates of road kill, with a few quantifying the
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barrier effects of roads on large fauna.
ee
The Indian government has only recently officially recognized the impacts of roads on
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wildlife. The National Board for Wildlife commissioned a report to highlight the problem and
developed a framework for mitigation.
g.n
Less than 4% of India’s forests are protected and roads traverse many of them,
et
including those set aside for tiger conservation (e.g. Kudremukh Tiger Reserve, Nagarahole
National Park, Bandipur Tiger Reserve and Anamalai Tiger Reserve). There is continual
pressure to construct new roads through PA and widen existing roads, as well as to remove
existing restrictions on traffic. This persistent pressure to upgrade roads is demonstrated at
Nagarahole National Park, one of India’s premier tiger habitats (Karanth et al. 2011). The
Mysore‐Mananthavadi Road is a state highway that traverses the park and separates it from
the adjoining Bandipur Tiger Reserve. In 2004, a proposal to upgrade this road to national
highway status faced opposition, and two alternative alignments were proposed
A considerable diversity and abundance of wildlife also exist in forests and other
habitats outside most of which are also bisected by roads. In several cases, the roads pass
through forest corridors or migration paths resulting in high rates of wildlife vehicle
collisions (WVC) and wildlife mortality.
17

Historically, most roads connecting cities and towns were single lane and lined with
century‐old trees, which provided shade and fodder for cattle that pulled carts.
Coincidentally, they also served as corridors for the movement of birds and arboreal animals.
The use of cattle‐drawn carts in rural areas has declined dramatically in recent times, being
replaced with cars and trucks as they have become affordable. Consequently, roads designed
for carts are now congested with vehicles and are being widened, resulting in the loss of the
old roadside trees.
Potential strategies to reduce wildlife mortality associated with pilgrimages include:
(i) Applying and enforcing bans on night‐time vehicle movement through the forest
ww
(ii) Reducing the number of vehicles by encouraging the use of public transport;
(iii) Implementing traffic calming measures like batching vehicle movements with
w.E half‐hour gaps in between;

(iv) Lowering vehicle speed by installing speed bumps;
(v)
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managing roadside vegetation to slow traffic and maintain canopy connectivity
Many options to mitigate the ecological impacts of roads on wildlife are inexpensive.
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Importantly, planners and engineers should use all construction and maintenance projects as
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opportunities to modify existing structures (e.g. drainage culverts) when suitable, to provide
safe passage for wildlife.
ee
India may be a relatively poor country, but adopting these minimum standards
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represents a small proportion of the overall road budget, and international funding agencies,
such as the World Bank, should require greater standards as a condition of funding.
g.n
There are many challenges to achieving a sustainable road network in India, but the
important areas include:
et
(i) Overcoming the lack of knowledge regarding the ecological impacts of roads;
(ii) Ensuring the avoidance and mitigation of impacts is mandatory for all road projects;
(iii)Ensuring road users and road authorities understand each other and work
collaboratively;
(iv) Controlling unplanned growth and vested interests;
(v) Ensuring a productive and collaborative dialogue between road authorities and
ecologists/biologists.
18

CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS

The urban roads are classified into the following types:
 Arterial Roads
 Sub Arterial
 Collector Streets
 Local Street
Arterial roads:
1. No frontage access, no standing vehicle, very little cross traffic.
2. Design Speed : 80km/hr
ww 3. Land width : 50 – 60m

4. Spacing 1.5km in CBD & 8km or more in sparsely developed areas.
w.E
5. Divided roads with full or partial parking
6. Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection
Sub Arterial roads:
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1. Bus stops but no standing vehicle.
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2. Less mobility than arterial.
3. Spacing for CBD : 0.5km
4. Sub-urban fringes : 3.5km
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5. Design speed
6. Land width
Collector Streets:
: 60 km/hr
ee
: 30 – 40 m
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1. Collects and distributes traffic from local streets
g.n
2.
3.
4.
Provides access to arterial roads
Located in residential, business and industrial areas.
Full access allowed.
et
5. Parking permitted.
6. Design speed : 50km/hr
7. Land Width : 20-30m
Local Streets:
1. Design Speed: 30km/hr.
2. Land Width : 10 – 20m.
3. Primary access to residence, business or other abutting property
4. Less volume of traffic at slow speed
19

5. Origin and termination of trips.

6. Unrestricted parking, pedestrian movements. (with frontage access, parked vehicle,
bus stops and no waiting restrictions)
SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FOR ALIGNMENT OF HILL ROADS

The main factors to be considered while deciding the alignment of hill roads, are as
discussed.
1. Length: The cost of construction of a hill road per kilometer length is comparatively very
high. It should therefore be ensure that length of the road connecting two stations should be
minimum possible, adopting ruling gradients along its most of the length.
ww
2. Altitude of the road.
w.E At lower altitudes, large numbers of cross drainage works are required to be
constructed where as at higher altitudes; the road pavement may witness snowfall during
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winter. This is why the alignment of hill roads should preferably by provided at an altitude
between 900 m slopes exposed to sum. The hill slopes which are subjected to high winds
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should never be selected unless and until there is no other alternative. In northern hemisphere,
southern slopes of the hills are more suitable than northern slopes which remain tin shades
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and are usually subjected to high winds.
3. Saddles or Passes.
ee rin
While locating the contour gradient of the proposed alignment of a hill road on a
contour map, it should cross the ranges through saddles. Though length of the road is
g.n
increased, the heavy cost of cutting through rocks is avoided. Due to increased length, ruling
et
gradients can be suitably adjusted.
4. Stability of hill slope. While deciding the alignment of hill roads, it should be ensured that
the slopes are stable and not very steep. The area is not prone to land slides and settlements.
This factor is of special importance in hills having sedimentary rocks.
5. Geological structure. Cutting through solid hard rocks is very expensive. The alignment
of roads may be suitably deviated to avoid such areas.
6. Tunnels. Drilling of tunnels is very expensive. The long tunnels need ventilation as well as
lighting arrangement. As far as possible, tunnels should be avoided and resorted to only if
other suitable alternative is not feasible.
7. Valleys. While deciding the alignment for crossing a river valley, due consideration should
be given to avoid construction of a number of bridges on its attributes.
20

8. Geometric standards. The alignment of the hill roads should be selected on the hill slope
which easily provides recommended geometric standards i.e. gradients, curves', sight
distance, etc. Hairpin bends on roads should be avoided and if found necessary, these should
be on gentle arid stable slopes. To have proper geometric standards, it might be necessary to
change the alignment at number of places.
9. Camping sites. At intermittent distance, the alignment of the hill road should pass through
gentle slopes where suitable camping sites could be developed for military personnel in case
of necessity.
ww
w.E
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En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
21

CE6504
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
V – SEMESTER
ww UNIT 2
w.E GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Prepared by
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ee rin
g.n
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HIGHWAY CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS:

Camber:
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of
providing camber are:
 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1
in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.
ww
The values suggested by IRC for various categories of pavement are given in Table. The
common types of camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them.
w.E Surface
Table IRC Values for camber
Heavy Light
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Type
Concrete/Bituminous
rain
2%
rain
1.7 %
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Gravel/WBM 3% 2.5 %
Earthen
gin 4% 3.0 %
ee rin
g.n
et
Width of the Carriage Way:

Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of
the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the
vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The

maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for
single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single
lane road (Figure 1a). However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either
side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter
for each lane (Figure 1b). The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC is
given in Table
ww
w.E
asy
Single lane En
Table: IRC Specification for carriage way width
3.75
Two lane, no kerbs gin 7.0
Two lane, raised kerbs
Intermediate carriage
ee rin
7.5
5.5
Multi-lane
g.n
3.5
Kerbs:
et
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands
or footpaths. Different types of kerbs are (Figure 1):
 Low or mountable kerbs : This type of kerbs are provided such that they
encourage the traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the
driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is
about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the vehicle to
climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and
also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are
provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb

prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible

to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
 Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian
traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a
steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at
pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral
confinement and stability to the pavement.
ww
w.E
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En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Road Margins:
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given
below.
Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation
of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support
for base and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight
of a fully loaded truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate
for giving working space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6

m for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural
highways in India.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving in the road. The parking lane should
have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so
that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be
ww
at least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is
not affected by the bus-bay.
w.E
Service roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like
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freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated
by a separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These
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roads are provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the
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traffic in those lanes is not reduced.
Cycle track
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Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
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Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every
additional track.
Footpath g.n
et
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas.
They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and
vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the
traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth as the pavement or more smoother than
that to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.
Guard rails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment,
especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails are
there. Guard stones painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give
better visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles.

Width of Formation:
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or
carriage way including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in
formation/cutting. The values suggested by IRC are given in Table 1.
Table: Width of formation for various classed of roads

Road Roadway Width (m)
Plain And Rolling Mountainous And Steep
Classification
Terrain Terrain
NH/SH 12 6.25 - 8.8
ww MDR
ODR
9
7.5 - 9.0
4.75
4.75
w.E VR 7.5 4.0
Right of Way:
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Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along
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its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of
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the highway and may reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon
development along highways, control lines and building lines may be provided. Control
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line is a line which represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity
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in relation to a road. Building line represents a line on either side of the road, between
which and the road no building activity is permitted at all. The right of way width is
governed by:
g.n


roadway and road margins. et
Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of
Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and

the vertical alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil
type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility
on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like
building structures etc.

 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance
anticipating future developments like widening of the road.
Table 1: Normal right of way for open areas

Road Roadway Width (m)
ww
Classification
Open Areas
Plain And Rolling Terrain Mountainous And Steep Terrain
w.E NH/SH
MDR
45
25
24
18
ODR
VR asy 15
12
15
9
Built-up areas
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gin
NH/SH 30 20
MDR 20 15
ODR
VR ee
15
10
12
rin
9
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF FOUR LANE ROADWAY:

g.n
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TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF 4LANE DIVIDED HIGHWAY:
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF URBAN ROAD (4LANE DIVIDED)
ww
w.E
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En
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TWO LANE UNDIVIDED:
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g.n
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DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT:

The various design factors to be considered in the horizontal alignment are:
 Design speed
 Radius of circular curve

 Length of transition curve

 Super elevation
 Widening of pavement on curves.
Design speed:
The sight distance, radius of horizontal curve, super elevation, extra widening of
pavement, length of horizontal transition curve and the length of summit and valley
curve are dependent on design speed.
The design speed depends upon:
 Class of the road
ww  Terrain
 Plain
w.E  Rolling
 Mountainous
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 Steep
Table 1: Cross Slope of the country for different terrains
Terrain classification
En Cross slope of the country in percent
Plain
Rolling gin 0 – 10
10 – 25
Mountainous
Steep
ee 25 – 60
Greater than 60
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Table 2: Design speed on rural highways:
g.n
Design speed in kmph for various streams
Road classification Plain Rolling
Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling
Mountainous
et Steep
Min Ruling Min
NH & SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
The recommended design speeds for different classes of urban roads are:
 For arterial roads - 80 kmph
 For sub – arterial roads - 60 kmph
 Collector streets - 50 kmph

 Local streets - 30 kmph

Horizontal curve:
It is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the centre line of a road.
When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of vehicle.
 Centrifugal force depends on radius of horizontal curves and the speed of the
vehicle.
 Centrifugal force is counteracted by the frictional resistance developed between
the tyres and the pavement which enables the vehicle to change the direction
ww along the curve and maintain the stability.
Centrifugal force (P) = Where
w.E P = Centrifugal force, kg

W
v asy
= Wt. of the vehicle, kg
= Speed of the vehicle, m/sec
g
En
= Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
R
gin
= Radius of circular curve.
The ratio of centrifugal force to Wt. of vehicle is known as centrifugal ratio or
impact factor.
ee = rin
g.n
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two
effects.
 Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels.
et
 Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outwards.
(i) Overturning effect:
10

The centrifugal force that tends the vehicle to overturn about the outer wheels B
on horizontal curve is illustrated in the fig.,
ww
The overturning moment due to C.F ‘P’
This is resisted by restoring moment due to
= P x h ………… (1)
w.E
Wt. of vehicle ‘W’ =Wx ………. (2)
Where,
asy
h = ht. of centre of gravity of vehicle.
b = width of the wheel base.
Under equilibrium condition,
En
gin Pxh =Wx
ee = …………. (3)
rin
This means that there is danger of overturning when the centrifugal ratio attains a value
of ( ) g.n
(ii) Transverse Skidding effect:
et
11

 The C.F developed has also the tendency to push the vehicle outwards in the
transverse direction.
 If ‘P’ exceeds the maximum possible skid resistance due to friction, the vehicle
will start skidding.
Under equilibrium condition,
P = FA + FB …….……… (4)
Where, FA & FB = fractional force at tyre A and B
= (f x RA) + (f x RB)
Where, RA & RB = Normal reactions @ the wheels A & B.
ww P
= f (RA + RB)
= f W ……………….. (5)
w.E = f ……………… (6)
asy
When centrifugal ratio attains a value equal to the coefficient of friction there is a
danger of lateral skidding.
Note:
En
Thus, to avoid overturning & lateral skidding on horizontal curve, the centrifugal ratio:
(i) < gin

(ii) <f ee rin
SUPERELEVATION:
g.n
In order to counteract the effect of C.F and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle
et
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This is
known as superelevation.
Analysis of superelevation:
12

Consider a vehicle moving in a horizontal curve.

