AIAA-84-0016

Experimental Studies of Surface Roughness

Shape and Spacing Effects on Heat Transfer
and Skin Friction in Supersonic and
Hypersonic Flows
M.S. Holden, Calspan Advanced Technology Center,
Buffalo, NY

AlAA 22nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting

January 9-12, 1984/Reno, Nevada

For permission to copy or republish, contact the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1633 Broadway, New York. NY 10019
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES O F SURFACE ROUGHNESS SHAPE AND
SPACING EFFECTS ON HEAT TRANSFER AND
Y SKIN FRICTION IN SUPERSONIC AND HYPERSONIC FLOWS*

M.S. Holden **
Physical Sciences Department
Calspan Advanced Technology C e n t e r
P.O. Box 400
Buffalo, New York 14225

ABSTRACT

In this paper results are presented from a n extensive series of experimental

studies to examine t h e e f f e c t s of roughness height, shape and spacing e f f e c t s on skin
friction and h e a t transfer t o highly-cooled rough surfaces in supersonic and hypersonic
flows. In these studies, which were conducted in Calspan's 48" and 96" Shock Tunnels
at f r e e s t r e a m Mach numbers from 6 to 13 (local Mach number from 2 t o 8) and Reynolds
number up to 60 x IO7, h e a t t r a n s f e r , skin friction and pressure measurements w e r e
made on sharp wide-angle biconic nostips and slender cones for twelve different s u r f a c e
roughness geometries. Both t h e shape and t h e spacing of t h e roughness elements w e r e
varied over a l a r g e range t o fully examine whether t h e "Dirling" t y p e correlations for
"effective sand-grain" roughness a c c u r a t e l y represented t h e magnitude and variation of
v
skin friction and heat transfer with s u r f a c e geometry for supersonic and hypersonic
flows over highly-cooled surfaces. The measurements made in t h i s study w e r e correlated
in t e r m s of shape and spacing parameters and comparisons w e r e made with simple
prediction techniques. The studies demonstrated t h a t , while t h e skin friction and h e a t
transfer measurements exhibited t h e strong variation with roughness shape and spacing
found in t h e low speed studies, w e did not observe heating r a t e s g r e a t l y in excess of
t h e "sand-grain" values or t h e correspondingly l a r g e values in t h e e f f e c t i v e sand-grain
roughness height ratio (k/ks), which w e r e deduced from t h e measurements in subsonic
flows. Measurements on models with a discontinuous change in s u r f a c e roughness
indicated t h a t , in supersonic and hypersonic flows, turbulent relaxation is a n important
effect. These studies coupled with t h e theoretical studies of Finson, suggest t h e
compressibility e f f e c t s are important in high speed flows over rough, highly cooled
surf aces.
*This work was supported by t h e U.S. Air F o r c e under AFOSR C o n t r a c t
No. F49620-79-C-0003 and F49620-82-C-0026.
**Principal Aerodynamicist, Aerodynamic Research Department, Member A1P.A.
'4 This paper is declared a work of the U.S.
Government and therefore is in the public domain.
I
 I. INTRODUCTION

4
T h e computer codes currently used to predict nosetip recession and shape change,
and to predict t h e a e r o t h e r m a l performance of rough f r u s t a and control surfaces on
high-speed vehicles, a r e founded on models based principally on measurements with
"sand-grain-like" surfaces in subsonic flows generated in low-temperature facilities.
However, t h e rough surfaces caused by t h e ablation of carbon/carbon and carbon/phenolic
heat shields of re-entry vehicles and t h e surfaces of non-ablating c e r a m i c heat-shield
material exhibit roughness characteristics which differ significantly from sharp, irregular
sand-grain surfaces, or t h e surfaces (generated by grit blasting) used in most experimental
studies. While t h e s u r f a c e topographic characteristics of t h e non-ablating heat-shield
materials used on high-speed vehicles such as t h e Space S h u t t l e c a n b e a c c u r a t e l y
measured, t h e key problem is to r e l a t e t h e surface topography, through t h e basic
mechanisms of momentum and energy exchange, to t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e boundary layer
and to skin friction and heat transfer generated at t h e wall.

A t t h e heart of t h e problem of developing a n a c c u r a t e predictive capability to

describe t h e aerothermal characteristics of rough surfaces in high-speed flows is t h e
need to understand t h e basic mechanisms by which s u r f a c e roughness influences t h e
\
"/

s t r u c t u r e of t h e boundary layer, and how t h e microstructures of t h e flow between t h e

roughness e l e m e n t s control heat t r a n s f e r t o and skin friction of t h e surface. To improve
our predictive capability from a semi-empirical base, theoretical and experimental
studies must examine how t h e shape and spacing of t h e roughness e l e m e n t s comprising
t h e rough s u r f a c e control t h e s u r f a c e heating and skin friction. Here, a n important
practical question is whether a single scale-for example, a n e f f e c t i v e roughness height
(k,) is sufficient to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e topography of a rough surface. If t h i s is t h e case,
a single similitude p a r a m e t e r , or a combination of p a r a m e t e r s (the "roughness height"
and local fluid mechanic properties), must be selected which will c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e flows.
The experimental studies of Nikuradse and Schlichting2, both hydraulic pipe flow
studies, are principally responsible for t h e selection of sand-grain roughness as a standard
s u r f a c e against which to measure relative e f f e c t s of o t h e r types of roughness. Although
this standard has been frequently employed, t h e topographical characteristics of a sand-
grain s u r f a c e have y e t to b e defined. In f a c t , because of t h e experimental difficulties
involved in t h e preparation and inspection of rough surfaces inside small-diameter pipes,
it is surprising t h a t t h e Nikuradse results are as consistent as reported. For fully
developed pipe flows, Nikuradse established t h a t t h e parameter controlling t h e similitude 4'
 -L/
of t h e flows is t h e roughness Reynolds number ( % K / G ). This parameter (Re, ) h a s
been selected in many subsequent studies to c h a r a c t e r i z e boundary layer flows w h e r e
Y
.y other non-dimensional groupings (such as x,/6, k's/@, etc.) might be considered m o r e
valid. The Schlichting studies2, conducted with roughness of well-defined g e o m e t r i c
shapes, provided t h e first set of measurements which could b e reproduced in both
experimental and t h e o r e t i c a l studies. The results from t h e s e studies, together with
those from a number of subsequent investigations in subsonic adiabatic flows, w e r e
correlated by researchers to yield relationships between a n "effective sand-grain
roughness height" and p a r a m e t e r s which describe t h e g e o m e t r i c f e a t u r e s of t h e surface-a
s t e p which further perpetuated t h e use of sand-grain roughness as a standard. The
Dirling correlation, which i s shown in Figure 1, is one such plot, from which a n e f f e c t i v e
sand-grain roughness height c a n be determined from knowledge of peak-to-valley
roughness height together with t h e shape and spacing of t h e roughness elements. While
t h e r e is l i t t l e direct supporting experimental evidence, t h e "lambda" form of t h e
correlating curve is assumed to reflect a sudden change in flow s t r u c t u r e from a n
"open" to a "closed" cavity flow around (between) t h e roughness e l e m e n t s as t h e spacing
between t h e roughness e l e m e n t s is varied. Do open and closed cavity flows really exist
on rough surfaces constructed from three-dimensional roughness elements? Is not t h e
s t r u c t u r e of t h e flow around t h e e l e m e n t s also dependent upon t h e local Reynolds
Y
number, a p a r a m e t e r not t a k e n into account in any such correlations?

T h e studies of Dvorak3, Bettermann4, Lewis5, Simpson6 and m o r e recently Lin'

and Finsons have provided further insight i n t o t h e basic e f f e c t s of roughness shape and
spacing on t h e characteristics of t h e rough wall boundary layer and skin friction and
heating to a rough surface. Dvorak combined t h e e f f e c t s of roughness shape and
spacing i n t o a single parameter ( A t h e roughness density), defined as shown in Figure
2. H e linked t h e downward shift i n t h e velocity profile A U / v z to a combination
-,
of roughness Reynolds i t ~ , . ~ a e rRe, (hrk/Uw) and A
through the relationship

In incompressible flows t h e smooth regime, w h e r e t h e s u r f a c e shear i s entirely due to

viscous shear is defined byk q / d < 5 . A t larger Ak ,(S<flek < 70), t h e s u r f a c e shear
'L

is composed of form drag on t h e roughness e l e m e n t s combined with viscous shear. For

-770,
v t h e s u r f a c e shear results principally from drag, and viscosity is no longer a
V'

3
f a c t o r in controlling t h e velocity profile. For fully rough flows, Equation 1 c a n b e

where

which is a function of t h e roughness density. H e r e i t should b e noted t h a t f('A)=A-u;

where u~ is t h e velocity
)t
close to t h e t o p of t h e roughness e l e m e n t s and (
4 +5)is t h e
smooth wall constant. Now t h e definition Nikuradse's of sand-grain roughness i s basically
.... . . . . . . .3
-
% -%
-LPyjh85- . ,

Hence, combining equations 2 and 3 w e obtain

B e t t e r m a n and Dvorak suggest t h a t t h e subsonic measurements shown in Figure 3 should

be correlated by t w o relationships:

The existence of t w o regions has been rationalized o n physical grounds, supported by

experimental studies in two-dimensional flows. However, t h e r e is serious d e b a t e about
whether a significant changes in flow s t r u c t u r e occur as three-dimensional roughness
e l e m e n t s are drawn together. Certainly t h e measurements with stone roughness do not
exhibit such a trend. This is particularly unfortunate, since Nikuradse's d a t a falls on
t h e line constructed principally from d a t a obtained on roughness constructed by two-
dimensional machined grooves.

