Electrical Power and Energy Systems 63 (2014) 681–686

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

A novel fast distance relay for long transmission lines

Minghao Wen ⇑, Deshu Chen, Xianggen Yin
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Electromagnetic Engineering and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The measuring accuracy and the measurement stability of conventional distance relay will be influenced
Received 20 August 2013 by complex and remarkable harmonic components due to the large capacitance of the line when it is used
Received in revised form 25 June 2014 for a long line. Correspondingly, the tripping speed will be delayed to some extent. To solve this problem,
Accepted 26 June 2014
a fast distance relay for long transmission lines is presented, which is on the basis of the differential equa-
Available online 12 July 2014
tion algorithm using p transmission line model and the theory of Equal Transfer Process of Transmission
Lines (ETPTL). The shortcomings of p model differential equation algorithm due to the impact of high fre-
Keywords:
quency components can be overcome by using a low-pass filter. The problem resulting from the differ-
Coupling capacitor voltage transformer
Distance protection
ence between the transfer feature of the voltages used by the distance protection and that of the
Equal Transfer Process of Transmission currents due to the transient characteristic of coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVT) can be
Lines solved by using virtual digital CCVT. Then, the new distance relay can trip quickly by re-structuring
Long transmission line the voltage at the fault point and iterative calculations. A variety of ATP simulation tests show that the
Low-pass filter new relay has fast tripping speed and high reliability when applied to the long transmission lines.
Virtual transfer method Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
The voltage level of long-distance transmission lines is usually
up to 500-kV or higher. The distance relay acts as the foremost
back-up protection of transmission lines [1–6]. Traditional dis-
tance relays usually employ a simple R–L transmission line model.
When a fault occurs on a long line, relatively large magnitude har-
monic components of current and voltage are superimposed on the
fundamental frequency component due to the large capacitance of
the line. This harmonic component can cause oscillation of the dis-
tance measurement [7,8]. In China, in the case of an electric power
system of 330-kV and above, coupling capacitor voltage transform-
ers (CCVT) are extensively used at present, which may lead to the
transient overreach of distance protections and endanger the secu-
rity and stability of power systems [9–14]. These two factors cause
the speed and accuracy problems of distance relays of long trans-
mission lines.
Different distance relays utilizing the distributed parameter line
model to achieve accurate fault detection can be found in literature
[15,16]. However, protection schemes using the Bergeron line
model require a given sampling frequency and complex algorithms
[17]. At present, the usual approach preventing the protection from
the overreach due to CCVT transients is to add additional time
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 2787540945.
E-mail addresses: swenmh@mail.hust.edu.cn (M. Wen), dschen@mail.hust.edu.cn
(D. Chen), xgyin@mail.hust.edu.cn (X. Yin).
delay [18,19]. Some adaptive methods are proposed, e.g., transient
error estimation based method. Different time delay strategies are
adopted according to the quantity of error [20]. A charging current
compensation (CCC) method was proposed in the literature [7].
However, the authors did not consider the overreach problem
due to CCVT transients. Transmission line models and the over-
reach due to CCVT transients are the critical problems of a fast dis-
tance protection for long transmission lines and the difficult ones
to solve.
According to the theory of ETPTL [21,22], the relationship
between the distributed voltage and the current of a transmission
line does not change if they are transformed by the same linear cir-
cuit and still comply with the distribution parameter model of the
original transmission line. The shortcomings of distance relay due
to the impact of high frequency components can be overcome by
using a low-pass filter. The transient characteristics of CCVT distort
the linear transfer relationship between the secondary voltage
injected to the protection device and the primary voltage of
the line. A virtual digital transfer method is adopted, which can
ensure that the currents at the relay point and the voltage at the
fault point pass the virtual digital transfer link whose transfer
characteristic is the same as that of the actual CCVT equipped at
the relay point. It is proved that the voltages and the currents
transformed by the two transferring links still satisfy the original
distributed parameter based transmission line model. The distance
relay could trip quickly. A fast distance protection for long trans-
mission lines was presented. Five major steps of the new method