W – The weight of the vehicle
P – The centrifugal force
v – The velocity of vehicle in m/s
R – The radius of curvature in metres
Forces acting on the vehicle are:
 P, the centrifugal force acting horizontally outwards through the centre of
gravity.

P=
ww  W, the weight acting vertically downwards through CG
w.E
 Frictional forces developed between wheels and the pavement acting
transversely along the pavement towards centre of the curve.
f asy FA + FB = f (RA + RB)

– co-efficient of friction
RA & RB
En
- normal reactions at the wheels A and B
gin
Consider equilibrium condition of the vehicle.
Resolving all forces acting parallel and perpendicular to the inclined plane
P Cos
ee
= W Sin + FA + FB
= W Sin + f (RA + RB) ………… (1)
rin
Resolving vertical forces
RA + RB = P Sin + W Cos g.n
Substituting the values of RA & RB in equation (1)
P Cos = W Sin + f (P Sin + W Cos) et
= W Sin + f P Sin + f W Cos
P Cos - f P Sin = W Sin + f W Cos
P (Cos - f Sin) = W (Sin + f Cos)
Dividing both sides by W Cos,
(1 – f Tan) = Tan + f
(1 – e f) =e+f
13

( )
= =e+f Since, 1 – e f = 1
( )

We know, P =

Substituting for

= e+f
ww
Substituting the values
f = 0.15, g = 9.81m/sec2 and replacing v m/sec with V km/hr.
w.E e+f=
.
=

asy e=

–f
En
Thus the super elevation depends on the velocity of the vehicle, radius of curve
and the coefficient of lateral friction.
gin
ee
Restriction on speed:
In some gradients, particularly at intersections, there may be some practical
problems to provide superelevation. In such cases the friction fully counters the
rin
centrifugal force. Therefore,
g.n
f=
V =√

=

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Maximum Superelevation:
 In plain and rolling terrain – 0.07
 Hill roads - 0.10
 Urban Roads - 0.04
Minimum value of superelevation:
 Minimum cross slope is an essential requirement to drain off the surface water.
 If the value is equal to or less than the value of the camber, the minimum
superelevation is limited to the value of the camber.
14

 Thus after elimination of crown, a uniform cross slope equal to the camber is
maintained from outer to inner edge of the pavement.
Methods for providing superelevation:
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
1. Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slopes
is rotated about the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on
the same plane as the inner half.
2. Shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal
crown method. Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted
ww outwards, thus increasing the width of the inner half of cross section
progressively.
w.E
2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by:
There are two methods of attaining superelevation by rotating the
pavement
asy
1. Rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner
En
edge is depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total
gin
amount of superelevation, i.e., by (E/2) with respect to the centre.
2. Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the
ee
outer edge as well as the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the
rin
full amount of superelevation with respect to the inner edge.
SUPERELEVATION DESIGN:
Assumption: g.n
et
It is assumed that the superelevation counter the centrifugal force developed due
to 75% of the design speed.
( . ) ( . )
e= = =

Steps in the Design:

Step 1:
e=

Step 2:
If e ≤ 0.07, the value so obtained is provided. On the other hand, if ‘e’ exceeds
0.07, take the maximum value as 0.07
15

Step 3:
Find the value of ‘f’, the coefficient of friction, from the formula
e+f =

f = –e

f = – 0.07 (for the maximum value for e = 0.07)

If the value of f ≤ 0.15, the superelevation of 0.07 is safer for the design speed. If
the value of f exceeds the value 0.15 assume it as 0.15 and proceed with next step.
ww
Step 4:
Allowable speed va m/sec or Va km/h is calculated by considering the coefficient
w.E
of friction and maximum superelevation,
e+f =

asy =

0.07 + 0.15 =
En
=

Calculate the safe or allowable speed

gin
Va =√ .
Where Va is allowable speed.
NOTE:
=√
ee . km/h
rin
 If Va > V, then the design is adequate with e = 0.07
g.n
 If Va < V, than the design speed is limited to allowable speed Va
ATTAINMENT OF SUPERELEVATION:
et
 Introducing superelevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important
feature in construction.
 The road cross section at the straight portion is cambered with the crown at the
centre of pavement and sloping down towards the edges.
 But the cross section in the circular curve portion of the road is superelevated
with a uniform tilt sloping down from the outer edge to inner edge.
16

 Thus the crowned camber section at the straight before the start of the transition
curve should be changed to a single cross slope equal to the desired
superelevation at the beginning of the circular curve.
Atttainment of superelevation may be spilt up into two parts:
a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Elimination of crown of the cambered section:
This may be done by two methods:
Method 1:
ww The outer half of the cross slopes is rotated about the crown such that the
surface falls on the same plane as the inner half and the elevation of the centre is not
w.E
altered.
This method has a draw back that the surface drainage will not be proper at the
asy
outer half, during a short stretch of the road with a cross slope less than the camber.
Method 2:
En
Eliminating the crown known as diagonal crown method, the crown is shifted
gin
outwards, thus increasing the width of the inner half of cross section respectively.
This method is not usually adopted as a portion of the outer half of the pavement
eliminated.
ee
has increasing value of negative superelevation on outer half before the crown is
rin
Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation:
g.n
When crown of the camber is eliminated, the superelevation available at this
et
section is equal to the camber. But the superelevation to be provided at the beginning is
more than the minimum. Hence the pavement section is rotated till desired banking is
obtained.
Eg: Specified camber = 0.02
Design superelevation = 0.07
Now, camber is eliminated
Superelevation = 0.02
Therefore, cross slope is further increase till it attains = 0.07
There are two methods of rotating the pavement cross section to attain superelevation:
17

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Method 1 - Rotation about the center line:
ee
The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is depressed and the outer
rin
edge is raised both by half the total amount of superelevation, i.e., by E/2 with respect
to the centre.
Method - Rotation about the inner edge:
g.n
et
Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as well as the centre such
that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of superelevation with respect to the
inner edge.
RADIUS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE:
The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric
design. The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius of
the curve. Although it is possible to design the curve with maximum superelevation and
coefficient of friction, it is not desirable because re-alignment would be required if the
design speed is increased in future. Therefore, a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be
derived by assuming maximum superelevation and coefficient of friction.
18

We know, e+f = =

In this equation fix e = 0.07 and f = 0.15
Therefore = = 0.22

If the design speed v or V is decided, the mimimum radius to be adopted is
R = =
.
i.e. Rruling = =
ww
( ) ( )
w.E
WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON HORIZONTAL CURVES:
On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very large radius it is
asy
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. The objects of
providing extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves are due to the following
factors:
En

gin
In automobiles only front wheels can be turned. When a vehicle turns, the rear
wheels do not follow the same path as that of front wheels. This phenomenon is

called off tracking.
ee rin
Normally the rear wheels follow the inner path on the curve as compared with
g.n
front wheels. This means that if inner front wheel takes a path on the inner edge
of a pavement, inner rear wheels will be off the pavement.

et
At speeds higher than the design speeds, when the superelevation and lateral
friction are not fully able to counteract thrust due to centrifugal force, some
transverse skidding may occur.
 The path traced by the wheels of a trailer in case of trailer units is also likely to
be on either side of the central path depending upon speed, rigidity of joints and
pavement roughness.
 In order to take curved path with larger radius and to have greater visibility at
curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the central path, but to use the
outer side at the beginning of curve.
 When two vehicles cross or overtake at horiontal curve there is psychological
tendency to maintain a greater distance between the vehicles.
19

Thus the required extra widening of the pavement at horizontal curves (We) depends on
 Length of wheel base of the vehicle, l
 Radius of the curve, R
 Psychological factor
Analysis of Extra Widening:

It is divided into two parts:
 Mechanical widening
 Psychological widening
ww
Mechanical widening:
The widening required to account for the off tracking due to rigidity of wheel
w.E
base is called mechanical widening (Wm).
Let, R1 – Radius of the path traversed by the outer rear wheel, m
R2
Wm asy
– Radius of the path traversed by the outer front wheel, m
– off tracking or mechanical widening, m
l
En
– length of wheel base, m
gin
ee rin
g.n
From  OAB,
Wm = OB – OA = R2 – R1 et
OA2 = OB2 – BA2
R12 = R22 – l2 …………….. (1)
But, R1 = R2 – Wm
Therefore,
(R2 – Wm)2 = R22 – l2
R22 – 2R2Wm + Wm2 = R22 – l2
l2 = 2R2Wm – Wm2
l2 = Wm (2R2 – Wm)
20

Wm =

≃
The mechanical widening calculated is required for one vehicle along one traffic lane.
Hence in a road having ‘n’ traffic lanes,
Wm =
Psychological widening:
Extra width of pavement is also provided for psychological reasons such as to
provide for greater steering at higher speeds.
ww An empirical formula has been recommended by IRC for finding psychological
w.E
widening ‘Wps’ which is dependent on design speed ‘V’ and radius ‘R’
Wps =
. √
Therefore,
asy
Total widening
En
We = Wm + Wps
gin We = +
. √
ee
Methods of introducing Extra Widening:
rin
 Widening is introduced gradually, starting from the beginning of transition curve
g.n
and increased at uniform rate till the full value of designed ‘We’ is reached at the
end of transition curve.
et
 The full value of extra width ‘We’ is continued throughout the length of circular
curve and then decreased gradually along the length of transition curve.
 Usually the widening is equally distributed i.e, We/2 each on inner and outer
sides of the curves.
 But, on sharp curves of hill roads the extra widening We may be provided in full
on inside of the curve.
 On horizontal circular curve without transition curve, two-thirds the widening is
provided at the end of straight section i.e., before the start of the circular curve
and the remaining one-third is provided on the circular curve beyond the
tangent point.
21