Finson's engineering model, based on his detailed numerical calculations, provides

a good basis f o r interpreting t h e physical phenomena of key importance in rough wall
heating as well as predictions to compare with experimental results.
T h e shear on a rough wall c a n be expressed as t h e sum of t h e viscous and form drag of

4
.

whereB/ and 2' a r e t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e roughness

2)is t h e blockage f a c t o r , a n d d $ )
element and t h e spacing between elements, respectively. From his detailed numerical
+ solutions, Finson showed t h a t p and U w e r e relatively constant between t h e base and
t o p of t h e roughness element and at values,OR,U''close to t h e t o p of t h e roughness.

is t h e r a t i o of projected a r e a of t h e roughness e l e m e n t in t h e direction of

t h e flow to total a r e a of t h e flow on which they stand.

For compressible flows Finson found t h a t

Therefore, assuming is t h e smooth wall heating level, it is possible to r e l a t e t h e

rough wall skin
Fa
friction to t h e smooth wall value in t h e generalized form

'W

T h e relationship for heat transfer is assumed of t h e s a m e form

If w e assume t h a t t h e product of t h e blockage f a c t o r and 6

, are invarient with
rough shape and space, then for constant local f r e e s t r e a m condition, w e g e t t h e

A slightly different form c a n be obtained by t h e subsonic blunt body approximation

and using D/K rather t h a n &,hp to obtain t h e correlation in t e r m s of t h e DirlingIO

parameter,

5
w h e r e t h e various areas are illustrated i n Figure 6 .

It should b e noted t h a t for fully rough walls

Therefore f r o m equation 2, for incompressible flows putting A = 5, and p x ' P W

or for

which relationship is in relatively good a g r e e m e n t with t h e subsonic d a t a as shown in

Figure 3.
'W.
T h e object of t h e studies presented h e r e was to d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t s of roughness
height, shape, and spacing on t h e h e a t transfer and skin friction to rough highly-cooled
surfaces in supersonic and hypersonic flow. W e sought to d e t e r m i n e whether t h e
correlations relating roughness height, shape and spacing to a n e f f e c t i v e roughness
height, which w e r e derived f r o m measurements in subsonic flow, w e r e valid in supersonic
flows on non-adiabatic surfaces. Specifically, w e wished to d e t e r m i n e whether t h e
m e a s u r e m e n t s showed evidence of a peak in t h e variation of roughness heating with
roughness shapes and whether this peak was significantly larger t h a n t h e "sand-grain"
values suggested by t h e correlations of Dirling, Dvorak and Simpson. The e f f e c t s of
discontinuous changes i n s u r f a c e roughness w e r e studied to investigate turbulent
relaxation and compressibility effects. Wide-angle and slender conical models w e r e
used in t h i s study to obtain measurements in supersonic and hypersonic flow. A key
f e a t u r e of t h i s study was t h e use of geometrically well-defined roughness e l e m e n t s i n
addition to sand-grain roughness. T h e s h a p e and spacing of t h e s e s u r f a c e s w e r e s e l e c t e d
so t h a t roughness densities ( lk) between 2 and 30 w e r e obtained bridging t h e region
to peak e f f e c t i v e roughness(Ak = S ) i n t h e SimpsonlDvorak correlation. In t h e following
section w e describe t h e experimental facilities and model used in t h e experimental J'
 i

program. T h e preparation of t h e sand-grain and patterned model surfaces are described

in detail together with t h e construction of t h e specialized rough wall instrumentation.
Y W e discuss t h e results of t h e studies of roughness e f f e c t s on biconic nosetips first and
then t h e corresponding measurements on t h e slender cones. Finally, w e present
conclusions f r o m this program.

11. EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES, MODELS,

AND INSTRUMENTATION

Experimental Facilities

T h e experimental studies of t h e a e r o t h e r m a l e f f e c t s of s u r f a c e roughness w e r e

conducted in Calpan's 96" and 48" Shock Tunnels over a Mach number range from 6 to
13, for Reynolds numbers up to 70 x lo6 based on model scale. Shock tunnels are in
essence blowdown tunnels in which a reservoir of high-pressure, high-temperature air
is g e n e r a t e d by reflecting a normal shock wave from t h e end wall of t h e driven section
of t h e tunnel (see Figure 4). T h e slug of high-temperature compressed air is t h e n
expanded through t h e required nozzle to obtain t h e desired condition in t h e test section,
for run t i m e s between 5 and 20 milliseconds. These run t i m e s are orders of magnitude
'v
larger t h a n required t o establish t h e flow over t h e model, and yet are of insufficient
duration for destruction of t h e highly sensitive model instrumentation by t h e l a r g e
aerodynamic and heating loads encountered in t h e tunnel.

Biconic Nosetip and Slender Cone Models

W e used t w o basic model configurations for t h e s e studies. The t h r e e biconic

nosetips shown in Figure 5 w e r e used in t h e studies to investigate roughness-induced
heating enhancement in t h e presence of boundary layer transition and entropy swallowing
for both sand-grain roughness and surfaces constructed with geometrically well-defined
roughness elements. Heat t r a n s f e r , skin-friction, and pressure measurements were made
first on t h e biconic nosetip coated with a range of sand-grain rough surfaces, t w o of
which w e r e constructed by different techniques using roughness of t h e s a m e grit size.
T h e major segment of t h e experimental program was conducted with models whose
surfaces were constructed with either conical or hemispherical roughness e l e m e n t s

- placed in a n hexagonal a r r a y for t h r e e different spacing ratios. T h e selection of t h e

six different s u r f a c e configurations was done o n t h e basis of Simpson's correlation as

7
discussed in P a r t I. Figure 6 shows one of t h e biconic nosetips installed in Calspan's
96" Shock Tunnel.
V
The studies of roughness e f f e c t s in hypersonic flow over slender conical f r u s t a
w e r e conducted with t h e model shown in Figure 7. H e a t transfer, skin frcition and
pressure measurements w e r e obtained with roughness heights of 10 and 15 mils for
sand-grain surfaces and again w e explored t h e e f f e c t s of different bonding techniques.
Six different surfaces constructed with hemispherical and conical roughness e l e m e n t s
were employed in studies to investigate roughness shape and spacing e f f e c t s on slender
cones. Studies w e r e also made to examine t h e e f f e c t s of discontinuous changes in
s u r f a c e roughness on t h e downstream distribution, heat transfer, and skin friction.
Measurements of skin friction, heat t r a n s f e r , and pressure w e r e made on both t h e
windward and leeward sides of t h e model to examine compressibility and turbulent non-
equilibrium e f f e c t s in high Mach number, high Reynolds number flows.

Preparation of Model Sand-Grain and P a t t e r n e d Rough Surfaces

W e used models coated with sand-grain roughness as well as with roughness which
w a s geometrically well-defined (patterned roughness) in t h e s e studies. In t h e work with
W
sand-grain rough surfaces, w e used two different techniques to bond t h e sand (carbide
g r i t ) to t h e model surface. Our major object was to determine, for a common grain-
s i z e roughness, how t h e e f f e c t s of different roughness spacings and orientations resulting
from t w o different bonding techniques influenced roughness-induced augmentation in
skin friction and h e a t transfer. In t h e first set of studies, w e bonded the carbide grit
to t h e s u r f a c e with a n air-drying plastic-film adhesive. Using t h i s technique, considerable
care and t i m e was expended in preparing a tight m a t r i x and avoiding particle
agglomeration. In t h e second set of studies, w e used a pressure-sensitive adhesive;
with t h i s technique, w e w e r e a b l e to apply and reapply t h e grit without agglomeration
occurring until a n e x t r e m e l y high-density packing was obtained. The pressure-sensitive
adhesive also has t h e property t h a t , when activated (by removing i t s backing), i t
generates a strong e l e c t r o s t a t i c charge which e x e r t s a powerful a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e on
t h e grit particles, causing t h e m to align themselves with their principal axis perpendicular
to t h e surface. A surface produced in t h i s way has a n intrinsically greater roughness
height t h a n one constructed using t h e same size grit and a n air-drying adhesive, as c a n
be seen by comparing t h e profilometer t r a c e s shown in Figures 8 and 9. While both
surfaces have a maximum peak-to-valley roughness of approximately 4 mils, t h e sand-

8
 grain surfaces constructed on pressure-sensitive adhesive clearly has t h e g r e a t e r
percentage of large roughness particles, as c a n be seen from t h e k30 values shown in
v Figure 10. W e selected t h e 30th-percentile height (k3o)-the height at which 70% of
t h e s u r f a c e lies beneath t h a t elevation--as a representative dimension for characterizing
sand-grain s u f a c e s because it embodies information on both roughness height and
roughness spacing within a single dimension.

