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(2.2) Fundamental Concept of Stress
(2.2) Fundamental Concept of Stress
BODIES
FUNDAMENTAL
stress, internal normal
force or resisting area of
the body
CONCEPT OF
Sir Marvin Bartido
STRESS
or resisting area of the
body
Design simple dimensions
such as length, width,
thickness or diameter of
materials based on the
allowable stress of the
material.
Compute for the bearing
stress, internal Marvin M. Bartido, RCE
compressive force or
resisting area of the body
Compute for the
maximum pressure that a
thin-walled cylinder can
safely withstand.
2
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
Definition of Stress
Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area or unit strength. It is
the force on a member divided by area, which carries the force, formerly express in psi,
Sir Marvin Bartido
Types of Stress
1. Normal Stress
2. Shearing Stress
3. Bearing Stress
4. Tangential & Longitudinal Stress in Thin-Walled Vessel
3
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
Normal Stress
Normal Stress (sometimes called axial stress) is a stress that measures
the intensity of normal/axial force.
It tends to compress or elongate a body.
Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members
Sir Marvin Bartido
subject to pure tension (or tensile force) is under tensile stress, while
compression members (members subject to compressive force) are under
compressive stress.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
𝜎 (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎) = normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force, which acts through the centroid of the
cross-sectional area. P is determined using the method of sections and the
equations of equilibrium.
A = cross-sectional area of the body where 𝜎 is determined
4
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
Internal Loading
• Section the member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at the point
where the normal stress is to be determined and use the necessary free-
body diagram and force equation of equilibrium to obtain the internal axial
force P at the section.
Normal Stress
• Determine the member’s cross-sectional area at the section and calculate
𝑃
the normal stress 𝜎 = 𝐴.
5
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Solution:
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝐹 − 4𝑃 = 0
𝐹 − 4(3000) = 0
𝐹 = 12000 𝑙𝑏
Normal Stress
𝐹
𝜎=𝐴
12000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎=
For steel: 0.5 𝑖𝑛 2
𝜎 = 24000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Internal Loading
For bronze:
Internal Loading
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝐹 − 4𝑃 = 0 σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝐹 − 4(3000) = 0 𝐹 − 4𝑃 + 𝑃 = 0
𝐹 = 12000 𝑙𝑏 𝐹 − 3𝑃 = 0
𝐹 − 3(3000) = 0
𝐹 = 9000 𝑙𝑏
Normal Stress
𝐹
𝜎=𝐴 Normal Stress
12000 𝑙𝑏 𝐹
𝜎= 𝜎=𝐴
0.5 𝑖𝑛2
9000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎 = 24000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜎=
0.5 𝑖𝑛 2
𝜎 = 18000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
6
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find:
Normal stress Normal Stress:
Sir Marvin Bartido
𝐹
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝐵𝐶
Solution:
395.24 𝑁
Internal Loading 𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 𝜋
8 𝑚𝑚 2
4
𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 7.86 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
𝐹
𝜎𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵𝐴
𝐵𝐴
632.38 𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐴 = 𝜋
4
10 𝑚𝑚 2
𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐴 = 8.05 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
4
𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 𝐹𝐵𝐴 cos 60° = 0 (Eq. 1)
5
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
3
𝐹𝐵𝐶 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴 sin 60° − 784.8 = 0
5
(eq. 2)
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 395.24 𝑁
𝐹𝐵𝐴 = 632.38 𝑁
7
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
3 𝑥 − 𝐹𝐶 200 = 0 (Eq. 2)
8
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
Shear Stress
Shear Stress is a stress that measures the intensity of shear force.
It tends to cut/divide to body into two.
Shearing Stress is a type of stress that acts coplanar with a cross-section of
material. It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces
perpendicular to the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also known as tangential
Sir Marvin Bartido
stress.
𝑉
𝜏=𝐴
9
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
Internal Shear
• Section the member at the point where the average shear stress is to be
Sir Marvin Bartido
determined.