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2014.06.058
0142-0615/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
682 M. Wen et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 63 (2014) 681–686
are demonstrated: the differential equation algorithm using p
transmission line model, the low-pass filter, the virtual digital
transfer method, restructuring the voltage at the fault point and
iterative calculations of the fault distance.
Fast distance relaying for long transmission lines
Solving the R–L differential equation
The differential equation algorithm using p transmission line
model includes solving the R–L differential equation and the calcu-
lation of p transmission line model.
The implementation of R–L differential equation algorithm in
the new protection scheme is demonstrated by taking the single-
phase-to-earth fault as an illustration. When a single phase to
earth fault via the fault resistance Rf occurs at point F on the line,
we have
 Low-pass filter
dðim ðtÞ  im0 ðtÞÞ
um ðtÞ ¼ uf ðtÞ þ L1 þ R1 ðim ðtÞ  im0 ðtÞÞ
dt

dim0 ðtÞ
þL0 þ R0  im0 ðtÞ  l
dt
where,
um(t) – faulty phase voltage at the relay point;
im(t) – faulty phase current at the relay point;
uf(t)– faulty phase voltage at the fault point F;
im0(t) – zero sequence current at the relay point;
L1 and R1 – positive sequence inductance and resistance of the
line per unit length;
L0 and R0 – zero sequence inductance and resistance of the line
per unit length;
l –distance from the relay point to the fault point F;
Rf – fault resistance.
Here, uf(t) is the function of Rf as described in Section ‘Restruc-
turing the voltage at the fault point’. One-point differential algo-
rithm is adopted to perform the differential calculation, as given by
 
dðim ðtÞ  im0 ðtÞÞ ½im ðn þ 1Þ  im0 ðn þ 1Þ  ½im ðnÞ  im0 ðnÞ
¼ digital CCVT. To implement the method of virtual digital CCVT
dt t¼nDt Dt
where Dt is the sampling interval and n is the index of the
samplings.
If a series of samplings in a certain period are substituted into
(1), a series of differential equations are available correspondingly.
They can compose of a set of the equations. In this paper, the least
square algorithm is used to calculate the distance from the relay
point to the fault point.
The calculation of p transmission line model
The transmission line model between the bus M (the relay
point) and the fault point F consists of a p section as shown in
Fig. 1. ic is the charging current that flows into the capacitance at
the relay point. ic of phase A can be calculated, as given by
Fig. 1. p Transmission line model.
duma ðtÞ d½uma ðtÞ  umb ðtÞ
ica ðtÞ ¼ 0:5l  cs0 þ 0:5l  cm0
dt dt
d½uma ðtÞ  umc ðtÞ
þ 0:5l  cm0 ð3Þ
dt
where,
uma(t), umb(t), umc(t) –three-phase voltages at the relay point;
cs0 – the line-to-ground capacitance of the line per unit length;
cm0 – the phase-to-phase capacitance of the line per unit length.
The phase-A current flowing through the R–L circuit in Fig. 1 can
be calculated as below:
iaRL ðtÞ ¼ ima ðtÞ  ica ðtÞ ð4Þ
where ima(t) is the phase-A current flowing through the relay. In the
same way the phase-B current ibR–L(t) and the phase-C current icR–-
L(t) can be obtained.
The low-pass filter is introduced to overcome the shortcomings
of distance relay due to the impact of high frequency components.
ð1Þ According to the theory of ETPTL, the voltages and the currents at
the relay point and the voltage at the fault point should pass the
same low-pass filter. A second-order Butterworth Filter is intro-
duced to restrict the frequency components of the voltages and
the currents around power frequency.
Virtual digital transfer method
A virtual digital CCVT transfer method is adopted, which can
ensure that the currents at the relay point and the voltage at the
fault point pass the virtual digital transfer link whose transfer
characteristic is the same as that of the actual CCVT equipped at
the relay point.
When the virtual digital CCVT transfer processing is conducted
on the current through the relay location, the inputs of the virtual
digital CCVT are the samplings captured by the A/D of the relay,
and the outputs are the new samplings processed by the virtual
transfer, the transient recursive calculation equations for the
ð2Þ
inductance components and capacitors of CCVT circuit are required
to be deduced. In this event, the CCVT transient equivalent circuit
can be simplified as a DC circuit only containing three kinds of
components at each sampling moment, that is, the input voltage
source, the current source and the resistance of the equivalent cir-
cuits. Then the current sampled value transformed by the virtual
digital CCVT can be calculated. The more detailed process of the
virtual transfer method can refer to literature [21].
On the other hand, when the virtual digital CCVT transfer pro-
cessing is conducted on the voltage at the fault point, the inputs
of virtual digital CCVT are the voltage samplings at the fault point.
Similarly, the outputs are the new voltage samplings processed by
the virtual digital CCVT.
The distance relay will adopt these new samplings to imple-
ment the corresponding measurement algorithm. So the problem
resulting from the difference between the transfer feature of the
voltages at the relay point and that of the currents due to the tran-
sient characteristic of CCVT can be solved.
Restructuring the voltage at the fault point
This step is demonstrated by taking the single-phase-to-earth
fault as an illustration. The faulty phase voltage measured by the
conventional distance relay is actually the faulty phase voltage dif-
ference between the relay location and the fault point in the case of
bolted faults. It is because that the faulty phase voltage at the fault
 M. Wen et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 63 (2014) 681–686 683