In our studies with surfaces constructed well geometrically well-defined surfaces,

w e employed hemispherical and conical roughness elements, set in a hexagonal m a t r i x
for t h r e e different spacing ratios. T h e hemispherical and conical roughness elements,
which had a common height of 12.5 mils and equal base areas, w e r e placed in t h e
hexagonal p a t t e r n so t h a t t h e y covered either 12%, 34%, or 64% of t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e
area (Figure 11). T h e rough s u r f a c e was designed so t h a t measurements could b e
obtained from t h e closest to t h e most widely spaced roughness packing of practical
i n t e r e s t (2.5 < Ap/As-1 <25), spanning t h e "peak" in e f f e c t i v e sand-grain roughness as
depicted in t h e correlation shown in Figure 1. The roughness height, t h e position of
t h e instrumentation, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e model, and t h e f r e e s t r e a m conditions
w e r e selected so t h a t t h e measurements covered t h e fully rough to t h e smooth regimes.
T h e six different p a t t e r n s of s u r f a c e roughness w e r e f a b r i c a t e d in silicone rubber "skins",
which were t h e n bonded to t h e s u r f a c e with a specially prepared and applied
silicone/adhesive. Selection and c o r r e c t application of a n adhesive which would r e t a i n
t h e skin when subjected to t h e large shear and heating levels developed in t h e shock
tunnel, and y e t would allow relatively simple removal when a change in s u r f a c e roughness
w a s required, represented a significant effort. The six computer-milled molds, and a n
example of o n e of t h e silicone skins molded in t h e m , a r e shown in Figure 12. Each
skin, which had t h e 12.5-mil roughness e l e m e n t s molded on a 3-mil-thick base, had to
be vacuum molded to accurately preserve t h e detailed roughness shapes.

Heat Transfer Instrumentation

W e employed both thin-film PS") and silver-calorimeter h e a t t r a n s f e r gages to

measure rough-wall and smooth-wall heating rates in our studies. For sand-grain
surfaces, both types of gages w e r e constructed by first copying t h e required s u r f a c e in
a ceramic mold and t h e n forming gage e l e m e n t in t h e mold, as shown in Figure 13.
Studies with patterned roughness employed silver-calorimeter e l e m e n t s constructed with
hemispherical and conical roughness elements, set in a hexagonal matrix. The silver-

9
calorimeter e l e m e n t s f o r t h e patterned surfaces w e r e "minted" in t h e hexagonal dies
shown in Figure 14. This figure also shows t h e six s u r f a c e geometries used on t h e
calorimeter elements. A f t e r e a c h calorimeter e l e m e n t was minted, its front and side d
f a c e s w e r e cleaned and t h e back f a c e highly polished before a thin, electrically insulating
but thermally conducting, film was vacuum-deposited on t h e back of t h e calorimeter
element. A nickel resistance t h e r m o m e t e r was t h e n deposited and bonded to t h e
insulating layer to measure t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e calorimeter element. T h e silver-
calorimeter e l e m e n t was bonded to a c e r a m i c holder using a n e x t r e m e l y low-conductivity
polyurethane resin. By employing a n isolated calorimeter e l e m e n t whose t h e r m a l
properties and mass c a n b e a c c u r a t e l y specified, together with a temperature-sensing
element t h a t is accurately calibrated, s u b s t r a t e heating c a n be determined directly
from t h e gage output. This removes t h e inaccuracies associated with calibration using
a radiant source, a method which must be used to calibrate t h e rough thin-film gages.
T h e silver-calorimeter gage has a response t i m e of less t h a n 800 microseconds and has
been used to resolve heating r a t e s down to 5 Btu/ft*/sec with a n accuracy of close to
5%. The output t i m e trace of Figure 15 shows t h e excellent response and linearity of
t h i s gage. T h e heat transfer measurements m a d e with both t h e thin-film and t h e
calorimeter instrumentation w e r e found to be in excellent agreement for both smooth
and rough configurations, as shown in Figure 16.
v
Skin-Friction and Pressure Instrumentation

In t h e studies with both sand-grain and patterned roughness, w e employed skin-

friction gages of t h e t y p e shown in Figure 17. This gage is a single-component strain-
gage f o r c e balance, which i s compensated for acceleration and normal pressure, and has
a diaphragm which is contoured to t h e local s u r f a c e in which t h e gage is installed.
The diaphragm is mounted flush with t h e m e t a l l i c s u r f a c e and t h e s u r f a c e coating
applied to t h e t o p of t h e diaphragm in a manner similar to t h a t described for t h e
preparation of rough surfaces.

Pressure distributions w e r e obtained over t h e rough models with both ported and
flush-mounted pressure instrumentation. F o r t h e roughness scales at which t h e studies
w e r e conducted, w e found no differences between t h e measurements on rough and
smooth surfaces with e i t h e r t y p e of gage.

10
 111. STUDIES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS EFFECTS
ON BICONIC NOSETIPS

Introduction

T h e biconic configurations shown in Figure 5 are idealized representations of a n

equilibrium-ablated noseshape similar to those predicted by shape-change codes and
observed in ablation studies of nosetip materials in arc facilities. For a nosetip to
develop such a shape in flight, transition would need to occur at or just downstream of
t h e sonic point on t h e hemispherical tip. O n such a shape, boundary layer transition
and entropy-swallowing e f f e c t s strongly influence boundary layer development over t h e
conical segment of t h e nosetip. Although t h e principal objective of t h e investigation
reported h e r e was to examine roughness shape and spacing e f f e c t s , measurements w e r e
also made for t w o bluntness ratios and t w o Reynolds number conditions to investigate
t h e e f f e c t s of transition and entropy swallowing on roughness e f f e c t . W e employed
both sand-grain and patterned rough surfaces, constructed as described earlier. T h e
six sets of shape and spacing of t h e roughness e l e m e n t s w e r e selected to provide
measurements which spanned t h e region of maximum k/ks in t h e Simpson correlation,
as shown in Figure 18. Schlieren photographs of t h e flow over t h e sharp and blunt
u
biconic configurations are shown in Figure 19. These photographs illustrate t h a t both
s u r f a c e roughness and entropy swallowing strongly influence t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e shock
layer. Schlieren photographs of t h e flow over t h e rough, sharp biconic configuration
in Figure 19 show clearly t h e curved shock waves which a r e formed over each element.
Apart from the increased local t e m p e r a t u r e and vorticity c r e a t e d by these shocks, the
drag of e a c h e l e m e n t cannot be described by a subsonic drag relationship. The strong
inviscid vorticity, combined with t h e lower density generated in t h e shock layer over
t h e blunt biconic configuration, obscures t h e interactions over t h e roughness elements.
However, close to t h e shoulder, where t h e boundary layer begins to thin rapidly through
t h e expansion region, shocks from t h e roughness e l e m e n t s are clearly visible. The
pressure on t h e conical segment of t h e biconic nosetip is not strongly influenced by
either s u r f a c e roughness or nosetip bluntness, as shown in Figure 20.

Studies of Roughness E f f e c t s on Surfaces C o a t e d with Sand-Grain Roughness

- Typical h e a t t r a n s f e r measurements made in t h e Calspan studies on smooth and

sand-grain surfaces are plotted for t h e t h r e e nose shapes in Figures 21 through 24.
T h e measurements on t h e biconic noseshapes at Mach 8 w e r e made for nominal unit
Reynolds numbers of 40 x 106 and 10 x 106 for G/G = 0.30, and at a Reynolds number
of 8.5 x IO6 for a wall-to-freestream stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e ratio of 0.21. A t Mach
11, t h e studies w e r e conducted at a Reynolds number of 10 x 106 with a wall-to-
u
f r e e s t r e a m stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e r a t i o of 0.21. T h e measurements of h e a t t r a n s f e r
and skin friction f o r t h e smooth biconic nosetip w e r e found to agree well with simple
prediction methods (such as t h a t of Crowell9), which, for t h e bluntest configuration,
incorporate t h e e f f e c t s of entropy swallowing. Figures 21 and 22 show comparisons of
h e a t transfer measurements on sharp biconic configurations at Mach 8 and 11 with
predictions based on t h e techniques of Eckert lo, Van Driest 11, and Spaulding-Chi12.
Heat transfer and skin-friction measurements in t h e turbulent boundary layer over t h e
sharp 45O conical s u r f a c e w e r e found to b e in good agreement with t h e Eckert and
Van Driest prediction methods, while the Spaulding-Chi method consistently
underpredicted t h e heating measurements on highly cooled walls. In general, w e have
found t h e Eckert and Van Driest methods to yield t h e best a g r e e m e n t with measurements
on f l a t p l a t e s and cones over a wide range of Reynolds and Mach numbers and wall-
to-freestream t e m p e r a t u r e ratios, while t h e Spaulding-Chi method appears to b e a c c u r a t e
only for near-adiabatic conditions. Comparisons between t h e prediction technique
developed by Crowell, in which t h e compressible rough-wall skin friction is related to
t h e incompressible value through t h e density r a t i o p w / p e
(as suggested by Goddardl3),
and measurements on t h e smooth and rough blunt biconic are shown in Figures 25 and
26. Crowell's analysis, which includes t h e e f f e c t s of entropy swallowing, is in good
agreement with t h e smooth-wall d a t a , while it slightly overpredicts t h e measurements
on rough walls.