TRANSITION CURVE:
A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the tangent point
to a designed radius of the circular curve.
ww
Object of providing transition curve:
 Suppose a curve of radius R takes off from straight road and a vehicle travels on
w.E this road.
asy
 Due to centrifugal force which suddenly acts on the vehicle just after the tangent
point, a sudden lateral jerk is felt on the vehicle.
En
 This not only causes discomfort to the passengers, but also makes difficult to
steer the vehicle safety.
Functions of transition curve:
gin
ee
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding a jerk on the vehicle.
rin
 To enable the driver to turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security.
g.n
 To improve aesthetic appearance of the road.
et
The ideal shape of a transition curve should be such that the rate of introduction
of centrifugal force or the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be consistent.
In an ideal transition curve the length Ls should be inversely proportional to the radius
R.
i.e., Ls ∾
Therefore Ls . R = constant
Different types of Transition curve:
The types of transition curves commonly adopted are:
 Spiral
22

 Lemniscates
 Cubic parabola
The IRC recommends the use of spiral as transition curve due to the following reasons:
 The spiral curve satisfies the requirements of an ideal transition
 The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculations and setting out the
curve in the field is simple and easy.
The equation for spiral curve is
L.R = Ls . Rc = constant ……….. (1)
Therefore, L =m ……….. (2)
ww
Where, m = constant =
 = Tangent deflection angle in radius
w.E
Calculation of Length of Transition Curve:
The length of transition curve is defined to fulfill three conditions:

asy
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

 En
Rate of introduction of designed superelevation to be at reasonable rate
Minimum length by IRC empirical formula
gin
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration:
ee
At the tangent point the centrifugal acceleration is zero at the radius R is
rin
infinity and at the end of transition curve the radius R has the maximum value Rm.
g.n
Hence the centrifugal acceleration is distributed over a length Ls of the transition curve.
Let
Ls - The length of transition curve be, m
t – Time taken in sec ( )

et
v – Design speed, m/sec
v2
the maximum acceleration ( R ) is introduced in time ‘t’ through length Ls. hence the rate of
centrifugal acceleration ‘C’ is given by:
C = = = …………… (1)
. . .
The IRC has recommended the following equation for finding the value of ‘C’
C = for [0.5<C<0.8] …………… (2)
23

Therefore, Ls = (from equation 1) ……………. (3)

.
If the design speed is V kmph;
.
Ls = ……………. (4)
.
Rate of introduction of super elevation:
Let, e = Superelevation
W + We = Width of the road
We = Extra Widening
E = Raise of the outer edge
ww
Therefore, e =

w.E E = e (W + We)
Assume pavement is rotated about centre line after neutralizing camber. Then raise of outer
asy
edge with respect to centre line = , Rate of super elevation = 1 in N
Therefore, Ls =
En xN
Ls =
gin
( )
xN ……………… (5)
Ls = ee
If the pavement is rotated about inner edge,
e N (W + We)
rin ……………… (6)
g.n
By IRC empirical Formula
a) For plain and rolling terrain
Ls =
.
b) For hilly and mountainous terrain

et
……………… (7)
Ls = ……………… (8)
Length of transition curve is calculated by above three methods and highest among
them is adopted.
Shift of transition curve:
In order to fit the transition curve, the main circular curve, the main circular curve is
to be moved upwards by a certain distance. This distance is termed as shift.
S =

24

GRADIENTS:
Gradient is the rate of raise or fall with respect to the horizontal along the length of a
road. It is expressed as ration or % or in degrees.
Types:
1. Ruling gradient
2. Limiting gradient
3. Exceptional gradient
4. Minimum gradient
Ruling Gradient:
ww
 It is maximum gradient with which vertical profile is designed.
 It has correlation with pulling power of vehicles and imposes limitation on pulling
w.E power.
Limiting Gradient:

 asy
It is steeper than ruling gradient
It is adopted in rolling and hilly terrain

En
Length of gradient is limited to minimum
Exceptional Gradient:
 gin
This gradient is provided in exceptional and unavoidable situation due to topography
 It may not be longer than 100m
Minimum Gradient: ee rin
g.n
 It is possible to lay road with zero gradient.
 It causes drainage problems


S.No
Surface water can be drained off through camber
Terrain Ruling Limiting

et
Therefore even in level topography a minimum gradient of 1 in 300 is provided.
Exceptional
1 Plain and rolling 3.3% 5% 6.7%
Mountain or steep
with elevation
2 5% 6% 7%
>3000m above
MSL
Steep upto 3000m
3 6% 7% 8%
elevation
25

GRADE COMPENSATION:
In a curved alignment, the combined resistance due to ruling gradient and curved
alignment exceeds pulling power of vehicles. Therefore in order to keep them within
permissible limits, the ruling gradient is reduced. Such reduction is known as grade
compensation. If radius of curve is ‘R’
Grade Compensation = ; Maximum Value of R =
Note:
As per IRC for ruling gradient less than 4% grade compensation is not required.
ww
VERTICAL CURVES:
It is classified into two groups:
w.E
1. Summit curves having convexity upwards
2. Valley curves with convexity downwards
Summit Curves:
asy
The deviation angle between two intersecting gradient is equal to algebraic difference
En
between them. The angle is maximum when an ascending gradient meets descending gradient
ginN = n1 – (-n2) = n1 + n2
When fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, the centrifugal force will act
ee
upwards against gravity and hence part of pressure on tyres and spring of vehicle suspension
rin
is relieved. So there is no discomfort to passengers. The only problem in design of summit
curve is to provide adequate sight distance.
g.n
Length of summit curve for SSD:
a) L =
.
(L > S)
et
.
b) L = 2S - (L < S)
Length of Summit curve for OSD or ISD:
a) L = (L > S)
.
.
b) L = 2S – (L < S)
N – Deviation angle; S = Sight distance; L = Length of curve
26

Valley Curves:
The maximum possible deviation angle is obtained when a descending gradient meets
with an ascending gradient.
a) L > SSD
L=
( . . )
b) L < SSD
( . . )
L = 2S –
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
27

CE6504
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
V – SEMESTER
ww UNIT 3
w.E
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT
Prepared by
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et


DEFINITION:
The term pavement means covered surface. In highway design, it refers to a few layers of
hard level surfaces, constructed over the prepared soil sub-grade to serve as carriageway.
Granular materials, bituminous mixes and cement concrete are materials used in layers.
Layers are in the order of ‘sub-base’, ‘base’ and ‘surface’ courses over the soil sub-grade.
TYPES OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS:

 Flexible pavement
 Rigid pavement
ww Semi-rigid pavement
w.E
Flexible pavement has low flexural strength and is flexible in structural action. Bituminous
concrete is one of the best flexible pavement materials.
asy
Rigid pavement possesses very high flexural rigidity. Portland cement is the predominant
material for cement concrete.
En
COMPONENTS:
gin
Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements
Soil sub-grade
Sub-base course
ee Soil sub-grade
Sub-base or base course
rin
Base course
Surface course
Cement concrete slab
g.n
Functions of soil sub-grade:
et
 Sub-grade is generally considered to be the in-situ soil over which the highway is
constructed.
 It provides support to the pavement from below.
Functions of base and Sub-base courses:
i) Functions in flexible pavement:
It is to improve the load supporting capacity of the pavement by distributing the load
through a finite thickness.
ii) Functions of rigid pavement:
 To prevent pumping

 To protect the sub-grade against frost action

Materials:
 Bound or unbound aggregates or broken stones – base course
 Broken stones, stabilized soil or selected granular soil – sub-base course.
WEARING COURSE FUNCTIONS:

 To provide a smooth riding surface
 To resist pressures exerted by tyres.
 To take up wear and tear
ww To prevent infiltration of rainwater into the pavement and sub-grade
w.E
Materials:
 Flexible pavement – bituminous materials
asy
 Rigid pavement – cement concrete
En
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:
Issues
gin
Flexible Pavements
Low or negligible
Rigid Pavements
Very high
ee
Flexural Strength
Design Principle Layering system concept Slab action
Stress Compressive stress

rin
Tensile stress
temperature increases.
and
Grain to grain transfer and

g.n
No such transfer and
et
Transfer of stress deformation on top is reflected on
deformation.
the bottom layer
Issues Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements
Granular material.
Portland cement concrete
Load spreading ability depends
40kg/cm2.
upon the type of material and
Material Capable of transmitting load
thickness.
stress through a wider area
Distribute the load in the form of
below.
a truncated cone.
Critical condition is
Based on empirical design charts
maximum stress occurring in
and equations, even though semi-
Design practice the slab.
empirical and theoretical design
Design based on elastic
methods are available.
theory.

DESIGN FACTORS:
Factors to be considered in design of pavements:
Pavement design consists of two parts:
 Mix design of materials to be used in each pavement component layer.
 Thickness design of pavement and component layer.
Factors for the design of pavement:
 Design wheel load
 Sub-grade soil
 Climatic factors
ww Pavement component materials
w.E
 Environmental factors
 Special factors in design of different types of pavements.
(a) Design wheel load:
asy
 Thickness of pavement depends upon the design wheel load.
En
 Higher the wheel load, higher will be the thickness, provided other design factors are the
same.
gin
 As speed increases, the rate of application of stress increases.
Elements: ee
 Static load on each wheel/dual/dual tandem wheel
rin
 Contact pressure
g.n
 Load repetition and dynamic effect of transient loads.
 Repetition of loads.
(b) Sub-grade soil:
et
 Decides thickness requirement of the pavement.
 Variations in moisture content affect the stability.
 Stress-strain behavior under varying loads is of great significance.
(c) Climatic factor:
 Rainfall affects moisture content and in turns the stability of the sub-grade.
 Variation in temperature has significance in choice of bituminous binder, design and
performance of rigid pavement.

 Freezing temperature results in frost action in sub-grade.

(d) Pavement materials:
Fatigue behavior, durability and stress distribution characteristics of pavements depend
upon the materials.
(e) Environmental factors:
 Height of embankment
 Depth of cutting
 Foundation details
 Depth of sub-surface water table
ww Land use
w.E
(f) Special factors:
 Cross sectional elements:
asy
Cross sectional elements such as ‘right of way’, ‘carriage way’ and status of the road
definitely has an impact on thickness of the pavement.
En
 Traffic characteristics:
gin
Physical, static and dynamic characters have greater bearing on pavement design. The
ee
traffic characteristics such as composition of vehicles, volume, speed, acceleration have
direct influence of thickness of the pavements.
rin
 Special factors in design of different types of pavements:
g.n
Formation of shrinkage cracks, the crack pattern and the mode of propagation and fatigue
et
behavior under such adverse conditions of hair cracks are to be studied before method of
design.
DESIGN OF WHEEL LOAD:

Maximum Wheel Load:
The way in which a load of a given vehicle is applied on a pavement surface depends on
the wheel configuration of the vehicle. The Indian Roads Congress has specified the maximum
legal axle load as 8170 kg with a maximum equivalent single wheel load of 4085 kg. The total
load decides the pavement thickness.

Contact Pressure:
The tyre pressure is very high on upper layers of pavements. The tyre pressure diminishes
in proportion to the depth of a pavement. Therefore, tyre pressure of high magnitude require high
quality surface course. The tyre pressure is constant. Hence the stress depends on the total load.
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL):

Dual wheel assembly to rear axles of vehicles improves the carrying capacity of vehicles.
It also helps to maintain maximum wheel load within the specified limit. However, the effect of
dual carriage way on the pavement is not equal to two times the load on any one wheel. The
ww
effect is in between the load carried by a single wheel and final by a dual wheel.
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Let d = clear gap between two wheels.
s = Spacing between centers of wheels. g.n
P = the wheel load
a = Radius of the circular contact area.
et
s = (d + 2a)
At a depth 2s and above stresses induced are due to the effect of both wheels as the area of
overlap is considerable. Therefore, at any depth greater than 2s the stresses due to dual wheels
are considered to be equivalent to a single wheel load of magnitude 2P.
Repetition of loads:
 Pavement or sub-grade may deform little on a single application of wheel load.
 However if that load is repeatedly applied, then the elastic and plastic deformation
increases. This may even result in pavement failure.