2 3 2 3 82 3 2 3
point is zero in this scenario. Therefore, this voltage and the line ufa ðtÞ uma ðtÞ < Raa Rab Rac
> ima ðtÞ
current comply with the model of the protected line. In the new 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
4 ufb ðtÞ 5 ¼ 4 umb ðtÞ 5  l  4 Rba Rbb Rbc 5  4 imb ðtÞ 5
scheme based on ETPTL, the voltages and currents of the distance >
:
ufc ðtÞ umc ðtÞ Rca Rcb Rcc imc ðtÞ
relay and the voltage at the fault point should pass the two trans- 2 3 2 39
ferring links, which are the low-pass filter and the CCVT linear Laa Lab Lac ima ðtÞ >=
6 7 d6 7
transfer circuits. þ4 Lba Lbb Lbc 5  4 imb ðtÞ 5
dt >
;
The faulty phase voltage at the fault point can be regarded as Lca Lcb Lcc imc ðtÞ
zero when a bolted fault takes place. However, this voltage does ð5Þ
not suddenly drop to zero at the moment of the fault inception if
it passes the two transferring links. Instead, a transient process where,
should exist and lasts for dozens of milliseconds. If this transient ufa(t), ufb(t), ufc(t) – three-phase voltages at the fault point;
process is neglected and the faulty phase voltage at the fault point ima(t), imb(t), imc(t) – three-phase currents at the relay point;
passing the two transferring links is simply regarded as zero, the Rpp – phase p self resistance per unit length;
transient overreach of the distance relay will possibly occur to a Rpq – mutual resistance between phases p and q per unit length;
great extent. It is necessary to estimate the faulty phase voltage Lpp – phase p self inductance per unit length;
at the fault point according to the three-phase voltages and cur- Lpq – mutual inductance between phases p and q per unit
rents at the relay location that can be measured by the distance length;
relays.
The process of restructuring the faulty phase voltage at the fault Step (3) The voltages and the currents at the relay point and the
point can be divided into two stages, namely, the pre-fault one and voltage at the fault point are then filtered using a sec-
the post-fault one. In general, the pre-fault voltage at the fault ond-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cut off
point is a sinusoidal steady-state signal. The compensated voltage frequency of 150 Hz.
at a certain point of the protected line is used as the estimation of Step (4) The currents at the relay point and the voltage at the
this voltage since the fault position is unpredictable. fault point are processed through the virtual digital
Two scenarios should be taken into account during the stage of CCVT transfer method.
post-fault. Firstly, the faulty phase voltage at the fault point can be Step (5) The phase-A current iaR–L(t) flowing through the R–L
regarded as zero in the case of bolted faults. Secondly, this faulty circuit in Fig. 1 is calculated using (3) and (4). In the
phase voltage at the fault point can be regarded as the voltage drop same way the phase-B current ibR–L(t) and the phase-
on the fault resistance. The voltage drop on the fault resistance can C current icR–L(t) can be obtained.
be expressed as the product of the current passing through the Step (6) The new fault distance l can be calculated by substitut-
fault resistance multiplied by the fault resistance. According to ing the voltages and the currents at the relay point and
the usual realization method of distance protection, the current the voltage at the fault point into the R–L differential
through the fault resistance in the case of the grounding fault via equation (as described in section ‘Solving the R–L
a fault resistance is replaced with zero sequence current measured differential equation’). The voltages are the new volt-
by the distance relay. The current through the fault resistance in ages which have been processed by the step (1–4).
the case of a phase-to-phase fault via fault resistance is replaced The currents are the iaR-L(t), ibR-L(t) and icR-L(t) obtained
with the current of the faulty phase. In this case, the value of the in step (5).
fault resistance can be taken as a variable to solve. Therefore, the Step (7) If l converged, stop the procedure; otherwise, go back to
post-fault voltage at the fault point can be uniformly set as the Step (2).
voltage drop on the fault resistance, i.e., the product of the current
passing through the fault resistance and the fault resistance. If the It is verified with the calculation results that iteration for 3
solution of this fault resistance is nearly equal to zero, this fault times can lead to a stable result of distance measuring.
should be a bolted fault.

