Course Materials

in
Engineering
Thermodynamics 1
Lesson 1 and Lesson 2
Prepared
By

DR. A. R. ENRIQUEZ JR
 LESSON I: BASIC CONCEPT, PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTALS:

I.A. Definitions of Thermodynamics:

1. It is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, temperature, and their relation
to energy, radiation, and properties of matter.
2. It is a branch of physical science that deals with the related properties of matter, different energy
phenomena and the law of transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice-versa.

Figure 2.1.

Diagram of Thermodynamics Definition

Figure 2.2.

Diagram of Simple Conversion of Heat to Work

Figure: Reference = Healing Earth

Illustration of Heat Conversion to Work

FYI about transformation of Heat:

1. When transforming HEAT into OTHER FORMS of ENERGY (commonly WORK), the following
are required:

1. 1. Working Fluid: Any substance used as working medium in transforming heat into other forms of
energy. In the figure, the working fluid used is WATER.

1. 2. Thermodynamic System: This refers to a place where the transformation happens. In the figure, the
thermodynamic system are the HEATING VESSEL and the PISTON.

2. During the transformation of heat into other forms of energy, there is a need for the energy and mass to
cross the system’s boundary.

3. System’s boundary is a region, whether real or imaginary that separates the thermodynamic system
from its surrounding.

4. Once inside the thermodynamic system, the working fluid normally experience a change of state.

I.B. Branches of Thermodynamics:

1. Classical Thermodynamics: This branch deals with the description of the states of thermodynamic
systems at near equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model
exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics.

2. Chemical Thermodynamics: This branch is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical
reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
 3. Equilibrium Thermodynamics: It is the study of transfers of matter and energy in systems or bodies
that, by agencies in their surroundings, can be driven from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to
another.

N. B 3.1: The term 'thermodynamic equilibrium' indicates a state of balance, in which all macroscopic
flows are zero.

N.B 3.2. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined initial
equilibrium state, and given its surroundings, and given its constitutive walls, to calculate what will be
the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified thermodynamic operation has changed its
walls or surroundings.

4. Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics: This is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that
are not in thermodynamic equilibrium.

N.B 4.1. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in
stationary states and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and
from other systems.

N.B 4.2. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are
dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics.

5. Statistical Thermodynamics: This branch emerged with the development of atomic and molecular
theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics
with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-
mechanical states.

N.B. 5.1. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the
macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining
classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the
microscopic level.

I.C. Thermodynamic System:

As mentioned, this refers to a place where the transformation of heat into other forms of energy
happens.

FYI: Thermodynamic system is classified as CLOSE, OPEN, and ISOLATED system.

1. For CLOSED SYSTEM, only ENERGY is permitted/allowed to cross the system’s boundary.

2. For OPEN SYSTEM, both MASS and ENERGY are permitted/allowed to cross the system’s
boundary.

3. For ISOLATED SYSTEM, both MASS and ENERGY are not permitted/allowed to cross the
system’s boundary.
Figure: Reference = Clubtechnical.com

Illustration of Thermodynamic System Classifications

I.D. System of Measurement:

FYI 1. Physics is concerned chiefly with the laws and properties of the material science. As
such, it deals with MEASUREMENT. Every measured quantity involves the following:

1. A number or numeric which represent the number of times a unit is contained in a quantity
being measured.

2. A unit that gives the quantity used as the basis of comparison.

FYI 2. There are different systems of units used, but in any systems, certain quantities are taken
as FUNDAMENTALS. These fundamental quantities are generally, but not necessarily, the
MASS, LENGTH and TIME. All other physical quantities which are called DERIVED
QUANTITIES can be defined in terms of these fundamental quantities of the system.

FYI 3. Of many units used in engineering and science, two systems in common use are the
English System and the Metric (SI) System.

FYI 4. For clarification purposes, the official symbol, and standard units of all quantities to be
used in analysis will be specified. (English System and SI System respectively).
 LESSON II: PROPERTIES OF FLUID:

II. 1. Mass:

1. It is the measure of the absolute quantity of matter that comprises a given body.

2. This is a property of a physical object that quantifies the amount of matter it contains.

3. This is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (a change in its
state of motion) when a net force is applied.

4. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies.