To c o r r e l a t e t h e measurements of roughness-augmented heating, it is of key

importance t h a t t h e characteristics of t h e roughness be well-defined. In t h e classic
studies of Nikuradsel, a sand-grain s u r f a c e w a s defined in t e r m s of a "sieved" grit size
ks, and a specification t h a t t h e grit be tightly packed in a m a t r i x with adjacent
particles just touching. In t h e present study, w e a t t e m p t e d to prepare t h e surfaces
according t o this definition, as described in P a r t 11. However, despite their very careful
preparation, w e found t h a t t h e surfaces constructed with pressure-sensitive adhesive
To select a representative
w e r e rougher t h a n those prepared with air-drying adhesive.
"height" for those and other surfaces, information on t h e shape and spacing of t h e
roughness, as well as i t s height, is required. Here, w e used profilometer measurements
similar to t h o s e shown in Figures 8 and 9 to define a roughness height k30, t h e thirtieth-
percentile roughness. Using this method to define roughness height, for surfaces -
12
 constructed with similar grit, w e automatically "build in" information on roughness
shape and spacing. Roughness heights of 3.4 mils and 3.8 mils, respectively, w e r e
'w' obtained f o r t h e surfaces prepared with t h e air-drying and pressure-sensitive adhesive.
These are t h e heights upon which w e have based t h e roughness Reynolds number.
However, it should b e noted t h a t , by calculating Dirling's roughness-density p a r a m e t e r
'D/!)(AA~/AP )4/3 from t h e profilometer tracers a n d using it in Figure 1, w e would
determine a n equivalent sand-grain roughness f a c t o r ( g s / x ) of close to 2. Such a
result suggests t h a t t h e grit surfaces constructed for our experiments w e r e less densely
packed t h a n those obtained by Nikuradse, a result which is difficult to understand from
a microscopic inspection of our models. Clearly, t h i s i s not a satisfactory situation.

Of t h e techniques which have been advanced to c o r r e l a t e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r

measurements, most employ t h e roughness Reynolds number/Cur/G, t h e non-dimensional
roughness heights or K$/6 *, or some combination of t h e s e parameters. F o r
F3/B
rough surfaces having other t h a n sand grains, selection of t h e equivalent sand-grain
roughness height is generally made from a curve similar to t h e Dirling correlation
(Figure 1) using g e o m e t r i c d a t a from profilometer measurements. In analysis of flight
measurements, k is "back calculated" from e s t i m a t e s of nosetip recession, and t h i s
roughness value is incorporated in predictions for subsequent flight. Nestler l 4 and
L/ + 'v
P 0 ~ a t - sse~l e~c t e d R e k , t h e classical p a r a m e t e r first introduced by Nikuradsel. Re, c a n
t

and Powars further approximated t h i s expression

Figures 25 and 26 show correlations between t h e measurements of roughness-

induced heating and skin-friction enhancement made in t h e sand-grain rough study with
t h e t h r e e biconic nosetips. In t h e s e studies, t h e roughness Reynolds number was varied
by changing both t h e unit Reynolds number of t h e f r e e s t r e a m and t h e roughness height,
and measurements w e r e made at Mach numbers from 6.5 to 13, f o r $ / g s between 0.2
and 0.38. W e see t h a t t h e measurements are in relatively good agreement and show
a Reynolds number dependence similar to t h a t observed i n t h e PANT studies; however,
t h e heating enhancement is clearly less t h a n would b e predicted by t h e Powars
correlation. It should be noted again t h a t , had w e used k, as determined f r o m
'W profilometer measurements together with Dirling's correlation in plotting our

13
measurements, t h e roughness Reynolds numbers would have been approximately double
t h o s e plotted in Figures 25 and 26b and would have resulted in greater disagreement
b e t w e e n t h e PANT and Calspan measurements. In general, t h e measurements from t h e v
current studies show lower heating levels but higher enhancements on t h e blunter
configurations, where entropy swallowing influences t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e boundary layer
(Figure 26b). For t h e limited range of wall-to-freestream stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e ratios
(&,/G) at which t h e studies w e r e conducted, w e find t h a t t h e heating enhancement
increases with T-w/&, although t h i s dependence i s weak.

fL
Of t h e simple prediction techniques which are based on selecting rek as the
p a r a m e t e r of principal importance, a slight modification of t h a t proposed by Nestler l9
appears to give t h e best agreement with our measurements. Figure 25 shows a
comparison between our measurements and t h e heat t r a n s f e r rates calculated from t h e

'LJ
Here, t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve is s t r i c t l y valid only for t h e Mach I1 conditions, but t h e
Mach 6 curves do not differ dramatically. Clearly, t h e roughness enhancement in skin
friction is larger than t h e enhancement in heat transfer.

Studies with P a t t e r n e d Roughness

The studies of sharp and blunt biconic nosetips c o a t e d with rough surfaces
constructed with hemispherical and conical roughness e l e m e n t s w e r e conducted at Mach
11.3 for Reynolds numbers of 10 x IO6 and 7 x IO6. A t e a c h of t h e s e conditions, t h e
boundary layers over a 45O conical frustum w e r e fully turbulent over t h e smooth and
rough configurations without tripping. Figure 6 shows a photograph of t h e sharp biconic
configuration installed in t h e 96" Shock Tunnel. Typical measurements of t h e rough-
wall heating rates on t h e sharp biconic configuration covered with 12.5-mil hemispherical
and conical roughness e l e m e n t s placed on t h r e e spacing ratios a r e shown in Figure 27.
W e observe t h a t t h e heating rate and t h e skin friction increase with decreased spacing
and increased windward projected area of t h e roughness elements. A similar t r e n d w a s
observed in our measurements at a n G,//L 7 x IO6, and on t h e blunt biconic -
14
 configuration. Heating enhancement f a c t o r s (~~,..o,,~/6H’mm~~\
of up t o 2 w e r e measured
in t h e s e studies; t h i s is a f a c t o r similar to t h a t obtained by extrapolating t h e
v measurements with sand-grain surfaces to a roughness R‘eynolds number (based on a
12.5-mil roughness height of 2.5 x 103). The h e a t t r a n s f e r measurements a r e shown
plotted in t e r m s of spacing ratio X/D in Figure 28. It is clear t h a t a n additional
parameter associated with t h e shape or drag coefficient of t h e roughness e l e m e n t s i s
required to achieve a b e t t e r correlation of t h e measurements. A s discussed in t h e
introduction, t h e generalized relationship between rough a n d smooth wall heating r a t e

which can for a fixed model configuration and f r e e s t r e a m condition c a n b e w r i t t e n as

W e have plotted our measurement of t h e e f f e c t s of rough shape and spacing in

t e r m s of t h e s e parameters, and compared our measurements with calculations based on
L d Finson’s analysis.

Figures 29 through 32 show correlations of t h e biconic rough-wall heat t r a n s f e r

measurements for t h e sharp biconic configuration with roughness-spacing p a r a m e t e r
jfor
’ Reynolds numbers of 7 x IO6 and 10 x IO6. These measurements c o r r e l a t e
best in t h e form =/fly&)-?. A correlation of t h e s a m e d a t a plotted in t e r m s
of Dirling’s parameterD/K-(Aws
a monotonic increase in
7-4
+‘%re presented in Figures 58 and 59; again, w e observe
~ C20 H; again,
~ H ~ with ~ t h e measurements plot best in a
semilog relationship. Plotting t h e measurements in t e r m s of t h e smooth-wall turbulent
heating ratio is meaningful only if t h e fluid mechanical environment is identical for
e a c h set of roughness measurements. One possible way to eliminate t h e e f f e c t s of
f r e e s t r e a m conditions [4($)Me, $)]is to non-dimensionalize t h e s e measurements by
measurements on sand-grain surfaces with t h e s a m e roughness height, m a d e at t h e s a m e
f r e e s t r e a m conditions. Correlations are shown in Figure 33 through 34, plotted in t e r m s
of(Ap/A,).
-I
The measurements again c o r r e l a t e well in t h e form C,R Ep,sG,2,.s
=r(hya >,
although t h e r e is a surprising sensitivity to Reynolds number. What is m o r e interesting
L--
is t h a t w e do not observe t h e local maximum in t h e heating or skin-friction enhancement

15
relative to t h e sand-grain levels at 7= 4.6 which would be predicted from Simpson's
correlation of low-speed measurements. (See Figure 3.) Plotting cHrn$',&i.S6 in t e r m s
of LJ/K(&)" as shown in Figure 35 and 36 w e again observe a good correlation, u'
AP
but again w e do not observe a local maximum at 2, = 2.97, as would b e predicted
from Dirling's correlation of measurements m a d e in subsonic flow. In f a c t , while t h e
correlations of low-speed measurements would predict peak increases of over 60% in
t h e heating to t h e patterned surfaces relative to sand-grain s u r f a c e values, w e find
heating rates of less t h a n t h e sand-grain value. As noted earlier, t h e d e c r e a s e in t h e
e f f e c t i v e sand-grain roughness height with decreased roughness spacing for < 4 in
t h e Simpson and Dirling correlations results principally from a group of measurements
with "two-dimensional" roughness elements.