 If pavement fails with N1 number of repetitions of P1 kg load and similarly with N2

number of repetitions of P2 kg load then P1N1 and P2N2 are considered to be equivalent.
McLeod has given procedure for evolving equivalent load factors:
 Assumes that pavement thicknesses which are designed for given wheel load would
support 1million repetition of such load during the life of pavement.
 For one load application, the pavement thickness so required is only 1/4 th the pavement
thickness designed for 106 load repetitions.
Computation:
For computing equivalent load factors, the plot similar to the one given in fig is
ww
considered. 1/4th the design thickness were plotted for various wheel loads on vertical axis
against one load application and total thickness were plotted at 10 6 repetitions.
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Repetitions to failures Equivalent to 2268 Equivalent load
Wheel load (kg)
(Nos) (kg) factors
2268 105000 1.0 1
2722 50000 2.0 2
3175 22500 4.7 4
3629 13600 7.7 8
4082 6500 16.15 16
4536 3300 31.8 32
4990 1700 61.76 64
5443 1000 105.0 128

STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS:

Various materials used in sub-base course and base course are evaluated by different
tests. The general strength values evaluated are:
1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value
2. Elastic modulii.
Elastic modulii:
Depending upon the design methods, the elastic modulii of different pavement materials
are evaluated. Mainly plate bearing test is employed. The elastic modulii of the following are
determined by Plate Bearing test:
wwa) Sub-grade modulus

b) Elastic modulus of base and sub-base course.
w.E
Sub-grade modulus:
=
. .
asy
Boussinesq’s settlement equation for maximum vertical deflection  is given by:
………………. (For Flexible Plate)
Where, p = uniform pressure on flexible loaded plate

En
a = radius
gin
Es = Modulus of elasticity
=
. .
ee
………………. (For Rigid Circular Plate) rin
For computing elastic modulii, Bermister’s elastic layered system is employed. g.n
=
=
. .
. .
.
.
………………. (For Flexible Plate)
………………. (For Rigid Circular Plate)

et
F2 = displacement factor (dimension less) and depends on ratio of and

Where, =
Thus using a relationship between F2 and ration of = ,
is calculated.

CLIMATIC VARIATIONS:
The climatic variation cause following major effects:
a) Variations in moisture condition
b) Frost action
c) Variation in temperature
Variations in moisture condition:
 Depends on climatic condition, soil type, ground water level, drainage condition, type of
pavement and shoulders.
 The surface water during rain may enter the sub-grade either through pavement edges or
ww pavement itself.
w.E
 There can be differential rise or fall of the pavement edge with respect to the centre, due
to swelling and shrinkage of the sub-grade soil.
asy
 These effects are likely to cause considerable damages to the pavements and will also be
progressive and cumulative.
Frost Action:
En
gin
 It refers to the adverse effect due to frost heave, melting and alternate cycles of freezing
and thawing.
ee
 It includes all effect due to temperature and pavement performance.
rin
 If freezing continue for a certain period, the held water in sub-grade soil forms ice
crystals at some spots.
g.n
 These ice crystals grow further in size if there is a continuous supply of water. This
et
results in rising of portion of the pavement structure known as frost heave.
It depends on following factors:
a) Frost soil
b) Temperature below freezing point
c) Supply of water
Variation in temperature:
 Wide range in temperature due to climate change may cause damaging effect in some
pavements.
 Temperature stresses are induced due to daily variation in temperature.
 Bituminous pavement becomes soft in hot weather and brittle in cold weather.

Recommended method of design (IRC 37-2001):

Context:
 Pavement design guidelines based on IRC 37-1984 are applicable to design traffic upto
30 msa only.
 Consequently, NH carry loads greater than 30 msa.
 Therefore revised guidelines (IRC: 37 – 2001) has re-analysed the existing design and
developed a new set of guidelines for design traffic upto 150 msa.
Design approach and criteria:
Repeated application of traffic loads causes the following distresses:
ww Vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade leads to permanent deformation
w.E during design life.

 Horizontal tensile strain at bottom of the layer causes fracture during design life.
Estimation of design traffic:
asy
 The method considers traffic to be carried by a pavement during design life in terms of
En
cumulative number of standard axle (8160 kg).
gin
 Commercial vehicles of gross weight 3T or more and their axle loading only is
considered for the purpose of structural design.
Data Requirement:
ee
Following data are needed to estimate design traffic.
rin
(a) No. of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD)
(b) Traffic growth rate during design life. g.n
(c) Design life in number of years
(d) Vehicle damage factor
et
(e) Distribution of commercial traffic over a carriage way.
(a) CVPD:
Initial average daily traffic for any road should normally be based on atleast 7days 24
hours counts. In case of new roads, traffic estimates may be on the basis of land use and traffic
on existing routes in the area.
(b) Estimation of traffic growth rate:
This is based on past trend of traffic growth. If adequate data is not available an average
annual growth rate of 7.5% may be adopted.

(c) Design Life:

It is defined in terms of cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before
strengthening of pavement.
Table 1: IRC Recommendation on Design Life
S. No Type of Road Design Life
1 NH/SH 15 Years
2 Expressway and urban roads 20 Years
3 Others 10 – 15 Years
Source: IRC 37 – 2001
(d) Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF):
ww It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicles. The VDF is
w.E
a multiplier to convert the number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle
configuration to the number of standard load repetitions. The AASHTO (American Association
asy
of State Highway and Transport Officials) has given the equivalency factors. If data is not
available VDF indicated by IRC may be adopted.
En
Table 2: Indicate VDF values
S. No
gin
Range of Commercial Vehicles
Terrain
1
2
3
0 – 150
150 – 1500
>1500
ee 1.5
3.5
4.5
rin
0.5
1.5
2.5
(e) Distribution of commercial traffic: g.n
1
S. No
Table 3: Distribution of Commercial Vehicles over Carriageway
Single Lane
No. of lanes of carriageway
et
Basis of Design
Total commercial vehicles in both directions
2 Two lanes single carriageway 75% of commercial vehicles in both directions
3 Four lane single carriageway 40% of commercial vehicles in both directions
Dual carriageway roads
Two lanes 75% of commercial vehicles in each direction
4
Three lanes 60% of commercial vehicles in each direction
Four lanes 45% of commercial vehicles in each direction
Assumptions:
 When the sum volume of traffic at a particular section of a road only is available, the
traffic in each direction is half of the sum.

 When there is significant difference between the two directional flows, higher flow is
considered for the design
 Where the distribution of traffic between the carriageway lanes and axle load spectrum
are available, the design should be based on the traffic in the most heavily trafficked lane.
Computation of Design Traffic:
The design traffic is considered in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles.
( )
N= xAxDxF
Where, N = The cumulative number of standard axles to be carried, msa
ww A = Initial traffic in the year of completion, years

D = LDF
w.E F = VHF
n = Design life, years
asy
r = Annual growth rate (r=0.075)
The traffic in the year of completion
En A = P (1 + r)x
gin
P = No. of commercial vehicles as per last count
ee
x = No. of years between last count and year of completion of construction.
Sub-Grade:
(a) Compaction requirement for different class of roads:
rin
g.n
The sub-grade whether in cut or fill should be compacted to utilize its full strength and to
optimize the overall thickness of the pavement.
S. No
Table 4: Compaction Requirements for different class of roads:
Type of Road Compaction
et
Expressway, NH, SH, MDR and heavily 97% dry density with heavy
1
trafficked roads compaction materials.
2 Other roads 97% of standards proctor density
(b) Dry density and Moisture content:

The CBR value largely depends on density and moisture content of test samples.
Therefore, test conditions should reproduce as closely as possible to the weakest conditions.
Moisture condition of the sub-grade is governed by water table, precipitation, soil
permeability, drainage conditions and the extent to which the pavement is waterproof.

Table 5: Permissible variation in CBR:

S. No CBR (Percent) Maximum variation in CBR value
1 5 ±1
2 5 – 10 ±2
3 11 – 30 ±3
4 31 and above ±5
(iii) Bituminous Surfacing:
It consists of binder course or wearing course depending upon the traffic to be carried.
The most commonly used wearing course are:
 Surface dressing
ww Open-graded premix carpet
w.E


Mix seal surfacing
Semi-dense bituminous concrete and
 Bituminous concrete
asy
MORTH has specified the following binder courses:

En
Bituminous Macadam - < 5 msa

Note: gin
Dense Bituminous Macadam - > 5 msa
ee
 It is always desirable that a 75mm BM layer precedes the DBM binder course. In such
cases the thickness of DBM is reduced.
rin
 A BM of 10mm is considered equivalent to 7mm DBM for practical purposes.
g.n
 Wearing surface like open-graded premix carpet of thickness upto 25mm should not be
counted towards total thickness of the pavement.
(iv) Methodology for the design under IRC: 37 – 2001:
et
 The IRC has given two design charts under these guidelines.
 The thickness of pavement to carry traffic in the range of 1 to 10 msa is obtained from the
design chart 1 and 10 to 150 msa in the design chart 2.
 The total thickness is ovtained for the given CBR value and the design traffic.
 The IRC has further simplified the design chart and has given 17 design catalogues.
 These catalogues directly give the total pavement thickness along with the composition
corresponding to cummulative traffic and CBR value.

Design Chart 1 for traffic 1 to 10 msa
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Design chart 2 for traffic 10 to 150 msa
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Problems:
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1. Design the flexible pavement for construction of new highway with the following data:
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No. of commercial vehicles as per last count = 1000 commercial vehicle
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Period of construction = 3 years
Annual traffic growth rate = 8%
Design CBR of sub-grade soil = 10%
ee
Category of road = NH, Two lane single carriage way
rin
Design life = 15 years
Solution: g.n
IRC method (as per IRC 37-2001)
A = P (1 + r)x
et
Where A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction.
P = No. of commercial vehicles as per last count = 1000
r = annual growth rate = 8% (i.e., 0.08)
x = no. of years between last count and year of completion = 3years
Therefore, A = 1000 (1 + 0.08)3 = 1259.7
Design traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles.
( )
N = xAxDxF
Here r = 0.08

n = design life = 15 years

A = 1259.7
D = lane distribution factor = 75%
F = Vehicle damage factor = 3.5 for traffic volume 150-1500 CVPD.
( . )
N = x 1259.7 x 0.75 x 3.5
.
= 32.77 msa
Corresponding to this design traffic, pavement thickness can be calculated from IRC
charts or pavement design catalogue.
ww Referring to CBR 10%, pavement thickness required is 580mm for 30 msa and 600 mm
for 50 msa. Interpolating these values, the pavement thickness for 32.77 msa,
w.E t = 580 +
(
( )
)
x (32.77 – 30)
= 580 +
= 582.77 ≃ 585 mm asy

x 2.77
The pavement composition may be

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Sub base
Base
= 200 mm
= 250 mm gin
DBM
BC
= 110 mm
= 25 mm
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GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS:
g.n
Modified guidelines cover the design of plain jointed cement concrete pavements. The
guidelines are applicable for roads having a daily commercial traffic of over 150.
FACTORS GOVERNING DESIGN:
et
 Wheel load
 Design period
 Design traffic
 Temperature differential
 Characteristics of sub-grade and sub-base
 Characteristics of concrete
 Fatigue behaviour of cement concrete
Wheel Load:

a) Axle load:
Single and Tandem axle loads.
Single – 10.2 T
Tandem - 19.0 T
Tridem - 24.0 T
b) Tyre Pressure:
Range of 0.7 to 1.0 MPa does not affect concrete pavement with thickness more than 20
cm. A tyre pressure of 0.8 MPa may be adopted for design.
c) Load Safety Factor (LSF):
ww  Expressway/NH/SH/MDR = 1.2
w.E Roads with lesser importance = 1.1

 Residential and other streets = 1.0
d) Basic design of slab:
asy
It is done with a 98th percentile axle load and the design is checked for higher axle load.
Design Period:
En
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It is judged based on traffic volume, capacity and the traffic growth rate. Normally
cement concrete pavements have a life span of 30 years.
Design traffic:
(a) Average annual growth rate = 7.5%
ee rin
(b)
(c)
For 2 Lane design against fatigue = 25% of total commercial vehicle.
g.n
For 4 lane or multi lane = 25% of total traffic in the direction of predominant traffic.
(d)
(e)
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New highway links where data no available = collect data from similar classification.
Cumulative number of repetitions of axles may be decided from the following formula:
( )
C = 365 x A x where
C = Cumulative number of axles during the design period.