• Draw the necessary free-body diagram, and calculate the internal shear
force V acting at the section that is necessary to hold the part in equilibrium.
Shear Stress
• Determine the sectioned area A, and determine the average shear stress
10
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find:
Sir Marvin Bartido
σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
4
−𝐹𝐵 6 + 30 2 = 0 The pin at A is supported by two
5
𝐹𝐵 = 12.5 𝑘𝑁 fixed “leaves” and so the free-body
diagram of the center segment of
the pin shown in figure (c) has two
shearing surfaces between the
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + beam and each leaf. The force of
3 the beam (21.36 kN) acting on the
12.5 − 𝐴𝑋 = 0 pin is therefore supported by shear
5
𝐴𝑋 = 7.50 𝑘𝑁 force on each of these surfaces.
This case is called double shear.
Thus,
𝐹𝐴 21.36
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ + 𝑉𝐴 = = = 10.68 𝑘𝑁
4 2 2
𝐴𝑦 + 12.5 − 30 = 0
5
𝐴𝑦 = 20 𝑘𝑁
11
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Shear Stress
For pin at A
𝑉
𝜏𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴
𝐴
10.68
𝜏𝐴 = 𝜋
4
20 2
𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝐴 = 0.033995 𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜏𝐴 = 33.995 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
For pin at B
𝑉
𝜏𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵
𝐵
12.5
𝜏𝐵 = 𝜋
4
30 2
𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝐵 = 0.017684 𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜏𝐵 = 17.684 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
12
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find:
Force required (shear force)
Solution:
The magnitude of the shear
force will be equivalent to force
P. Note that the shear force will
act at the shearing area.
Shear Stress
The shear strength will be equal
to the shear stress
𝑉
𝜏=𝐴
𝑃
350 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋(20 𝑚𝑚)(25 𝑚𝑚)
𝑃 = 549778 𝑁
𝑃 = 549.778 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑁 𝑁
Note that 𝑚2 = 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚2
13
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. If the wood joint in the figure has a width of 150 mm, determine the
average shear stress developed along shear planes a–a and b–b. For
each plane, represent the state of stress on an element of the material
Find:
shear stress developed along shear σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
planes a–a and b–b 𝑉𝑎 − 3 = 0
Sir Marvin Bartido
Solution: 𝑉𝑎 = 3 𝑘𝑁
Internal Loadings. Referring to the
free-body diagram of the member,
figure (b),
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
−𝑉𝑏 + 3 = 0
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + 𝑉𝑏 = 3 𝑘𝑁
6−𝐹−𝐹 =0
6 − 2𝐹 = 0 Average Shear Stress
𝐹 = 3 𝑘𝑁 𝑉𝑎
𝜏𝑎 =
𝐴𝑎
3 𝑘𝑁
Now consider the equilibrium of 𝜏𝑎 =
(0.10 𝑚)(0.15 𝑚)
segments cut across shear planes a–a
and b–b, shown in figure (c) and (d). 𝜏𝑎 = 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑉𝑏
𝜏𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏
3 𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝑏 =
(0.125 𝑚)(0.15 𝑚)
𝜏𝑏 = 160 𝑘𝑃𝑎
14
ASSESSMENT TASK
15
ASSESSMENT TASK
16
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Allowable Stress
To properly design a structural member or mechanical element it is necessary to
restrict the stress in the material to a level that will be safe. To ensure this safety, it is
therefore necessary to choose an allowable stress that restricts the applied load to one
that is less than the load the member can fully support.
There are many reasons for doing this. For example, the load for which the
member is designed may be different from actual loadings placed on it. The intended
measurements of a structure or machine may not be exact, due to errors in fabrication
or in the assembly of its component parts. Unknown vibrations, impact, or accidental
loadings can occur that may not be accounted for in the design. Atmospheric corrosion,
decay, or weathering tend to cause materials to deteriorate during service. And lastly,
some materials, such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced composites, can show high
variability in mechanical properties.