Using Finson's expression's for t h e velocity and density at t h e t o p of t h e roughness

e l e m e n t s w e obtain good agreement between t h e predicted variation of CHTEXT/CHSG

with As/Ap and t h e experimental data as shown in Figure 33. T h e theory predicts a
peak in t h e heating ratio CHR/CHS at As/Ap = 3.5 which is not observed experimentally
and while t h e enhanced heating levels a r e overpredicted, again as shown in Figure 29,
t h e variation with As/Ap is well predicted. Our measurements show t h a t t h e heating
rates w e r e largest on t h e most tightly packed configuration and t h e s e r a t e s w e r e not
v
significantly larger t h a n t h e sand-grain value - in sharp contrast to t h e predictions of
correlations based on low speed measurements.

IV. EFFECTS ON STUDIES OF ROUGHNESS SHAPE

AND SPACING EFFECTS ON SLENDER CONE

Introduction

In t h e s e studies, measurements w e r e m a d e of h e a t t r a n s f e r , skin friction, a n d

pressure distribution to t h e windward and leeward rays of t h e 6 O conical configurations
for a range of angles of a t t a c k between 0 and 1 6 O . The measurements with t h e models
coated with sand-grain roughness w e r e made for roughness heights of 4, 10, and 15
mils, while t h e patterned surfaces had a peak-to-valley roughness of 12.5 mils with
spacing-to-height ratios *):( of 2.3, 3.15, and 5.2.

16
 Studies with Sand-Grain Roughness

u Typical examples of heat t r a n s f e r and skin-friction measurements on smooth and sand-

grain rough s h a r p 60 cones for model incidences of 0, 8, and 160 are shown in Figures
37 t h r u 42. While w e observe l i t t l e or no roughness-induced heating enhancement on
t h e cone s u r f a c e close to t h e base for X. = 00, t h e heating r a t e s just downstream of
t h e nosetip are close to t w i c e t h e smooth-wall values. The h e a t t r a n s f e r distributions
along t h e rough cone at low angles of a t t a c k (high local Mach numbers) exhibit much
larger streamwise gradients than t h e turbulent smooth-wall values or t h o s e predicted
by t h e most recent analyses of Finson8 and Lin7. A t angles of a t t a c k of more t h a n
8O, where t h e local windward-plane Mach numbers drop to less t h a n 4, t h e distributions
of h e a t transfer to t h e rough models do not exhibit t h e large streamwise gradients
found at t h e smaller angle of a t t a c h . The corresponding set of skin friction measurements
made on t h e rough and smooth models, shown in Figures 39 t h r u 42, exhibit t h e s a m e
trends as heating data; however, t h e roughness-induced skin-friction augmentation f a c t o r s
are signficiantly larger than t h e corresponding heating ratios. Here, roughness-induced
skin-friction augmentation f a c t o r s of up to 1.7 a r e observed on t h e windward r a y close
to t h e base of t h e cone. A similar set of h e a t transfer and skin-friction measurements
on t h e cone coated with 15-mil sand-grain roughness are shown in Figures 41 and 42 for
v a: = 8O. The absolute values of t h e heating ratios a r e larger on t h e 15-mil rough
configuration, and t h e streamwise distributions of h e a t t r a n s f e r and skin friction exhibit
less streamwise gradients.

T h e measurements of heating and skin-friction augmentation factors, t h e Reynolds

analogy factors, and t h e incremented heat transfer and skin-friction f a c t o r s m a d e in
t h e s e studies with sand-grain surfaces a r e shown in Figures 43, 44 and 45.

T h e l a r g e streamwise variations in augmentation heating f a c t o r , measured along

N
t h e slender cones makes ReK a poor correlating p a r a m e t e r , as shown in Figure 43.
However, t h e roughness-augmentation f a c t o r s close to t h e base of t h e cone are in
relatively good agreement with t h o s e made on t h e biconic nosetips. The measurements
of incremental heat transfer and skin friction plotted in Figure 44 are in relatively
good agreement with Finson's8 and Dahm1s16 correlations for measurements m a d e close
to t h e base of t h e cone; however, t h e incremental heating just behind t h e nosetip is
well above t h e predictions. These results suggest t h a t t h e r e are compressibility or
turbulent relaxation e f f e c t s in these flows which are not modeled correctly in t h e
v

17
theories. for both t h e wide-angle
Plotting Reynolds analogy factor in t e r m s of Ks/E *
and slender cone measurements as shown in Figure 45, w e observe t h a t both sets of
measurements are in relatively good agreement.
L/

To examine t h e importance of turbulent relaxation e f f e c t s , w e performed

measurements with roughness removed from t h e first 9 inches along t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
s h a r p cone at zero angle of a t t a c k ; t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r and skin-friction measurements
downstream of t h e beginning of t h e rough s u r f a c e a r e shown in Figures 46 and 47.
The h e a t t r a n s f e r measurements exhibit a significant overshoot above t h e turbulent
heating to a uniformly rough surface, while t h e comparable skin-friction measurements
exhibit a n overshoot/undershoot behavior. Clearly, turbulent non-equilibrium e f f e c t s
are important in hypersonic flows over a rough wall; f u r t h e r , more definition flow-field
measurements are required to define t h e key mechanisms of importance in t h e s e flows.
T h e measurements m a d e in t h e s e studies with sand-grain roughness using models prepared
in different ways indicate t h a t t h e shape, orientation, and spacing of t h e roughness
e l e m e n t s can significantly influence roughness-enhanced heating. These observations
w e r e instrumental in t h e formulation of t h e studies with hemispherical and conical
roughness e l e m e n t s described in t h e following subsection.

#
Studies with P a t t e r n e d Roughness

T h e measurements to examine t h e e f f e c t s of roughness shape and spacing on

heat transfer to and skin friction of slender vehicles in hypersonic flow constitute t h e
second part of a comprehensive series with surfaces of well-defined geometric
characteristics. The slender cone model, which is shown mounted in t h e 96" Shock
Tunnel in Figure 7 , was c o a t e d and instrumented successively with six different patterned
surfaces and t h e corresponding h e a t transfer, skin-friction, and pressure instrumentation.
The rough s u r f a c e was designed so t h a t measurements could be obtained from t h e
-1
closest to t h e most widely spaced roughness packing of practical i n t e r e s t (2.5(Ap/As c 25),
spanning t h e "peak" in e f f e c t i v e sand-grain roughness as depicted in t h e correlation
shown in Figure 1. T h e roughness height, t h e position of t h e instrumentation, t h e angle
of a t t a c k of t h e model, and t h e f r e e s t r e a m conditions w e r e selected so t h a t t h e
measurements covered t h e fully rough to t h e smooth regimes. Typical examples of
t h e h e a t transfer distributions along t h e windward ray of t h e sharp c o n e for t h e different
s u r f a c e t e x t u r e s are is shown in Figure 48. Here, t h e local Mach number is 4 , and K/6*
is large enough for t h e flow to be considered fully rough. A maximum heating- w