A = Initial number of axles per day in the year where the road is operational.
r = Annual rate of growth of commercial traffic.
n = Design period in years.
Temperature differential:
Temperature difference causes the slab to warp and gives rise to stresses. Table shows
recommended temperature differential for concrete slabs and the given slab thickness.

Table: Recommended temperature differential for concrete, slabs

Temp differential, °C in slab of thickness
Zone States
15 cm 20 cm 25 cm 30 cm
North Tamil Nadu excluding hilly
3 17.3 19.0 20.3 21.0
regions and coastal areas
South Tamil Nadu excluding hilly
4 15.0 16.4 17.6 18.1
regions and coastal areas
5 Coastal areas bounded by hills 14.6 15.8 16.2 17.0
6 Coastal areas unbounded by hills 15.5 17.0 19.0 19.2
ww
Characteristics of Sub-grade and Sub-base:
(a) Modulus of sub-grade reaction:
w.E ‘k’ expresses the strength of sub-grade. It is defined as pressure sustained per unit
deflection of the foundation as determined by plate bearing test.
(b)
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Limiting design deflection:
Limiting deflection = 1.25 mm
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The pressure sustained at this deflection determines the ‘k’ value.
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k-value is influenced by test plate diameter. Therefore, a standard test is to be carried out
with a 75cm diameter plate.
(c) Frequency of plate bearing test:
ee
One test/km/lane for assessment of k-value.
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(d) Conversion of Test values:
g.n
Test values obtained with plates of smaller diameter may be converted to standard 75cm
plate value as:
k75 = 0.5 x k30
et
Where k75 and k30 are values obtained on 75cm and 30cm dia plates.
(e) Filter layer:
It is advisable to have a filter layer above sub-grade for drainage of water. It prevents
excessive softening of sub-grade and erosion under adverse condition.
(f) Sub-base of dry lean concrete (DLC) for sub-grade with lesser k value:
Cement concrete pavement should not be laid directly over sub-grade, if k value is less
than 6 kg/cm2/cm. In such cases a DLC is recommended.
(g) A separation membrane layer between sub-base and pavement:

IRC has recommended a separation membrane of minimum thickness of 125 micron

polyethylene in order to reduce the friction between slab and DLC.
(h) Drainage Layer:
A drainage layer may be provided beneath the pavement and above the sub-grade,
throughout the road. This is to enable quick disposal of water that is likely to enter the sub-
grade.
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CE6504
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
V – SEMESTER
ww UNIT 4
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HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND PRACTICE
Prepared by
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CEMENT CONCRETE ROAD:

 Due to excellent riding surface and pleasing appearance, the cement concrete roads
are used.
 It is also true that life of a cement concrete road is much more than any other type of
construction.
Drawbacks:
 It requires high initial investment and the method is not adopted for stage
construction
 A minimum period of 28 days curing is required before the cement concrete could
ww be opened for traffic.
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 The maintenance and repair are mostly associated with joints.
Construction Procedure:
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 Preparation of sub-grade and sub-base
 Placing of forms
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 Batching of materials and mixing
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 Transporting and placing of concrete
Preparation of Sub-grade:
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 No soft spots are present in the sub-grade or sub-base.
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 The uniformly compacted sub-grade and sub-base extends atleast 30cm on either
side of the width to be concreted.
 The sub-grade is properly drained. g.n
et
 Min. modulus of sub-grade reaction with a plate bearing test is 5.54 kg/cm2
 Sub-grade is prepared and checked atleast two days in advance of concrete.
 It is kept in moist condition at the time when the cement concrete is placed.
Placing of forms:
 Steel forms are of MS channel sections and their depth is equal to thickness of the
pavements.
 The sections have a length of atleast 3m except on curves of less than 45m radius.
 When set to grade, the maximum deviation of the top surface from a straight line is
not exceeded by 3mm.
 Wooden forms are dressed. These have minimum base width of:

10cm for slab thickness – 20cm

15cm for slab thickness over 20cm
Batching of Materials and Mixing:
 The FA and CA are proportioned by weight in plant and placed in the hopper with
necessary quantity of cement.
 The mixing is done in batch mixer.
 The batch of cement, FA and CA is led together into the mixer.
 The water for mixing is introduced into the drum within the first 15sec of mixing.
 The mixing is commenced within one and half min after all materials is placed in the
ww mixer.
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Transporting and Placing of Concrete:
 Cement Concrete is mixed and is deposited on the soil sub-grade to the required
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depth and width of the pavement within form work in continuous operation.
 Care is taken to see that no segregation of materials results while the concrete is
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transported from mixer to placement.
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 The spreading is done uniformly.
 A certain amount of re-distribution is done with shovels.
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 Needle vibrator is employed in exception to rodding and splicing of concrete.
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WBM CONSTRUCTION:
 It is known after the name of “JOHN MACADAM”. g.n
et
 The term Macadam means, the pavement base course made of crushed or broken
aggregates mechanically interlocked by rolling and the voids filled with screening
and binding material with assistance of water.
Construction Procedure:
1. Preparation of foundation for WBM course
2. Provision of lateral confinement
3. Spreading of course aggregate
4. Rolling
5. Application of screening
6. Sprinkling and grouting

7. Application of binding material

8. Setting and drying
Foundation Preparation:
 It may be either sub-grade or sub-base or base course.
 It is prepared to required camber, dust and loose materials are cleaned.
On existing road, the depression and pot holes are filled and the corrugations are removed
to the required grade and camber.
Provision of Lateral Confinement:
 It is to be provided before starting WBM construction.
ww By constructing the shoulders to advance, to a thickness equal to that of compacted
w.E WBM layer and by trimming the inner side vertically.

Spreading of Coarse Aggregate:
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 It is spread uniformly to proper profile for even thickness upon preparing
foundation.
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 It is normally constructed to compacted thickness of 7.5cm.
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 In case of sub-base course grading No.1 of 10cm is provided.
Rolling:
 Rolling is started from the edges.

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 Compaction is done by a three wheeled power roller of capacity 6 to 10T.
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g.n
 The rollers being run forward and backward until the edges are compacted.
 Then the run is generally shifted towards the centre line of the road.
Application of Screening: et
 After rolling the dry screening are applied gradually over the surface to fill the
interstices in three or more applications.
 Dry rolling is continued as the screening are being spread and brooming carried out.
Sprinkling and Grouting:
 After screening the surface is sprinkled with water, swept and rolled.
 Wet screenings are swept into voids by hand brooms.
 Additional screenings are applied and rolled till the coarse aggregate are well
bonded and firmly set.
Application of Binding Materials:

 After screening and rolling, binding material is applied at uniform and slow rate at 2
or more layers.
 After each application of layer, the surface is sprinkled with water and wet slurry
swept with brooms.
 This is followed by rolling with 6 to 10T roller and water can be applied to wheels to
wash down the binder materials that sticks to the roller
Setting and Drying:
 After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over – night.
 On the next day “hungry” spots are located and are filled with screenings or binding
ww material, lightly sprinkled with water if necessary and rolled.
w.E
 No traffic is allowed till the WBM layer sets and dries out and then bituminous
surfacing is laid.
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Check for surface unevenness:
 The surface evenness of longitudinal direction is checked by 3m straight edge and
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the number of undulations exceeding 12mm and 10mm are recorded in each
completed length of 300m.
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 The maximum permitted is 30 in each case.
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 The spots with 15mm are marked for rectification of defects.
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 The cross profile is checked using camber and maximum variation should not
exceed
12mm – Grading No. 1 g.n
8mm – Grading No. 2 & 3 et
 When the unevenness exceeds the specified limits, the detective area with minimum
of 10m2 is reshaped with added material or fresh material and recompacted
properly.
BITUMINOUS MACADAM:
Scope:
Construction in a single course, of compacted crushed aggregates premixed with a
bituminous binder, to serve as a binder course.
Material:

a) Bitumen
b) Aggregates
a. Shall consist of crushed stones, crushed gravel.
b. They shall be clean, strong, durable and cubical in shape.
c) Proportion of materials
Bituminous content – 3 to 3.5% of the weight of total mix.
Preparation and transportation of mix:
a) Preparation in hot mix plant with adequate capacity that can yield proper and
uniform quality with thoroughly coated aggregates.
wwb) Discharge temperature of mix 130°C to 160°C.
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Spreading:
a) Spreading is done by means of self – propelled mechanical pavers with suitable
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screeds of spreading, tamping and finishing the mix.
b) The temperature at laying shall be 120°C to 160°C
c) Compaction:
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Rolling – 80 to 100 kN Rollers
Overlap not less than one-third of the track mode.

falls below 100°C
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Temperature – rolling operations completed before the temperature of mix
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BITUMINOUS CONCRETE:
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Materials:
a) Bitumen: et
Penetration grade 65. In case of non – availability of this grade, 80/100 grade may be
used.
b) Coarse Aggregate:
Stone polishing value not less than 55.
Maximum value of water absorption 1.0%.
c) Fine Aggregate:
Passing – 2.36mm sieve
Retained – 75micron sieve.

d) Filler:
Aggregate rock dust
Hydrated lime or Cement
The plasticity index shall not apply if filler is cement or lime.
Construction operations:
a) Preparation of base:
 Prepared, shaped and conditioned to the specified levels.
 Surface is thoroughly swept, clean free from dust and foreign matter.
b) Tack coat:
ww The bituminous emulsion or cutback is applied as tack coat over the base.
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c) Mix Preparation:
It is prepared in a hot mix plant with adequate capacity that can yield proper and
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uniform quality with thoroughly coated aggregates.
d) Spreading:
En
It is done by means of self-propelled mechanical pavers capable of spreading,
tamping and finishing the mix.
e) Rolling: gin

5km/h.
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It shall be thoroughly compacted by rolling with a set of rollers moving at a speed of
rin
 Initial rolling with 80-100 kN smooth wheeled roller.
g.n


Intermediate rolling with 80-100 kN vibrator roller.
Finish rolling with 60-80 kN smooth wheeled tandem roller.
f) Opening to traffic:
et
It is opened to traffic after completion of final rolling when the mix has cooled down
to surrounding temperature.
TEST ON AGGREGATES:
Various tests which are done on aggregates are listed below.
a) Water Absorption
b) Aggregate Impact Value

c) Aggregate Abrasion Value

d) Aggregate Crushing Value
WATER ABSORPTION
This test helps to determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates as per IS:
2386 (Part III) – 1963. For this test a sample not less than 2000g should be used.
Apparatus:-
 Wire basket – perforated, electroplated or plastic coated with wire hangers for
suspending it from the balance,
 Water-tight container for suspending the basket,
ww Dry soft absorbent cloth – 75cm x 45cm (2 nos.),
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

Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area,
Air-tight container of a capacity similar to the basket and Oven.
 asy
Procedure to determine water absorption of Aggregates:
The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust,
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drained and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a
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temperature between 22 and 32oC.