Sir Marvin Bartido
One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a number
called the factor of safety. The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure load to the
allowable load Here is found from experimental testing of the material, and the factor
of safety is selected based on experience so that the above mentioned uncertainties are
accounted for when the member is used under similar conditions of loading and
geometry. Stated mathematically,
𝐹𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed
𝑃 𝑉
within the member, as in the case of using 𝜎 = 𝐴 and 𝜏 = 𝐴 then we can also express
the factor of safety as a ratio of the failure stress 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 (or 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 ) to the allowable stress
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (or 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 );∗ that is,
𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐹. 𝑆. = 𝜎
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
or
𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
In any of these equations, the factor of safety must be greater than 1 in order to avoid
the potential for failure. Specific values depend on the types of materials to be used and
the intended purpose of the structure or machine. For example, the F.S. used in the
design of aircraft or space vehicle components may be close to 1 in order to reduce the
weight of the vehicle. Or, in the case of a nuclear power plant, the factor of safety for
some of its components may be as high as 3 due to uncertainties in loading or material
behavior. In many cases, the factor of safety for a specific case can be found in design
codes and engineering handbooks. These values are intended to form a balance of
ensuring public and environmental safety and providing a reasonable economic solution
to design.
17
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
18
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Important Point:
Design of a member for strength is based on selecting an allowable
stress that will enable it to safely support its intended load. Since there are
many unknown factors that can influence the actual stress in a member, then
depending upon the intended use of the member, a factor of safety is
applied to obtain the allowable load the member can support.
Sir Marvin Bartido
19
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find: σ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 ↻ +
Required diameter of the steel 3 3 +5
3
5 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 8 = 0
pin 5
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
Solution: σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → +
4
Internal Shear Force. A free-body −𝐹𝐴𝐵 − 𝐶𝑥 + 5
5
=0
diagram of the arm is shown in −3 − 𝐶𝑥 + 5
4
=0
Fig. (b). For equilibrium we have 5
𝐶𝑥 = 1 𝑘𝑖𝑝
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ↑ +
3
𝐶𝑦 − 3 − 5 =0
5
𝐶𝑦 = 6 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
20
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
𝐴 = 0.38018 𝑖𝑛2
21
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find:
The free-body diagram of the bar is
Determine the largest load P shown in Fig. 1–29b.
Solution:
Allowable stresses:
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐹.𝑆.
680
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
2
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 340 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = There are three unknowns. Here
𝐹.𝑆.
70 we will apply the moment
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = equations of equilibrium in order
2
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎 to express 𝐹𝐴𝐶 and 𝐹𝐵 in terms of
the applied load P. We have
𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 σ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ↻ +
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐹.𝑆.
900
−𝑃 1.25 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 2 = 0 (eq. 1)
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
2
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 450 𝑀𝑃𝑎 σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
−𝐹𝐵 2 + 𝑃 0.75 = 0 (eq. 2)
22
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
𝐹
35 103 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2 = 𝐵
0.0018 𝑚2
𝐹𝐵 = 63 𝑘𝑁
Using Eq. 2,
−63 2 + 𝑃 0.75 = 0 (eq. 2)
𝑃 = 168 𝑘𝑁
From Eq. 1,
−𝑃 1.25 + 114.51 2 = 0
𝑃 = 183.22 𝑘𝑁
23
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
Bearing Stress
If two bodies are pressed against each other, compressive forces are developed
on the area of contact. The pressure caused by these surface loads is called bearing
stress. It is also known as contact pressure.
Examples of bearing stress are the soil pressure beneath a pier and the contact
pressure between a rivet and the side of its hole. If the bearing stress is large enough, it
can locally crush the material, which in turn can lead to more serious problems. To
reduce bearing stress, engineers sometimes employ bearing plates, the purpose of
which is to distribute the contact forces over a large area.