18
 enhancement f a c t o r of 1.5 was recorded f o r t h e most closely packed conical roughness
elements, with t h i s f a c t o r decreasing with increased e l e m e n t f r o n t a l area per unit
L' surface. Plotting t h e s e h e a t transfer measurements and those m a d e for a range of
angles of a t t a c k in t e r m s of t h e non-dimensional spacing p a r a m e t e r D*/K, as shown in
Figure 49, results in a relatively poor correlation, reflecting t h e importance of roughness
shape and spacing. As discussed earlier, w e c a n introduce a correction for t h e shape
of t h e roughness e l e m e n t s by multiplying D*/K by a f a c t o r proportional to t h e e l e m e n t
drag coefficient, C (* )4'3 or, following Dirling3, a n equivalent f a c t o r (AM/+)
413
.
Alternatively, following Simpson 6, t h e h e a t transfer measurements c a n be correlated
CDREF

in t e r m s of a single p a r a m e t e r Arlkj ,the f r o n t a l area of t h e roughness per unit plan

form s u r f a c e area. Correlations of t h e heating-enhancement f a c t o r s with t h e s h a p e
1 4i3
and spacing p a r a m e t e r ( A p / A S ) - a n d (07&)(AW5/Ap) are presented in Figures 50 and 51.
T h e measurements at e a c h angle of a t t a c k show a consistent trend, which-unlike the
nosetip measurements-exhibits a local maximum for a c e r t a i n combination of spacing
and shape. It is interesting to note t h a t , at high local Mach numbers, t h e measurements
m a d e on t h e less densely packed s u r f a c e toward t h e base of t h e c o n e exhibited heating
levels below those measured on smooth configurations. This confirms our earlier findings
with t h e sand-grain rough model for small K / 6 * and large Me. However, again i t
should b e noted t h a t for t h e s e cases, l a r g e heating-enhancement f a c t o r s w e r e also
recorded close to t h e t i p of t h e cone. In general, t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r measurements
are equally well-correlated when plotted in t e r m s of either Ap/As or )-($/D( 6 4 5 413.
4P

A more universal f o r m a t in which local f r e e s t r e a m e f f e c t s are removed to a

first order, is a correlation in which heat transfer to t h e p a t t e r n e d s u r f a c e is non-
dimensionalized by transfer rate t o a sand-grain s u r f a c e with t h e s a m e roughness height.
Figures 52 and 50 show t h e measurements plotted in this format. The most important
f e a t u r e s demonstrated by t h e s e measurements and t h e earlier measurements on t h e
biconic nosetips is t h a t , in contrast t o t h e results from t h e subsonic studies, t h e
maximum heating levels on t h e p a t t e r n e d s u r f a c e w e r e no more t h a n 10% larger t h a n
t h e sand-grain values. As in t h e biconic studies t h e modified Finson predictions f o r
t h e variation of roughness heating with roughness density are i n a g r e e m e n t with t h e
measurements, although t h e absolute levels are overpredicted as shown in Figures 50
and 52. W e do, however, observe a similar rapid d e c r e a s e are in relative heating levels
with increased roughness spacing and, decreased drag coefficient, as found in t h e earlier
studies in low-speed flows over adiabatic walls. Again, our measurements c o r r e l a t e
eqully well with either of t h e roughness density parameters.
W

19
 V. CONCLUSIONS

A comprehensive experimental study has been performed to determine t h e e f f e c t s

of roughness height, shape and spacing on t h e heat t r a n s f e r and skin friction to highly
cooled surfaces in high Reynolds number supersonic and hypersonic flow. These studies
w e r e conducted on biconic nosetip configurations and slender conical models coated
with sand-grain roughness, and model surfaces w e r e constructed with hemispherical and
conical roughness elements set in hexagonal patterns, for a series of spacing rates.
Our measurements on models with sand-grain and patterned rough surfaces indicate
t h a t in low Mach number flows t h e signficiant e f f e c t s of compressibility on skin friction
and h e a t transfer c a n be computed approximately from low-speed measurements by
evaluating t h e boundary layer properties at r e f e r e n c e conditions based on t h e properties
at t h e t o p of t h e roughness elements. T h e shape of t h e roughness e l e m e n t s and t h e
spacing between t h e roughness e l e m e n t s w e r e found to have a large e f f e c t on t h e heat
transfer to and skin friction on t h e surface. Correlations are presented showing t h e
monotonic decrease in roughness heating with increased spacing and decreased bluntness
of t h e roughness elements. This contrasts with t h e multi-valued relationships exhibited
in correlations of t h e low-speed measurements. Both (Ap/ASk1 and D/K (Aws/Ap)4/3,
t h e shape/spacing p a r a m e t e r s against which t h e measurements w e r e plotted, gave a
good correlation of t h e data. None of t h e patterned rough surfaces examined induced w
heating r a t e s more t h a n 10% larger t h a n those of sand-grain surfaces with t h e s a m e
roughness height, which contrasts with up t o 100% enhancement predicted using t h e
Dirling correlation of low-speed measurements. The strong decrease in heating
enhancement with roughness spacing exhibited in our measurements and predicted with
good accuracy by simple prediction methods would, for roughness spacings and shapes
typical of carbon/carbon surfaces, result in heating enhancement of t h e order of 50%
of t h e sand-grain value. Measurements on models with discontinuous change in s u r f a c e
roughness indicated t h a t in hypersonic flow turbulent relaxation is a n important e f f e c t .
These studies coupled with t h e theoretical studies of Finson, suggest t h a t compressibility
e f f e c t s are important in high speed flows over rough, highly-cooled surfaces.

20
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v 1933, Translated as NACA TM 1292, 1950.

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.e Sciences Meeting, 1979.

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Layer on a Smooth F l a t P l a t e With and Without Heat Transfer," Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, pp. 117-143, January 1964.

13. Goddard, F.E., Jr., "Effect of Uniformly Distributed Roughness on Turbulent Skin-
Friction Drag at Supersonic Speeds," Journal of Aerospace Sciences, 26, pp. 1-
15, 1959.

14. Nestler, D.E., "Compressible Turbulent Boundary-Layer Heat Transfer t o Rough

Surfaces," AIAA J., Vol. 9, No. 9, pp. 1799-1803, 1971.

21
15. Powars, C.A., "Passive Nose Tip Technology Program, Interim Report, Vol. 111,
Surface Roughness Effects, P a r t I1 - Roughness Augmented Heating D a t a Analysis
and Correlation," Aerotherm Report No. 74-96.
I/
16. Dahm, T.J. et al., "Passive Nosetip Technology (PANT 11) Program," SAMSO-TR-
77-11, Acurex corp., Mountain View, CA, 1976.

22
 IC
I
SCHLICHTING 3-0ELEMENTS
0 HEMISPHERES
0 SPH. SEGMENTS
A CONES
17 RIGHTANGLES
2-D SQUARE ROD ELEMENTS
W BETTERMAN
KURADSE a LIU (ETAL.)
k,/k
1.o

W
-- - -
Jlg-lJ- c3
CLOSED CAVITY

w-
o w u p
OPEN CAVITY

0.1 I I L I I\O I I1 I I I II
10 100 1000

X=D/K ( A ~ s / A p ) ~ l ~

Figure 1 "EFFECTIVE" ROUGHNESS CORRELATIONS FOR DIFFERING ROUGHNESS

GEOMETRIES AND SPACINGS
 h‘,ffe ~

ROUGHNESS ELEMENT DRAG

112 PRUR2 CDR x B

DRAG COEF. BLOCKA E
INDIVIDUAL COEFF.
ELEMENT

SIMPSON SHAPE Ap
PARAMETER

SMOOTH WALL DRAG 2 AD,

-
As
DlRLlNG SHAPE
PARAMETER -
K -
D
er
FORM DRAG OF ROUGHNESS ELEMENT A 0,

Figure 2 SIMPLIFIED DRAG MODEL FOR ROUGH-WALL SKIN FRICTION

m 0
N

I I l l 0 SPHERES
45 v SEGMENTS
0 HEMISPHERES
A CONES
0 STONES
L SHORT ANGLES
L MECHANICAL GROUPS
I

Figure 3 SIMPSON/DVORAK CORRELATION FOR THE EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS DENSITY

 DIAPHRAGM STATION DISPLACEMENT

MAIN DIAPHRAGM
NOZZLE
A 7
I

DRIVER SECTION AIR SECTION

(a) WAVE DIAGRAM

40-ft DRIVER
EXPANSION WAVE LIMITED

r - D R I V E R GAS LIMITED

A
I ~ 20-ft DRIVER

' HELIUM t AIR HELIUMD R I V E R

DRIVER

0
I 1 I I L

1 2 3 4 5 6
INCIDENT SHOCK MACH NUMBER M1

(b) TEST TIME AVAILABLE

Figure 4 WAVE DIAGRAM AND TEST TIME FOR SHOCK TUNNEL OPERATION UNDER
TAILORED-INTERFACE CONDITIONS
W
Figure 5 BICONIC NOSETIP WITH SKIN-FRICTION INSTRUMENTATION PORTS
Figure 6 SHARP BICONIC NOSETIP INSTALLED IN 96"SHOCK TUNNEL
Figure 7 ROUGH 6OCONE MODEL MOUNTED I N 96” SHOCK TUNNEL
 Gould Inc., Measurement Systems Division El Monte. California U.S.A. Prinfed in U.S A. ....... ~ . . ~
i
l

~. ~ ~ ~ . .~. .

. . . . . . . . . . .