Let m = symbol for mass → pound mass (lbm) kilogram (kg)

II. 2. Weight:

1. This is the force exerted by gravity on a body.

2. It is the force acting on the object due to gravity.

Let w = symbol for weight → pound force (lbf) kilonewton (kN)

II. 3. Volume:

1. This is the amount of space occupied by an object or a material.

2. It is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by a closed surface.

Let V = symbol for volume → cubic foot (ft3) for solid/gas cubic meter (m3)

Gallons for liquid

Relation between MASS, WEIGHT and VOLUME

A. Mass-Weight Relationship: The relation between mass and weight is given by the formula:
𝒎.𝒈𝒐
w= → pound force (lbf) kilonewton (kN)
𝒌

where: go = local gravitational acceleration → ft/s2 m/s2

k = conversion factor

FYI:

1. The values of k are: 1.1. English = 32.2lbm-ft/lbf-s2 1.2. SI = 1000kg-m/kN-s2

2. Local gravitational acceleration is the value of gravitational acceleration NUMERICALLY

DIFFERENT from the standard value.
3. The value of standard gravitational acceleration is:

3.1. English: gs = 32.2ft/s2 1.2. SI: gs = 9.81m/s2

4. Other weight units and conversion

1GN = 1giganewton = 1,000,000,000N 1kgf = 9.81N 1MT = 1metric ton = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑓

1MN = 1meganewton = 1,000,000N 1kgf = 2.205lbf 1English Ton = 2000𝑙𝑏𝑓

1kN = 1kilonewton = 1,000N

N.B: Mass is constant anywhere in the universe, only the weight change!

Sample Problems:

B. Mass – Volume Relation:

The relation between MASS and VOLUME is represented by a property called MASS
DENSITY. Let ρ = the symbol for mass density.

Mass Density: This is defined as mass per unit volume.

𝒎
ρ= → lbm/ft3 kg/m3
𝑽

FYI about the mass density of WATER and IDEAL GAS

1. For water, the standard value of its density is:

1.1. English: ρstd = 62.4 lbm/ft3 1.2. SI: ρstd = 1000 kg/m3

2. For air and other ideal gases, the measurable properties are PRESSURE and
TEMPERATURE, so use IDEAL GAS EQUATION in determining the density.
𝑷
ρ = 𝑹𝑻 → lbm/ft3 kg/m3

where: P = absolute pressure T = absolute temperature R = gas constant

2.1. If the value of R is not specified but the molecular weight of the gas is given, use
̅
𝑹
R = 𝑴𝑾 → ft-lbf/lbm-R kJ/kg-K

Where: Ṝ = Universal Gas Constant MW = molecular weight of the gas

2.2. The value of Universal Gas Constant is:

2.2.1. Ṝ = 1545 ft-lbf/lbmol-R 2.2.2. Ṝ = 8.3143 kJ/kgmol-K

3. The density of air at standard atmospheric pressure and 25°C is approximately 1.2 kg/m3.

C. Weight – Volume Relation:

The relation between WEIGHT and VOLUME is represented by a property called WEIGHT
DENSITY. Let γ = the symbol for weight density.

Weight Density: This is defined as weight per unit volume. It is also called specific weight.
𝒘
γ= → lbf/ft3 kN/m3
𝑽

Relation between mass density and weight density:

𝝆.𝒈𝒐
γ= → lbf/ft3 kN/m3
𝒌

FYI about the weight density of WATER and IDEAL GAS

1. For water, the standard value of its weight density is:

1.1. English: Ɣ𝒔𝒕𝒅 = 62.4 lbm/ft3 1.2. SI: Ɣ𝒔𝒕𝒅 = 9.81kg/m3

2. For air and other ideal gases, use

𝝆.𝒈𝒐
γ= 𝒌

II.4. Specific Volume:

1. This is the reciprocal of mass density.

2. This is volume per unit mass.

Let υ = be the symbol

𝟏 𝑽
υ=𝝆=𝒎 → ft3/lbm m3/kg

FYI about the specific volume of WATER and IDEAL GAS

1. To determine the specific volume of water at any given temperature, use steam table.

2. For air and other gases, compute first its density, then apply the above formula.

II.5. Specific Gravity:

1. This is the ratio of the density of any substance to the standard density of an equivalent volume of
water. This is applicable for both solid and liquid.

2. For gases, this is the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to the molecular weight of air.
Let SG = be the symbol
𝝆𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒔
SG = 𝝆 → for liquids
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑮𝒂𝒔

SG = → for gases
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒊𝒓

FYI about the specific gravity:

1. This is also called RELATIVE DENSITY.

2. Unless otherwise specified, the molecular weight of air is taken as 29.

3. Relation between specific weight and specific gravity:

3. 1. SI System:
𝒌𝑵
Ɣ𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆= 𝑺𝑮𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 x 𝒈𝒐 → 𝒎𝟑

3.2. English System:

𝟔𝟐.𝟒 𝒍𝒃
a. 𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆= ( )𝑺𝑮𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 x 𝒈𝒐 → 𝒇𝒕𝒇𝟑 use this if 𝒈𝒐 ≠ 𝒈𝒔
𝟑𝟐.𝟐

𝒍𝒃𝒇
b. 𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆= (𝟔𝟐. 𝟒)𝑺𝑮𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 → use this if 𝒈𝒐 = 𝒈𝒔
𝒇𝒕𝟑

II.6. Temperature:

1. This is the measure of the degree of HOTNESS or COLDNESS of a body.

2. It is a manifestation of heat.

3. It is that condition of a body that causes it to transfer heat from point to point.

FYI about temperature:

1. The temperatures used in thermodynamics and other physical science calculations are:

1.1. Arbitrary Temperature: This is the temperature measured using man-made instrument
such as thermometer, thermocouple, and pyrometer.