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After immersion, the entrapped air should be removed by lifting the basket and
allowing it to drop 25 times in 25 seconds. The basket and sample should remain
immersed for a period of 24 + ½ hrs afterwards. rin

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The basket and aggregates should then be removed from the water, allowed to drain
et
for a few minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently emptied from the
basket on to one of the dry clothes and gently surface-dried with the cloth,
transferring it to a second dry cloth when the first would remove no further
moisture. The aggregates should be spread on the second cloth and exposed to the
atmosphere away from direct sunlight till it appears to be completely surface-
dry.The aggregates should be weighed (Weight ‘A’).
 The aggregates should then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100 to 110oC
for 24hrs. It should then be removed from the oven, cooled and weighed (Weight
‘B’).

Formula:
Water absorption = [(A – B)/B] x 100%.
Two such tests should be done and the individual and mean results should be reported.
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

This test is done to determine the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates as
per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963.
Apparatus:
 Impact testing machine conforming to IS: 2386 (Part IV)- 1963,
ww IS Sieves of sizes – 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm,
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

A cylindrical metal measure of 75mm dia. and 50mm depth,
A tamping rod of 10mm circular cross section and 230mm length, rounded at one
end and Oven.
Preparation of Sample asy
 The test sample
En should conform to the following grading:
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Passing through 12.5mm IS Sieve – 100%

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Retention on 10mm IS Sieve – 100%
The sample should be oven-dried for 4hrs. at a temperature of 100 to 110oC and
cooled. rin

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The measure should be about one-third full with the prepared aggregates and

tamped with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
et
A further similar quantity of aggregates should be added and a further tamping of
25 strokes given.
 The measure should finally be filled to overflow, tamped 25 times and the surplus
aggregates struck off, using a tamping rod as a straight edge.
 The net weight of the aggregates in the measure should be determined to the
nearest gram (Weight ‘A’).

Procedure to determine Aggregate Impact Value:

 The cup of the impact testing machine should be fixed firmly in position on the base
of the machine and the whole of the test sample placed in it and compacted by 25
strokes of the tamping rod.
 The hammer should be raised to 380mm above the upper surface of the aggregates
in the cup and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates.
 The test sample should be subjected to a total of 15 such blows, each being delivered
at an interval of not less than one second.
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Reporting of Results:
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 The sample should be removed and sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve. The fraction
passing through should be weighed (Weight ‘B’).

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The fraction retained on the sieve should also be weighed (Weight ‘C’) and if the
total weight (B+C) is less than the initial weight (A) by more than one gram, the
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result should be discarded and a fresh test done.

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The ratio of the weight of the fines formed to the total sample weight should be
expressed as a percentage.
Aggregate impact value = (B/A) x 100% ee rin
Two such tests should be carried out and the mean of the results should be reported.
g.n
AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE
et
To determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963.
Apparatus
 Los Angles abrasion testing machine
 IS Sieve of size – 1.7mm, Abrasive charge – 12 nos.
 Cast iron or Steel spheres - 48mm dia. and each weighing 390 and 445g.
Sample Preparation:
The test sample should consist of clean aggregates which has been dried in an oven
at 105 to 110oC to a substantially constant weight and should conform to one of the
gradings shown in the table below:

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Procedure to determine Aggregate Abrasion Value:

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The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed in the Los Angles abrasion
testing machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions/minute
for 1000 revolutions.
gin

1.70mm IS Sieve.
Reporting of Results:
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At the completion of the test, the material should be discharged and sieved through
rin

g.n
The material coarser than 1.70mm IS Sieve should be washed dried in an oven at a
 et
temperature of 100 to 110oC to a constant weight and weighed (Weight ‘B’).
The proportion of loss between weight ‘A’ and weight ‘B’ of the test sample should
be expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the test sample.
 This value should be reported as,
Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/B x 100%.
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE:

To determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386
(Part IV) – 1963.

Apparatus
 Cylindrical measure and plunger
 Compression testing machine
 IS Sieves of sizes – 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
Procedure to determine Aggregate Crushing Value:
 The aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm IS Sieve are oven-
dried at a temperature of 100 to 110oC for 3 to 4hrs.
 The cylinder of the apparatus is filled in 3 layers, each layer tamped with 25 strokes
ww
of a tamping rod.
The weight of aggregates is measured (Weight ‘A’).
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 The surface of the aggregates is then leveled and the plunger inserted. The
apparatus is then placed in the compression testing machine and loaded at a

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uniform rate so as to achieve 40t load in 10 minutes. After this, the load is released.
The sample is then sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve and the fraction passing
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through the sieve is weighed (Weight ‘B’).
 Two tests should be conducted.
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Aggregate crushing value = (B/A) x 100%.
VARIOUS LAB TEST ON BITUMEN

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g.n
Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquids that is black, highly viscous, sticky product
et
used for paving roads, waterproofing products (used in sealing roofs). There are many
tests which are conducted to check the quality of bitumen. Bitumen is very important
component of many construction sites like roads, highways.
Many tests are done to ensure the quality of bitumen. Some of these are given below :-
 Ductility of Bitumen
 Penetration of Bitumen
 Softening Point Of Bitumen
 Flash And Fire Point Of Bitumen

DUCTILITY OF BITUMEN
This test is done to determine the ductility of distillation residue of cutback
bitumen, blown type bitumen and other bituminous products as per IS: 1208 – 1978. The
principle is : The ductility of a bituminous material is measured by the distance in cm to
which it will elongate before breaking when a standard briquette specimen of the material
is pulled apart at a specified speed and a specified temperature.
The apparatus required for this test:
i) Standard mould
ii) Water bath
wwiii) Testing machine
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iv) Thermometer – Range 0 to 44oC, Graduation 0.2oC
Procedure to determine the Ductility Of Bitumen:

asy
Completely melt the bituminous material to be tested by heating it to a temperature
of 75 to 100oC above the approximate softening point until it becomes thoroughly
fluid.
En

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Assemble the mould on a brass plate and in order to prevent the material under test
from sticking, thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and the interior surfaces of

ee
the sides of the mould with a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrin.
rin
While filling, pour the material in a thin stream back and forth from end to end of
the mould until it is more than level full.
g.n

et
Leave it to cool at room temperature for 30 to 40 minutes and then place it in a
water bath maintained at the specified temperature for 30 minutes, after which cut
off the excess bitumen by means of a hot, straight-edged putty knife or spatula, so
that the mould is just level full.
 Place the brass plate and mould with briquette specimen in the water bath and keep
it at the specified temperature for about 85 to 95 minutes.
 Remove the briquette from the plate, detach the side pieces and the briquette
immediately.

 Attach the rings at each end of the two clips to the pins or hooks in the testing
machine and pull the two clips apart horizontally at a uniform speed, as specified,
until the briquette ruptures.
 Measure the distance in cm through which the clips have been pulled to produce
rupture.
While the test is being done, make sure that the water in the tank of the testing machine
covers the specimen both above and below by at least 25mm and the temperature is
maintained continuously within ± 0.5oC of the specified temperature.
Reporting Of Results:
ww A normal test is one in which the material between the two clips pulls out to a point
w.E

or to a thread and rupture occurs where the cross-sectional area is minimum.
Report the average of three normal tests as the ductility of the sample, provided the
 asy
three determinations be within ± 0.5 percent of their mean value.
If the values of the three determinations do not lie within ± 0.5 percent of their
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mean, but the two higher values are within ± 0.5 percent of their mean, then record
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the mean of the two higher values as the test result.
DETERMINING PENETRATION OF BITUMEN ee rin

This test is done to determine the penetration of bitumen as per IS: 1203 – 1978.
Principle
g.n
et
The principle is that the penetration of a bituminous material is the distance in
tenths of a mm, that a standard needle would penetrate vertically, into a sample of the
material under standard conditions of temperature, load and time.
Apparatus:
 Penetrometer
 Water bath
 Bath thermometer – Range 0 to 44oC, Graduation 0.2oC
Sample
Bitumen should be just sufficient to fill the container to a depth of at least 15mm in
excess of the expected penetration.

Procedure to determine the penetration of bitumen:

 Soften the bitumen above the softening point (between 75 and 100oC). Stir it
thoroughly to remove air bubbles and water.
 Pour it into a container to a depth of at least 15mm in excess of the expected
penetration.
 Cool it at an atmospheric temperature of 15 to 30oC for 11/2 hours. Then place it in a
transfer dish in the water bath at 25.0 + 0.1oC for 11/2 hrs.
 Keep the container on the stand of the penetration apparatus.
ww

Adjust the needle to make contact with the surface of the sample.
Adjust the dial reading to zero.
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

With the help of the timer, release the needle for exactly 5 seconds.
Record the dial reading.

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Repeat the above procedure thrice.
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The value of penetration reported should be the mean of not less than three
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determinations expressed in tenths of a mm.
DETERMINING SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
ee rin
This test is done to determine the softening point of asphaltic bitumen and fluxed
native asphalt, road tar, coal tar pitch and blown type bitumen as per IS: 1205 – 1978.
Principle
g.n
et
The principle behind this test is that softening point is the temperature at which the
substance attains a particular degree of softening under specified condition of the test.
Apparatus:
 Ring and ball apparatus
 Thermometer
Preparation of Sample:
 The sample should be just sufficient to fill the ring. The excess sample should be cut
off by a knife.
 Heat the material between 75 and 100oC. Stir it to remove air bubbles and water,
and filter it through IS Sieve 30, if necessary.

 Heat the rings and apply glycerine.

 Fill the material in it and cool it for 30 minutes.
 Remove excess material with the help of a warmed, sharp knife.
Procedure to determine Softening Point Of Bitumen:
A) Materials of softening point below 80o C:
 Assemble the apparatus with the rings, thermometer and ball guides in position.
 Fill the beaker with boiled distilled water at a temperature 5.0 ± 0.5oC per minute.
 With the help of a stirrer, stir the liquid and apply heat to the beaker at a
ww
temperature of 5.0 ± 0.5oC per minute.
Apply heat until the material softens and allow the ball to pass through the ring.
w.E
 Record the temperature at which the ball touches the bottom, which is nothing but
the softening point of that material.
asy
B) Materials of softening point above 80oC:
The procedure is the same as described above. The only difference is that instead of
En
water, glycerine is used and the starting temperature of the test is 35oC.
gin
ee
Record the temperature at which the ball touches the bottom.
DETERMINING FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF BITUMEN
rin
This test is done to determine the flash point and the fire point of asphaltic bitumen
g.n
and fluxed native asphalt, cutback bitumen and blown type bitumen as per IS: 1209 –
1978.
Principle et
Flash Point – The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapours from the material to momentarily catch fire in
the form of a flash under specified conditions of the test.
Fire Point – The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test flame
causes the material to ignite and burn at least for 5 seconds under specified conditions of
the test.
Apparatus:
The apparatus required for this test is

i) Pensky-Martens apparatus
ii) Thermometer-
iii) The sample should be just sufficient to fill the cup upto the mark given on it.
Procedure to determine the Flash and Fire Point of Bitumen:
A) FLASH POINT:
 Soften the bitumen between 75 and 100oC. Stir it thoroughly to remove air bubbles
and water.
 Fill the cup with the material to be tested upto the filling mark. Place it on the bath.
Fix the open clip. Insert the thermometer of high or low range as per requirement
ww and also the stirrer, to stir it.
w.E
 Light the test flame, adjust it. Supply heat at such a rate that the temperature
increase, recorded by the thermometer is neither less than 5oC nor more than 6oC

per minute.
asy
Open flash point is taken as that temperature when a flash first appears at any point
En
on the surface of the material in the cup. Take care that the bluish halo that
gin
sometimes surrounds the test flame is not confused with the true flash. Discontinue
the stirring during the application of the test flame.

the flash occurs.
ee
Flash point should be taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time
rin
B) FIRE POINT:
g.n

et
After flash point, heating should be continued at such a rate that the increase in
temperature recorded by the thermometer is neither less than 5oC nor more than
6oC per minute.
 The test flame should be lighted and adjusted so that it is of the size of a bead 4mm
in dia.
 The flash point should be taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the
time of the flame application that causes a distinct flash in the interior of the cup.
The fire point should be taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at which the
application of test flame causes the material to ignite and burn for at least 5 seconds.