Goold lnc., Measurement Systems Diiision El i o n l e . California U.S.A. Printed in U S A

._ . ~-.. . ..... I~~~~~~~ .- . . . . . . . i .. ''.
. . . . . . . I . . i
~ ~
' ' '

. . . . . . . I . . . . i. I I !
. . . .
~

i! __ 1
1 1 1I ......
i
I 1- .
i
~

......
. .
.L
...............
.
j
-1 . . . . . . . ~~
i
!
L ...................... L~ ~~~

L L I
-
_ - L~......... ........ i
^-.= 500 I.;Micro
] Inches i .01 in. -I+; I C Dale! 3-28-78 P,Tl!#5 j

Figure 8 PROFILOMETER TRACES OF A 4-MIL THICK, ROUGH SURFACE. AN AIR-DRYING

ADHESIVE (KRYLON) WAS USED TO BOND THE ROUGHNESS TO THE SURFACE
 Gould Inc., Measurement Systems Division . El Monte, Caiiloiiiia U.S A Piin!& In U S A
. . ~ . ..
. . . . . .

~~ ~

Gould Inc., Measurement Systems Division if Mo!its. CaIi!oma LJ S A P!iiIed USA T

. . .

Figure 9 PROFILOMETER TRACES OF A 4-MIL THICK, ROUGH SURFACE. PRESSURE -

SENSITIVE TAPE ADHESIVE WAS USED TO BOND THE ROUGHNESS TO THE
SURFACE
1.a

.a

0 1 2 3 4 5
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT (MIL)

Figure 10 SURFACE ROUGHNESS CHARACTERIZATION

 AIRFLOW

7 CONES OR HEMISPHERES

19 CONES OR HEMISPHERES

37 CONES OR HEMISPHERES

Figure 11 TYPICAL LAYOUTS OF ROUGHNESS PATTERNS ON GAGES

 Figure 12 MOLDS FOR SIX TYPES OF SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY

i
!. i

Figure 13 SEQUENCE OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE ROUGH CALORIMETER GAGES

Figure 14 TYPICAL CALORIMETER ELEMENTS
.

Figure 15 TEMPERATURE/TIME RECORD EXHIBITING EXCELLENT RESPONSE AND

LINEARITY OF CALORIMETER INSTRUMENTATION
 16 .......,.. ... ....................................... .................................................................................
....................
I SHARP

12
......

....
pID
.... j ......... j ........
;...b..;.h

.........
b'
;........~;
..........;.........j ......... :,

....:......... i ................... i......... ;.................

i d
i...o .... .........i ......... ;...................
le I
i.n .....:....*..;.......
................
: M,
!
WI -
-8.2
Re/FT 3.9 x lo7

0.004
..
.;

0 CALORIMETER GAGES
8 THIN F I L M GAGES

3
CH x 10 ...;.......... ;...... ~ ~ . ; ;.............................
......... ;......... ;......... :.........:
q op 0: ojo i
: 0 :
4 ..,. ........ ,........., ..; ........ f.........,, ........ .,.........,.........,..........

..:....................

0
i o $3 ; & ; ;I3 ;
0 1 2 3
S DISTANCE - INCHES
4 6 6 7

Figure 16 HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON ROUGH AND SMOOTH SHARP

BlCONlC CONFIGURATION
 SAND

ACCERATION
COMPENSATION

PINK PEARL
F.E.T. "CHIP"
SUSPENSION

SEISMIC MASS

Figure 17 DRAWING OF SECTION THROUGH SKIN FRICTION TRANSDUCER

 0 SPHERES
V SEGMENTS
0 HEMISPHERES
'L
A CONES
0 STONES
0, L SHORT ANGLES
L MECHANICAL GROUPS

L
t

1 1/11
b
Ak 102 103

Figure 18 SIMPSON'S CORRELATION FOR THE EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS DENSITY

.. .

SCHLIEREN PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE FLOW OVER THE SHARP BlCONlC NOSETIP

~i~~~~
19 SHOWING THE INDIVIDUAL SHOCKS FOR THE ROUGHNESS ELEMENTS
 1.2

M
, = 8.2
Re/FT = 4x107

0.8 K
0 13 15 4 0
n 7 8 10 0038
CP

0.4

0 1
u 2 3 4 5 6 7

DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 20 CORRELATION OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ON SHARP, MEDIUM AND

BLUNT BlCONlC CONFlGURATlONS
 SHARP

ROUGH
16 3.9 107 SMOOTH

b b b
SOLID SYMBOL -CALORIMETER
0

o o

Lk0
12
rn d rn
rn
0
O P TURBULENCE
0 0 I FROM NOSE
c ~ x ~ o8 - ~ CHENG
ECKERT
(STANDARD)
VAN DRIEST

4
-1 ECKERT
(MODIFIED)
SPALDINGEHI

a I I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 6
DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 21a HEATING AUGMENTATION MEASUREMENTS ON SHARP BlCONlC

NOSETIP - M, = 8, ReD = 40 x 106
 20
BLUNT I
0 10 8.2 3.9~ lo7 .30 ROUGH
X 14 8.2 3 . 1 3 107
~ .30 SMOOTH
16

-
0
r
X
12

I
0
0 0 8
8
0
0 P

4
X X x x

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 21b HEATING AUGMENTATION MEASUREMENTS ON BLUNT BlCONlC

NOSETIP - M, = 8, ReD = 40 x lo6
 I SHARP
..... I
SYM RUN M, RelFT I Tw/To
0 1 11.3 1.0~107 .20 ROUGH

0 22 11.3 1.0 x 107 .21 SMOOTH

SOLID SYMBOL - CALORIMETER

I I I I 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 22a ROUGHNESS AUGMENTED HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON

SHARP BICONIC NOSETIP AT MACH 11
 ~~~ ~

BLUNT
SYM RUN Moo RelFT TWIT,

m a 3
23
11.3
11.3
1 . 0 ~ 1 0 ~ .20
1 . 0 ~ 1 0 ~ .20
ROUGH
SMOOTH

SOLID - CALORIMETER

O
m rn 0 rn m
X x X % X X * xx x X x

0 I I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 22b ROUGHNESS AUGMENTED HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON

BLUNT BlCONlC CONFIGURATION AT MACH 11
z.or P
SHARP NOSE

6.52 9.98 x lo6 I

SMOOTH

DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 23 COMPARISON BETWEEN CROWELL'S PREDICTION METHOD WITH ROUGH-

AND SMOOTH-WALL MEASUREMENTS ON SHARP BlCONlC NOSETIP AT
MACH 6
 2.0
BLUNT NOSE
ROUGH GAGES
RUN 20
M, = 11.3
R,/FT = 9.88 x lo6
1.6

CROWELL'S THEORY
1.2

2
C" x 10 n 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

0.8

0.4

0 I I 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
DISTANCE FROM STAGNATION POINT - INCHES

Figure 24 COMPARISON BETWEEN CROWELL'S PREDICTION METHOD WITH ROUGH-WALL

MEASUREMENTS ON BLUNT BlCONlC NOSETIP AT MACH 11
 POWARS CORRELATION

7.0 x lo6
3.6 lo7
1.0~10~
8.2 4 . 0 lo7
~
7.9 8.0 x 106

OPEN SYM. K 0.009cm

CLOSED SYM, K = 0.010cm
HALF OPEN SYM. K = 0.025 Cm

O I I I I I I l l I I I I I I l l I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I

Figure 25 CORRELATION OF ROUGHNESS-AUGMENTED HEATING ON MRV AND

BlCONlC CONFIGURATIONS, AND COMPARISON WITH PANT CORRELATION
 eK

Figure 26a CORRELATION OF ROUGH-WALL AUGMENTATION HEATING FACTORS

FROM THE PRESENT AND PREVIOUS STUDIES AT CALSPAN
100

Figure 26b CORRELATION OF ROUGHNESS-AUGMENTED HEATING ON MRV AND

BlCONlC CONFIGURATIONS, AND COMPARISON WITH PANT CORRELATION
 T

CH x 1 0 2

Figure 27 HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON THE SHARP BlCONlC CONFIGURATION

SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF ROUGHNESS SHAPE AND SPACING EFFECTS
ON ROUGHNESS-INDUCED AUGMENTATION HEATING

c
 SHARP BlCONlC IV
2.2

CONES

2.0

1.8
A
n

-
cHR

HS
1.6 A
.
A
v
n
1.4 A
n

A
1.2
A

37 19 7

1.a I
2
I II
3
I
4
II
5
I
6
'
D
k

Figure 28 HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON SHARP BlCONlC CONFIGURATION

PLOTTED IN TERMS OF HEATING RATIO
2.4

2.2
4
0
2.0

7 x 106

1.8
3
0

1.6 J
0

1.4 "

1.2

37s 7c 19s
l.O* I I
1

Figure 29 CORRELATION OF PATTERNED ROUGHNESS HEATING ON SHARP

BlCONlC NOSETIPS IN TERMS OF EFFECTIVE WINDWARD AREA (Ap/A,)

c
Figure 30
I
-LL
19,

CORRELATION OF PATTERNED ROUGHNESS HEATING ON BLUNT

BlCONlC NOSETIPS I N TERMS OF EFFECTIVE WINDWARD AREA (Ap/A,)
l o x 11

1
7x11
 I I I I
SHARP ElCONlC IV

10 x 10

7 x 10

t
Figure 31
i
($0
7s 7.2

4/3
I

CORRELATION OF PATTERNED HEATING ON SHARP BICONIC

NOSETIPS IN TERMS OF DIRLING'S SHAPE PARAMETER
I 100'

c
 G

e I

-_

-_

__

37 7s 7c
I I
100

Figure 32 CORRELATION OF PATTERNED ROUGHNESS HEATING ON BLUNT

BlCONlC NOSETIP IN TERMS OF DIRLING'S SHAPE PARAMETER
 SYM Re/FT

0 10x106
0 7x106

Figure 33 CORRELATION OF EFFECTIVE ROUGHNESS HEATING PARAMETER FOR

SHARP BlCONlC NOSETIPS IN TERMS OF THE EFFECTIVE WINDWARD AREA
PARAM ETE R (Ap/A,)
 0 10x1

Figure 34 CORRELATION OF EFFECTIVE ROUGHNESS HEATING PARAMETER FOR

BLUNT BlCONlC NOSETIPS IN TERMS OF THE EFFECTIVE WINDWARD
AREA PARAMETER (Ap/A,)
 12.0 I I 1 1 -

SHARP BlCONlC Ip

10.1
--
SYM ReIFT

0 10x106
9.0
0 7x106
8.C
7.a
B
6.C
B
5.c

%EXT 4s
cHREQ. SG 12.5

3s

2s

73 7c
1.c
10
L
(;)(.)413

Figure 35 CORRELATION OF EFFECTIVE ROUGHNESS HEATING PARAMETER IN

TERMS OF DIRLING'S SHAPE PARAMETER FOR SHARP BlCONlC NOSETIPS
 2.0 I I I
BLUNT BlCONlC k!
SYM Re/FT
0 10x106
1.6

1.2
CH
R~~~~
C
CH
REO. SG. 12.5
0.8
c (3 :
8

0.4

19s 19c 7s 7c
0 I II I I
10

( . ) (!34'3

Figure 36 CORRELATION OF EFFECTIVE ROUGHNESS HEATING PARAMETER FOR

BLUNT BlCONlC NOSETIPS IN TERMS OF DIRLING'S SHAPE PARAMETER
 1

6OSHARP CONE
CC-80

5 X - CALORIMETER

cH 103

0 I I 1 B 1 B I 1
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
SURFACE DISTANCE FROM REFERENCE JUNCTION -INCHES

Figure 37 HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON THE ROUGH AND SMOOTH 60 CONE FOR a = 8'
 12

6OSHARP CONE
(Y = 16'

10

OPEN SYMBOLS THIN-FILM GAGES

8 X SYMBOLS: CALORIMETER GAGES

cHx1o3 6

0 I I I I I I 1 I
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32

SURFACE DISTANCE FROM REFERENCE JUNCTION -INCHES

Figure 38 HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS ON THE ROUGH AND SMOOTH 6' CONE FOR Q = 16O
 0.016 -
6' SHARP CONE
a =a0
0.014 -

0.012 -

0.01( -
CF

O.OOf 0

0.004
ECKERT STD. 6O

0.00: -

C I I I I I I I I I
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
SURFACE DISTANCE FROM REFERENCE JUNCTION -INCHES

Figure 39 DISTRIBUTION OF SKIN FRICTION ALONG SHARP 6 O CONE WITH SMOOTH

AND 10-MIL SAND-GRAIN ROUGHNESS AT u = So
0.026 -
6'SHARP CONE
a=wO
0.024 - SYM RUN K

0.020 - I I I

ECKERT STD. 6'

0
0.004 -

0 I I t I I I I I I
 7

6'SHARP CONE
a =80
6

6 X- CALORIMETER

CH

(
I I I I I I I I I
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
SURFACE DISTANCE FROM REFERENCE JUNCTION -INCHES

Figure 41 HEAT TRANSFER DISTRIBUTIONS ALONG 6' CONE WITH SMOOTH AND
15-MIL SAND-GRAIN ROUGHNESS AT a = 8 O

i
c
 0.014 - 6O SHARP CONE
a =a0
SYM RUN K
0.012 -

0.010 -
- +
0.008

0
+ -+
CF

0.004
- 0 0 0 0 0
ECKERT STD. 6O

0.002 -

I I I I I I I I I
 SYM a M, 1 RCJ K

SOLID AT CONE BASE

OPEN CLOSE TO TIP

2.0

1.5

1.o

0.5 -
a. SKIN-FRICTION AUGMENTATION

I I I , , I I I I ,

/ o
.
A
a 26

0.5 -
b. HEAT TRANSFER AUGMENTATION
I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I ! I , 4 I I I I I I

Figure 43 ROUGHNESS AUGMENTATION MEASUREMENTS IN 6' CONE

5

v)
I
u
- 1
K
I MEASUREDNEAR

-
0 NOSETIP A T c( = 0" & 4"

1
0.1
1-+ FRUSTUM MEASUREMENT
FROM CURRENT STUDY

10

Figure 44 COMPUTED HEAT TRANSFER AUGMENTATION VERSUS SKIN-FRICTION

AUGMENTATION
 10
SYM MODEL ROUGH

-
0
0
V
1
MRV
MED.
BLUNT
10 MIL
n t 4 MIL

V n 0
2cH 1.0
Cf

l0.1 ) I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
K,I 6
Figure 45 VARIATION OF REYNOLDS ANALOGY FACTOR WITH ROUGHNESS PARAMETER

c
-.

1.4
6' SHARP CONE
0 a =oo

1.2

1.@

.4

.2

ROUGHNESS
REMOVED

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
SURFACE DISTANCE FROM REFERENCE JUNCTION -INCHES

Figure 46 STREAMWISE VARIATION OF SKIN-FRICTION ENHANCEMENT RATIO

DOWNSTREAM OF DISCONTINUITY IN SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON
SHARP 6' CONE
 I
I
0
3
s .*
0
LI2- ?
K

K d
a
I
0
a
I .6
0

a=oO

OPEN SYMBOL (CALORIMETER)

CLOSED SYMBOL (S-GUAGE)

__REMOVED
GRIT

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
SURFACE DISTANCE FROM REFERENCE JUNCTION - INCHES

Figure 47 STREAMWISE VARIATION OF HEATING-ENHANCEMENT RATIO

DOWNSTREAM OF DISCONTINUITY IN SURFACE ROUGHNESS
ON SHARP 6' CONE
Y

1C ... (...... ............................ AFOSR

Q =,*a

3
CH x 10

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24

SURFACE DISTANCE A F T O F REF. JT. - INCHES

Figure48 DISTRIBUTION OF HEATING ALONG WINDWARD RAY OF SHARP CONE FOR

VARIOUS ROUGHNESSPATTERNS ( o ( =1
2
'
)
. Re, = 1 1 x IO6, M
, = 11.2
 1.f ................................ .................................
.

.
;
W
1.4 ............................... ............ 1....................
8 :
d
... 0.......j.............. ..V...............................
d

1.2 i?
....... ........ ..............
8 ;
E.................... J,........

% 0 8 1
................., ............. .............i.
C !
HS

1.0 -:----o.----.--:-.---.-------
.e.............................
e
0
.......... ............1.
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
.
;

0.8 ................................ ............. ar .........-3.. ......

................................ ............ Jr ..........,........

!
31 19
0.k I I
4

-
D*
k

Figure 49 CORRELATION OF PATTERNED ROUGHNESS HEATING ON SHARP CONES

IN TERMS OF ROUGHNESS SPACING PARAMETER (D*/k)

i c
 1.6

1.4

1.2

-
cHR
C
HS

1.0

0.8

0.6

Figure 50 CORRELATION OF PATTERNED ROUGHNESS HEATING ON SHARP CONES

I N TERMS OF EFFECTIVE WINDWARD AREA (Ap/A,)
 120

16'

1.o
0.9
-
cHR 0.8
C
HS
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
4
44 2 3

(+)(F)
5 6 7

4'3
8 9 1 0 20 30

Figure 51 CORRELATION OF PATTERNED ROUGHNESS HEATING ON SHARP CONES

IN TERMS O F DIRLING'S SHAPE PARAMETER
4

1A

1.2

CH
RTEXT
CH
REQ. SG 12.5
1.c

0.f

19c 7s 7C
0.f I I I
10 20

Figure 52 VARIATION OF NONDIMENSIONAL ROUGHNESS HEATING WITH ROUGHNESS

SHAPE AND SPACING PARAMETER (Ap/A,)
 W

A
0
0 A
C
0 c 8
0
O
-7d----
0

ne 19s 19c 7s
J II I I
.I

Figure 53 VARIATION OF NONDIMENSIONAL ROUGHNESS HEATING WITH ROUGHNESS

SHAPE AND SPACING PARAMETER (0%) (AWs/Ap)4/3