Iterative calculations of the fault distance
The current flowing through the R–L circuit in the p transmis-
sion line model (e.g. iaR–L(t) calculated in Section ‘The calculation
of p transmission line model’) is the function of the fault distance
l. If the current im(t) in (1) is replaced with iaR–L(t), (1) is a complex
function with the unknown variable l2. The compensated voltage at
a certain point of the protected line is used as the estimation of the
pre-fault voltage at the fault point since the fault position is unpre-
dictable. The difference between the compensated voltage and this
voltage at the fault point can cause the accuracy problem of dis-
tance relays. Iterative calculation can solve these two problems.
The iterative technique, described as follows, is used to calcu-
late the fault distance.
Simulation analysis
The tests have been done based on Alternative Transients Pro-
gram version of EMTP (ATP). The schematic diagram of the 500 kV
power system is shown in Fig. 2. The CCVT is used for a distance
relay to measure the voltage. Here u(t) and i(t) are voltages and cur-
rents sampled by the protection, and D is the line length. The line
parameters are D = 400 km, r = 0.027 X/km, x = 0.28 X/km,
r0 = 0.195 X/km and x0 = 0.649 X/km. Data for network A are:
RA = 1.232 X, LA = 0.133 H, RA0 = 6.032 X, and LA0 = 0.977 H. Data
for network B are: RB = 0.42 X, LB = 0.073 H, RB0 = 0.267 X, and

Step (1) The initial value of the fault distance l = 0.5D. D is the
total length of the protected line.
Step (2) The pre-fault voltages at the fault point are esti-
mated by using (5). The post-fault voltage at the
fault point is uniformly set as the voltage drop on
the fault resistance. Fig. 2. The schematic diagram of simulation system.
684 M. Wen et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 63 (2014) 681–686

Fig. 3. CCVT equivalent circuit.