CE6504
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
V – SEMESTER
ww UNIT 5
w
EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PAVEMENT
.Ea Prepared by
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et


DEFECTS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS – SYMPTOMS, CAUSES AND TREATMENT:

Types of Defects:
1. Surface defects
2. Cracks
3. Deformation
4. Disintegration
Surface Defects:
These are defects observed on the surface of a pavement such as fine cracks, loss of
cover aggregates and smooth surface.
Symptoms Causes Treatment
1. Fatty Surface:
ww
Binder collects as a film, Excessive binder,
spread and becomes slippery Loss of aggregates,
Sand blotting
Open graded premix
w
2. Smooth Surface:
.Ea
Poor quality of aggregates,
Excessive axle loads.
surfacing
Liquid seal coat
syE
Low skid resistance value, Aggregates polish under Resurfacing with dressing of
slippery when wet traffic,
Excessive binder.
premix carpet.
3. Streaking:
ngi
It is alternate lean and heavy Non
bitumen lines appearance in application,
uniform
nee
bitumen Remove and apply new
surface
longitudinal and transverse Improper
direction operation
and
rin
careless Careful bitumen spraying
4. Hungry Surface:
Too low binder temperature
g.n
Loss of aggregates from Less bitumen in surface.
surface or fine cracks
appearance.
A fog seal may be used for
emergency repair.
et
Use of slurry seal 2 to 5 mm,
Cracks:
A common defect in bituminous pavements is formation of cracks. The crack pattern
indicates causes of defects.
Symptoms Causes
1. Hairline Crack:
Short and fine at close intervals on the Insufficient bitumen content
surface Excessive filler
Improper compaction

Symptoms Causes
2. Alligator Cracks:
Inter connected cracks forming series of Excessive deflection
small blocks. Excessive overloads/heavy vehicles
Resemble skin of an alligator Inadequate pavement thickness
Brittleness and overheating
3. Longitudinal cracks:
Appear in straight line along roads Poor drainage,
At joints between pavements and shoulders Water stagnation, seepage through joints,
Trucks passing on joints,
Weak lanes joints.
4. Edge cracks:
ww
Formed parallel to outer edge of the Lack of lateral support from shoulders
pavement – 0.3 to 0.5m from inside the edge Non-provision of extra widening on curves
w .Ea
Inadequate pavement width
Inadequate surface drainage
Frost heave.
5. Shrinkage cracks:
syE
Appear in transverse direction. Shrinkage of bituminous layer with age
ngi
No deterioration or deformation of Binder looses ductility as it ages and become
pavement but top surface becomes old and brittle.
cracked.
6. Reflection cracks: nee
rin
Sympathetic cracks appear in the bituminous Due to joints and cracks on pavement layers
surface over joints and cracks on the underneath.
pavement underneath.
Pattern – longitudinal, transverse, diagonal g.n
or block appear on overlays on concrete
roads. et
Deformation:
It may be defined as an alteration in the shape or disfigurement. Inadequate prime
coat, mix compaction, soft binder and fine aggregates form the cause of deformation.
1. Slippage:
Relative movement between Unusual wheel thrust, Remove localized surface
surface layers and layers Inadequate tack. area.
beneath and patch work in Crest shape cracks on Lack of bond between coats.
the direction of wheels. surface and lower course


2. Rutting:
Longitudinal depression or Heavy traffic, bullock cart Tack coat and premix open
groove. traffic or dense graded patching
Water accumulates and Inadequate mix compaction and compacting.
cause skidding Improper mix design
3. Corrugations:
Undulations across Excessive binder. Surface course scarified and
bituminous surface. Too soft binder and high recompacted
proportion of finers.
Spacing of waves around 3m Faulty laying of surface A new layer is laid.
course.
ww
4. Shoving:
Localized bulging of surface Excessive binder, Remove materials in the
w
in points, where traffic starts Too soft binder
and stops.
.Ea Lack of bond between
surface
affected area and lay a
premix patch.
syE
Heavy traffic movements of
start and stop type
5. Shallow depression:
ngi
Localized areas of about Poor settlement of lower Fill with premix materials,
25mm dipping. pavement layers
They may or may not be Inadequate compaction of nee open or dense graded and
compact to the desired
accompanied by cracks. sub-grade or pavement
layers. rin
profile.
6. Settlements:
Larger deformation of the Inadequate compaction g.n
Excavate defective fill and do
pavement followed
extensive cracks.
by Excessive moisture in sub-
grade
Inadequate pavement
embankment fresh.
et
Properly designed pavement
shall be provided
thickness Reconstruction in frost
Frost heave conditions. affected regions.
Disintegration:
Certain defects if not rectified immediately will result in disintegration of pavement
into small, loose fragments. If not arrested in early stages, may result necessitate complete
rebuilding of the pavement. It is caused primarily due to failure of the binder to hold
materials together.


1. Stripping:
Separation of bitumen from Inadequate mix composition In case of surface dressing,
aggregate particles in the Continuous water contact hot coarse sand heated to
presence of moisture Presence of dust or moisture 150oC is spread over
Overheating of aggregates affected areas and rolled.
Occurrence of rain or storm
after construction In other, existing mixes are
Open roads to traffic before removed and fresh one laid.
binder has set.
2. Loss of aggregates:
Surface rough appearance Aging and oxidation of Application of liquid seal or
ww
Some portions of aggregates binder.
are lost. Cold or wet weather after
fog seal or slurry seals
If loss of aggregate is over
w .Ea
dressing
Wet or dust aggregates
Insufficient binder.
large area, provide another
surface dressing.
3. Ravelling: syE
Insufficient rolling.
disintegration.
ngi
Characterized by progressive Inadequate compaction
Construction during wet or
Add more binder quanity.
Renewal coats with premix
Start from surface cold weather
downward or from edge Inferior quality aggregates nee material.
inwards. Overheating of mix.

Ageing of binder rin
4. Pot Holes:
Bowl shaped holes of varying Ingress of water into g.n
Fill with premix open graded
size in surface layer or lacks pavement.
extending into base course.
Usually appear after rain
Lack of proper camber
Use of plastic filter in WBM
or dense grade patching.
et
Lack of bond between
bituminous surface and
WBM
Too thin bituminous surface.
5. Edge Breaking: Affected area entirely
Bituminous surface Infiltration of water removed to a regular
irregularly breaks. Worn out shoulders section.
If not remedied in time Inadequate compaction Pavement and shoulder built
surfacing may peal off in Lower layer not being wider simultaneously.
large chunks at edges. than upper layer. Periodic inspection of
shoulder.

METHODS OF REPAIRING DEFECTS OF BITUMINOUS ROADS:

1. Routine maintenance
2. Periodic maintenance
Routine Maintenance:
Repair methods fall under two categories:
i. Seal Coat
ii. Patching
Seal Coat:
It is a single thin application of bitumen which may or may not be covered with
aggregates.
Type of Description Materials Construction Method
ww
Seal Coat
Liquid
Seal
Application of liquid Rapid
bitumen grade. emulsion
setting  Area is thoroughly cleaned
 Binder is applied
w .Ea
 Cover aggregates
spread and rolled in
are
position.
syE  Road is open to traffic next

day
Fog Seal
ngi
Light application of Emulsion water  Emulsion is diluted with an
emulsion without
cover aggregates to
nee equal amount of water and
sprayed
 The seal sets in 30min
fill in cracks and
prevent raveling.
rin
 The traffic can be allowed
g.n
after the seal has set in.
Slurry seal Is a mixture of fine Fine grit sand and  Area is thoroughly cleaned
aggregates, mineral filler
bitumen with water

mixed in  Tack coat is applied
filler and emulsified suitable proportions  Slurry spread and forced
into voids
et
added. It is spread  The slurry is spread to a
evenly to fill cracks thickness of 2 to 5mm
and to repair  No rolling is required.
pavements and
smooth or hungry
surfaces.
Patching:
It is the application of bituminous materials, either premixed or penetration
macadam type.

Type Description Materials Construction Method

Sand A mixture of fine Coarse sand  Area is thoroughly cleaned
bituminous aggregates and Raping curing – RC3 and tack coat is applied
premix binder to rectify Medium curing cut  Mix spread and lay
patching cracks, slippage, back wherever required
corrugations, MC3  Rolled thoroughly till it get
shoving, shallow Emulsion MS compacted.
depression and
raveling
Premix Making up the area Coarse aggregates  Area is thoroughly cleaned
open to be patched by a 12.5 and 10mm and unevenness is marked.
graded premix open graded Bitumen of suitable  Tack coat and patching
ww
patching material consisting
of binder
aggregates,
and
cutback
RC3, MC3
Emulsion MS

materials applied.
Patch is filled with
w compacting
.Ea
and
finishing with a seal

prepared premix
Filling is done in layers not
exceeding 40mm
coat.
syE
It is applicable for
fatty surface,


Each layer is compacted
thoroughly
slippage,
ngi
rutting,
The final surface applied
with liquid seal coat
shoving,
depression
potholes
shallow
and
nee  The resultant
conforms to adjacent
surface
Premix Make up the area Coarse aggregates,  rin

levels
Area thoroughly cleaned
dense
graded
with dense graded
premix binder.
fine aggregates, filler
and paving, bitumen

 g.n
Uneven area marked
Pothole edges squared
patching Aggregates and
fillers are used for
repairing slippage,
of
penetration.
suitable 
et
Hole cut to solid material
with vertical edges.
 Apply tack coat and
rutting, shoving, patching material.
shallow depression  Temporarily filled with
and potholes. stone or brick
 Mixing done in hot mix
plant.
 Filling done in layers not
exceeding 40mm
thickness.
 Each layer compacted
thoroughly either by rollers

or tampers before the mix

cools.
 The resultant surface
conforms to adjacent
levels.
 Humping for compaction
by traffic not to be
allowed.
Penetration Make up the area to Coarse aggregates  Area thoroughly cleaned
patching be patched by a upto 50mm.  A tack coat with bitumen is
course of aggregate Key aggregates upto applied.
and compact the 20mm.  Aggregates are dry rolled
ww course.
Apply bitumen and
Bitumen
7.5kg/10sq.m
 Bituminous binder is then
applied.
w key aggregates and
.Ea
finish off with a seal
coat


Key aggregates are spread
and rolled
Final surface is sealed with
syE liquid seal coat.
Periodic Maintenance:
ngi
 It is the provision of surfacing layer over the existing pavement at regular intervals of
time.
nee
 This is needed to prevent deterioration of the pavement characteristics.
rin
 Early detection and repair of defects can prevent major break down of the surface.
 The pavement life also gets prolonged
Planning:
g.n
 The most effective way is to carry out visual inspections of the road at suitable
intervals. et
 Special inspections are also necessary before and after rains so as to assess the need
for patching and other measures.
Identification:
The length of road showing following signs may be included:
 Hungry surface
 Hairline cracking
 Ravelling
Types of renewal:
Renewal would generally provide for the application of surfacing layer upto 20mm
thickness. Types are:
 Surface dressing (up to 1 or 2 coat)
 Thin premix-chipping carpet

 Thin mix seal carpet

 Hot mix semi-dense and dense carpet
Organization and management:
 Maintenance of road requires effective supervision by skilled workmanship
 They should understand specifications, choice of binder, quality control measure use
and unkeep of equipment and sagety measures.
 Optimum requirement of labour in India
NH/SH – 1L = 0.3% gangmen per km
2L = 0.45% gangmen per km
A mate supervises a group of 5-6 gangmen.
Suggestions:
 Individual gang must be responsible for a particular section of road and gang should
ww be made mobile by mechanical transport.