Sir Marvin Bartido
As an illustration of bearing stress, consider the lap joint formed by the two
plates that are riveted together as shown in Fig. 1.12(a). The bearing stress caused by
the rivet is not constant; it actually varies from zero at the sides of the hole to a
maximum behind the rivet as illustrated in Fig. 1.12(b). The difficulty inherent in such a
complicated stress distribution is avoided by the common practice assuming that the
bearing stress 𝜎𝑏 is uniformly distributed over a reduced area. The reduced area 𝐴𝑏 is
taken to be the projected area of the rivet:
𝐴𝑏 = 𝑡𝑑
where t is the thickness of the plate and d represents the diameter of the rivet, as
shown in the FBD of the upper plate in Fig 1.12(c). From this FBD we see that the
bearing force 𝑃𝑏 equals the applied load P (the bearing load will be reduced if there is
friction between the plates), so that the bearing stress becomes
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏 = 𝑡𝑑
𝑏
The contact area (𝐴𝑏 ) is perpendicular to the internal compressive force (𝑃𝐵 )
acting in the separate bodies that are in contact with each other.
24
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
25
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. The lap joint shown in Fig. (a) is fastened by four rivets of ¾-in
diameter. Find the maximum load P that can be applied if the working
stresses are 14 ksi for shear in the rivet and 18 ksi for bearing in the
plate. Assume that the applied load is distributed evenly among the
four rivets, and neglect friction between the plates.
Sir Marvin Bartido
26
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find:
minimum bolt diameter and the
Sir Marvin Bartido
27
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Solution:
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
𝑃 − 110 − 𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 − 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0
Sir Marvin Bartido
𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏
𝑏
120.92 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑏 = (0.75 𝑚)(0.75 𝑚)
𝜎𝑏 = 214.97 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
28
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Cylindrical or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as
boilers or tanks. When under pressure, the material of which they are made is
subjected to a loading from all directions. Although this is the case, the vessel can be
analyzed in a simple manner provided it has a thin wall. In general,“thin wall” refers to a
𝑟
vessel having an inner-radius-to-wall-thickness ratio of 10 or more ≥ 10 .
𝑡
𝑟
Specifically, when 𝑡 = 10the results of a thin-wall analysis will predict a stress that is
𝑟
approximately 4% less than the actual maximum stress in the vessel. For larger 𝑡 ratios
this error will be even smaller.
Cylindrical pressure vessels, such as this gas tank, have semi-spherical end caps
rather than flat ones in order to reduce the stress in the tank.
29
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Cylindrical Vessels. Consider the cylindrical vessel in Fig. 8–1a, having a wall
thickness t, inner radius r, and subjected to a gauge pressure p that
developed within the vessel by a contained gas. Due to this loading, a small
element of the vessel that is sufficiently removed from the ends and
oriented as shown in Fig. 8–1a, is subjected to normal stresses 𝜎1 in the
circumferential (tangential) or hoop direction and 𝜎2 in the longitudinal or
axial direction.
Sir Marvin Bartido
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
2 𝜎1 𝑡 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑝 2𝑟 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = (tangential stress)
𝑡
30
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
31
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
This is the same result as that obtained for the longitudinal stress in
the cylindrical pressure vessel. Furthermore, from the analysis, this stress will
be the same regardless of the orientation of the hemispheric free-body
diagram. Consequently, a small element of the material is subjected to the
state of stress shown in Fig. 8–2a.
32
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
33
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find: 𝐹
𝑝=𝐴
Tangential stress in the steel wall 74780.39 𝑁
Sir Marvin Bartido
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝐹=
𝑘𝑔 𝜋 2
748.90 ൗ𝑚3 (9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2) 1.80 𝑚 (4 𝑚)
4
𝐹 = 74780.39 𝑁
34
REFERENCES
35
ASSESSMENT TASK
3. The three steel wires are used to support the load. If the wires have
an allowable tensile stress of 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 165 𝑀𝑃𝑎, and wire AB has a
diameter of 6 mm, BC has a diameter of 5 mm, and BD has a diameter
of 7 mm, determine the greatest force P that can be applied before
one of the wires fails.
36
ASSESSMENT TASK
37