LB0 = 0.0507 H. The equivalent electromotive forces of networks A

and B are EA = 525 kV and EB = 500 kV respectively. The phase angle
between them is 30°. The CCVT equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Comparison of distance measurement (400 km, three-phase short-circuit
The parameters of CCVT are shown in Table 1. fault).
A data window with 5 ms window length starting from the
moment of fault inception is used to calculate the fault distance
based on the proposed method. The sampling rate is set as
9600 Hz in the case of 50 Hz power frequency. A moving data win-
dow is used, that is, the oldest one is moved out when a new sam-
ple enters this window and the algorithm is re-executed.
In this way, we have every fault distance calculation result for
each sampling instance during the post-fault period of 50 ms time
length. The corresponding curves are respectively shown in Figs. 4–
7. The horizontal axis in these figures represents the moment at
which the data window end is. Here, the fault occurrence is taken
as the initial moment. The longitudinal axis stands for the fault dis-
tance. The curves begin at 5 ms since the minimum data window of
the new method is 5 ms. There are some fluctuations at the initial
moment for the time-distance curve, and then the measuring dis-
tances all gradually approach the real value of fault distance. Here
a time index is used to analyze the distance protection algorithm,
namely, the moment t0.95  1.05 corresponding to the fault distance
with the convergence of 0.95  1.05 (the measured distance is
Fig. 5. Comparison of distance measurement (400 km, single phase ground fault).
expressed in per unit with respect to the actual fault distance
between the fault point and the relay location).
Fault distance measuring error can be given by Firstly, curve 2 is compared with curve 3. It is demonstrated by
curve 2 that the proposed technique is able to offer a very fast relay
error ¼ jlm  lR j=lR ð6Þ response and high accuracy in fault location when the voltages are
measured with conventional potential transformer. However, the
where,
transfer link is linear and ideal in this case and this scenario is very
lm – calculated fault distance,
rare for the EHV transmission systems. In contrast, the non-negli-
lR – actual fault distance.
gible error of the distance measurement due to the transient char-
Three distance measurement curves are shown in Fig. 4 for a
acteristic of CCVT can be observed from curve 3 when the voltages
three-phase fault at the end of a 400-km line. Curve 1 denotes
are measured with CCVTs and without compensation. This is the
the distance measurement resulting from the full proposed scheme
real scenario of EHV transmission systems.
when the three-phase voltages are measured at the relay point
The comparison between curve 1 and curve 3 demonstrates the
with CCVTs. Curve 2 illustrates the distance measurement result-
necessity of introducing virtual digital CCVT transfer link. By this
ing from the proposed scheme but without the virtual digital
means, the error of the distance measurement resulting from the
CCVTs transfer link (the iterative calculations of the fault distance
difference between the transfer feature of the voltages and that
in which the step (4) is removed, as described in Section ‘Iterative
of the currents due to the transient characteristic of CCVT can be
calculations of the fault distance’) when the three-phase voltages
reduced to a great extent. Furthermore, the measuring accuracy
are measured at the relay location with conventional potential
and the convergence speed of curve 1 is even better than that of
transformers. Curve 3 denotes the distance measurement resulting
curve 2 (ideal transfer) at the initial stage of post-fault. This is
from the proposed scheme but without the virtual digital CCVT
because the CCVT can be regarded as a band-pass filter and it
transfer links when the three-phase voltages are measured at the
can offer a certain ability to restrain higher harmonics. Therefore,
relay location with CCVTs.

Table 1
Parameter list of CCVT equivalent circuit.

Circuit parameter Value Parameter of damper Value Parameter of load Value

L1/H 142.1274 Cf/lF 0.015858 Rb/kX 1352.0
R1/kX 1.95055 Lf/H 639.576 Lb/H 3229.3
Ce/lF 0.078567 rf/kX 6.0
Rf/kX 131.8
 M. Wen et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 63 (2014) 681–686 685

three-phase short-circuit fault. A variety of ATP simulation tests

show that the new method has fast speed on long transmission
lines. The distance measuring error is within 5% at approximately
12 ms after fault occurrence.

Conclusions

The following conclusions can be conducted from the results of

this paper:

 ETPTL is also suitable for the distance protection of transmission

line.
 According to ETPTL, the voltages and currents at the relay point
and the voltage at the fault point, in which the high frequency
signals are filtered out by the low-pass filter, still satisfy the ori-
ginal distributed parameter based transmission line model.
Fig. 6. Comparison of distance measurement (400 km, three-phase short-circuit
Then the differential equation algorithm using p transmission
fault).
line model can be employed on long transmission lines.
 According to ETPTL, the problem resulting from the difference
between the transfer feature of the voltages at the relay point
and that of the currents due to the transient characteristic of
CCVT can be solved by introducing the virtual digital CCVT
transfer link.
 The proposed method employs the voltage at the fault point.
However, the distance from the relay point to the fault point
is unknown variable. This problem can be solved by re-structur-
ing the voltage at the fault point and iterative calculations of the
fault distance.
 A variety of ATP simulation tests show that the proposed
method has fast speed when applied to long transmission lines.
The distance measuring error is within 5% at approximately
12 ms after fault occurrence, which is superior to the existing
Fig. 7. Result for various fault points (400 km, double phase-ground fault). competitive method for distance protection.

better results can be obtained when both the low-pass filter and
CCVT are employed compared to the scenario of ideal transfer. Acknowledgments
Furthermore, the proposed scheme is compared with a compet-
itive method, which is charging current compensation (CCC) This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
method proposed in the literature [7]. It should be pointed out that dation of China (51077061 and 50837002).
the authors of [7] did not take the overreach problem due to CCVT
transients into account. References
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