 Headquarters of one or more mobile gang should be fixed at convenient location. It
w has store (shed for tools) and plants (Premix and other). It may be connected with
.Ea
headquarters of assistant engineer.
 The annual programme shall be drawn up well in advance to indicate renewals
syE
carried out in last eight years.
 Budget shall be prepared well in advance and allocation of resources should be
finalized simultaneously.
ngi
PAVEMENT EVALUATION:
Definition: nee
rin
It examines the efficiency and effectiveness of basic components of the pavement
such as sub-grade, sub-base, surface course, thickness, loading and environment.
Methods:
1. Structural evaluation – It relate to elastic deflection under loads. g.n
et
2. Surface condition evaluation – It may be evaluated by unevenness, ruts, patches and
cracks.
Equipment:
Benkelman Beam designed by A.C. Benkelman in USA
Structural Evaluation – Benkelman beam method:
Principle:
A quality pavement elastically deforms under each wheel load application. When the
load moves away, there is an elastic recovery of the deformed pavement surface.
The deformation depends upon sub-grade soil type, moisture content, compaction
thickness and quality, drainage condition and temperature.
Benkelman Beam:
It is a device to measure the rebound deflection of the pavement. Slender beam is of
3.66m length. It is pivoted to a datum frame at a distance of 2.44m at probe end. A dial
gauge is fixed on a datum frame.

Length of probe arm from pivot to probe point – 244 cm

Length of measurement arm from pivot to dial – 122 cm
Distance from pivot to front legs – 25 cm
Distance from pivot to rear legs – 166 cm
Lateral spacing of front support legs – 33 cm
ww
w
Procedure:
.Ea
 Pavement condition survey is conducted for collecting the basic information about a
road structure. syE
 Based on survey, demarcation of the road into sections of more or less equal
performance is done.
ngi
 The length of each section shall not generally be less than 500m
nee
 About 10 equal distance points along the outer wheel path (60cm from the
rin
pavement edge for 1Lane, 90cm for 2Lane and 1.5m for 4Lane divided CW) is
marked.
g.n
 Deflection measurements at marked points have to be made by placing probe of the
beam between dual wheels of a loaded truck.
 Annual rainfall, pavement temperature and moisture content, classification of the
sub-grade has to be determined.
et
 Correct the deflection values to standard temperature of 35oC
 Correction for temperature is not applicable in case of roads with bituminous
surfacing or road is subjected to severe cracking or stripped.
For the set of 10 corrected values of deflection, find out the mean deflection(𝑥̅ ), standard
deviation(σ) and characteristic deflection (D.C) by the following formula:
𝑛
̅) = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Mean deflection (𝒙
(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Standard Deviation (σ) = √
𝑛−1
Characteristic deflection (D.C)
D.C = 𝑥̅ + 2 (for NH &SH) D.C = 𝑥̅ + σ (For all other roads)

Where, x = Individual deflection, mm

𝑥̅ = Mean deflection, mm
D.C = Characteristic deflection
σ = Standard deviation
n = Number of deflection measurements
 Calculate cumulative traffic in terms of msa for the design standard axles for the
design period as per the following formula
365 𝐴 (1+𝑟)𝑛 − 1
N= xF
𝑟
Where, N = cumulative number of standard axles for design life
A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction
r = Annual growth rate
ww n = Design life in years F = Vehicle damage factor
w
SURFACE CONDITION EVALUATION:
.Ea
Pavement condition may be evaluated by unevenness. It is caused by ruttings,
corrugations, raveling, cracking and patching. It may be assessed by cracks and faulty joints
syE
which affect riding quality of the pavement.
The various methods to evaluate the surface conditions of pavements are:
1. Unevenness index
ngi
2. Pavement serviceability index (PSI)
3. Present serviceability rating (PSR)
Pavement unevenness: nee
rin
 It is major drawback for safety and efficiency of travel. Therefore it is important for
highway engineers.
g.n
 Equipment capable of integrating the unevenness of the surface in (cm/km) length of
road may be called bump integrator.
 It is equated to the riding quality.
 In India NH are being improved under different programmes (Periodical renewal,
et
improvement of riding quality, strengthening of existing carriage way and
construction of new carriageways).
 Roughness of road is a critical indicator of the quality of roads.
 Table below indicated the roughness value in mm/km for different types of surfaces
Surface Type Good Average Poor Very poor
Bituminous Concrete/SDBC 2000-2500 2500-3000 3500-4000 Over 4000
Premix bituminous
2500-4500 4500-5500 5500-6500 Over 6500
carpet/MSS
Surface Dressing 4000-5000 5000-6500 6500-7500 Over 7500
Pavement Serviceability Index:

It was introduced by American association of State Highway officials (AASHO). The

serviceability is adjudged by a panel of experts by actually riding over the pavement. The
experts are sensitive to the perception and wishes of road users.
Present Serviceability Rating:

This is the mean opinion of members of the rating. This rating is correlated to
physical measurements such as longitudinal and transverse profile of the pavement,
cracking and patching. These elements affect the riding quality of the pavement.
Mathematical models are evolved for determining serviceability indices. This is done
by correlating the physical measurements of the surface conditions to the road users
perceptions. The models can predict the serviceability rating based on the physical
measurement of the deficiencies.
ww
MAINTENANCE OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROAD:
w
Quality of construction and level of maintenance:
Cement concrete pavement if constructed properly requires very less maintenance
.Ea
during the service life. If the pavements are constructed with necessary quality control, they
Resealing of Joints and cracks:

syE
require only maintenance at joints where fillers replaced by new materials.
Joint sealing deteriorate with age and are plucked out of the joint. Foreign matter
ngi
may also be forced into joints. It is cleaned periodically to a depth of atleast 25mm and
nee
refilled with fresh sealant to allow movement at the joint and also to prevent moisture. The
following procedure is adopted:
Remove Existing Sealant

rin
g.n
Reconstructing the joint Where spalling is serious
et
With diamond saw blades
Resurfacing the joint to provide adequate width
Cleaning new sawed walls With water followed by

drying & sand blasting
Placing high quality sealant

Filling voids and restoring slab support:

This technique is required to fill small voids that develop beneath the slab due to
pumping. This is achieved by drilling slab or grout injection holes and applying pumping
pressure. The following operation is followed:
Select only joints and cracks that exhibit loss of support
Select proper under sealing materials
Careful and controlled Resealing
ww
Small repairs:
Timely intervention for repairs of any structure is always beneficial. This is also true
w
to cement concrete pavement which if repaired early are not only economic but also speedy
.Ea
operation, i.e. time available for closing the road to traffic is reduced.
HIGHWAY PROJECT FORMULATION:
syEPROJECT
ngi
FORMULATION
nee
TAR PPR
rinDPR
(Technical Appraisal
Report)
(Preliminary Project
Report) g.n
(Detailed Project Report)
TAR (Technical Appraisal

et
PPR (Preliminary Project
Report) Report)
• Background • Background
• Technical Parameter • Technical drawings
• Preliminary cost estimate • EIA (Environmental Impact
• economic feasibility Assessment)
• Source of Funding

Project
Project Report Estimate
Drawings
• Preliminary • General Abstract of • Locality map-cum site
• Road features Cost plan
• Road design and • Detailed Estimates for • Strip plan showing the
specifications each Major head location of utilities,
• drainage facilities right-of-way, trees and
including cross junctions
drainage strutures • Land Acquisition plans
• material, Labour and
Equipment
• Rates
ww
• Construction
Programming
• Miscellaneous
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

• Name of the worj and its scope

• Authority and plan provisions
• History, geography and climate
• Necessity
Preliminary
• Details of previous improvement works carried out
• Route Selection
• Alignment
• Environmental factors
• Cross-sectional elements
Road Features
• Traffic
ww
w .Ea
• Road designs
• Pavement designs
Road designs and

Specifications syE
• Masonry works
• Specifications
ngi
nee
• General draingae conditions, HFL, water-table, seepage flows
rin
• Surface drainage, catchwater drains, longitudinal side drains
• Sub-surface drainage, sub-drains
Drainage facilities
including CDS
• Cross-drainage structures
g.n
et
• Sources of construction materials, transport arrangements
• labour availability, amentities
Material, Labour • Equipment
and Equipment

• Schedule of rates. mention year and district to which schedule of

rate is applicable
Rates • Rate justification
• Working season
• Schedule of completion of work
Construction
Programming
ww
w • Rest houses, temporary quarters and other amentities
• Diversions and haul roads, traffic control devices, temporary
.Ea
diversion of traffic during construction
• wayside amenities
Miscellaneous
syE
• roadside plantations, landscaping
ngi
• Abstract of the cost nee
• Estimate quantities
• Analysis of rates rin
Detailed
Estimate
• Quarry/material source charts
g.n
et
• Locality map-cum site plan
• strip plan showing the location of utilities, right of way, trees and
Project junctions
• Land acquisition plan
drawings

MAINTENANCE OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROAD:

Quality of construction and level of maintenance:
Cement concrete pavement if constructed properly requires very less maintenance
during the service life. If the pavements are constructed with necessary quality control, they
require only maintenance at joints where fillers replaced by new materials.
Resealing of Joints and cracks:
Joint sealing deteriorate with age and are plucked out of the joint. Foreign matter
may also be forced into joints. It is cleaned periodically to a depth of atleast 25mm and
refilled with fresh sealant to allow movement at the joint and also to prevent moisture. The
following procedure is adopted:
Remove Existing Sealant
ww
w Reconstructing the joint Where spalling is serious
.Ea
syE
Resurfacing the joint
With diamond saw blades
to provide adequate width
ngi
Cleaning new sawed walls
nee
With water followed by
drying & sand blasting
rin
Placing high quality sealant
g.n
Filling voids and restoring slab support: et
This technique is required to fill small voids that develop beneath the slab due to
pumping. This is achieved by drilling slab or grout injection holes and applying pumping
pressure. The following operation is followed:
Select only joints and cracks that exhibit loss of support
Select proper under sealing materials
Careful and controlled Resealing

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The cess of Rs. 2 is being distributed as under –

w.E 10 % shall be reserved by the Central Government for implementation

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National Highways (Already 4/6 lane)

16,000 km (9,900 mi)

2,577,396 km (1,601,520 mi)

Rural & other roads

Billion; it includes an upgrade to 4-lanes of 4,035 km of National Highways.

Billion; it includes an upgrade to 4-lanes of 8,074 km of National Highways.

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expressways at an estimated cost of INR 167 Billion.

bypasses and flyovers to avoid traffic bottlenecks on selected stretches at a cost of

 Serves as a repository of technical knowledge on roads and bridges.

 Administration of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.

 Taxation of motor vehicles.

 Compulsory insurance of motor vehicles.

 Administration of the Road Transport Corporations Act, 1950.

 And promotion of Transport co-operatives in the field of motor transport.

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preparing and implementing the Annual Road Safety Plan.

laid down guidelines.

HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD:

ww  To ascertain the nature and extent of research required.

a view to exchanging publications and information on roads.

 To sponsor basic research through universities and research organizations.

 Any other matter related to road research.

other States, industry or educational institutions.

Research Organizations programmes of research and also assist various agencies in

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 Hold Periodical Research Sessions/Seminars where research problems and research

Papers are discussed in detail.

CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE:

ww  CSIR-Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), a premier national laboratory

w.E established in 1952.

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landslide management and hazard mitigation, geotechnical investigations & ground

in detail in the following sections.

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w.E restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance.

between cutting and filling. ee

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS: ee rin

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w.E half‐hour gaps in between;

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CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS

ww 3. Land width : 50 – 60m