Let t = the symbol for arbitrary temperature → oF oC

1.2. Absolute Temperature: This is the temperature measured from absolute zero region.

Let T = the symbol for absolute temperature → R = Rankine K = Kelvin

N.B: Always use the ABSOLUTE VALUE of TEMPERATURE in all thermodynamics and
other physical science calculation!

2. To convert an arbitrary temperature to absolute value, use the following formula:

2.1. English System: T = 𝒕𝑭 + 460 → R

2.2. SI System: T = 𝒕𝑪 + 273 → K

II.7. Pressure:

1. This is defined as force per unit area.

2. This is the amount of force applied at right angles to the surface of an object per unit area.

3. It is a continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by something in contact with it.

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒌𝑵
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = → = 𝒑𝒔𝒊 = 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒎𝟐

FYI about pressure:

1. Other pressure units used in thermodynamics:

𝒍𝒃𝒇
1.1. English System: = 𝒑𝒔𝒇, 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝒈 , 𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝒇𝒕𝟐

𝑵 𝑴𝑵 𝑵
1.2. SI System: 𝑷𝒂 = 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝒎𝟐
, 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝑴𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝒎𝟐
= 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝑮𝑵 𝒌𝒈𝒇
𝑮𝑷𝒂 = 𝑮𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝒎𝟐
, 𝒄𝒎𝟐
, Torricelli, bar

Also: 1 Torr. = 1mmHg and 1bar = 100kPa

2. Kinds of pressure normally encountered and used in thermodynamics calculations:

A. Atmospheric Pressure: This is the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere in our
surroundings, or it is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. Use 𝑷𝒐 as symbol!

FYI about Atmospheric Pressure:

1. Atmospheric pressure is also called barometric pressure, surrounding condition or zero gage.

2. At the sea-level, the atmospheric pressure is called standard atmospheric pressure and equivalent to
ONE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE.

3. The equivalent of ONE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE in the different systems of measurement are:

1 standard atmosphere = 14.7psia 29.92inchesHg 34feetH2O

1 standard atmosphere = 101.325kPa 1.033kg/cm2 760mmHg

4. Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called BAROMETER.

5. Atmospheric pressure is considered ABSOLUTE already.

6. An atmospheric pressure whose value is NUMERICALLY DIFFERENT from the standard is called
LOCAL ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. Examples: 13.5psia, 102kPa, 30” Hg, 755mmHg

B. Gage Pressure: This is the pressure measured above an existing atmospheric pressure. Use 𝐩𝐠 as
symbol.

C. Vacuum Pressure: This is the pressure measured below an existing atmospheric pressure. Use 𝐩𝐯 as
symbol.

FYI about Gage and Vacuum Pressure:

1. Gage and vacuum pressures are the pressures normally seen in many real-life thermodynamic systems.

2. These two pressures can be measured by pressure measuring devices such as bourdon gauge and
manometers.

Bourdon Gauge
To determine the pressure reading using the above instrument, remember this:

1. If the needle is pointing to ZERO → The pressure is ATMOSPHERIC

2. If the needle is pointing to > ZERO → The pressure is GAGE
3. If the needle is pointing to < ZERO → The pressure is VACUUM

D. Absolute Pressure: This is the pressure measured from absolute zero region. Use 𝑷 as symbol.

FYI about Absolute Pressure:

1. This is a pressure that is relative to the zero pressure in the empty, air-free space of the universe.
2. This reference pressure is the ideal or absolute vacuum.

N.B: Always use the ABSOLUTE VALUE of PRESSURE in all thermodynamics and other
physical science calculation!

3. The pressures that must be converted to absolute value are the gage and vacuum pressure.
4. To convert gage and vacuum pressure to absolute value, use the following formulas:

4.1. For gage pressure, use: 𝑷 = 𝑷𝑶 + 𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 → psia kPa

4.1. For vacuum pressure, use: 𝑷 = 𝑷𝑶 − 𝒑𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 → psia kPa

5. If atmospheric pressure (𝑷𝑶 ) is not specified, not given, or cannot be determined, use the
STANDARD VALUE!

6. If there is a specified LOCAL ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, used it in formulas 4.1 and 4.2.

FYI about Pressure unit conversion:

When converting any given pressure from one unit to another unit, use the standard value of
atmospheric pressure as conversion factor.

Problems: Properties of Fluid Calculations:

A. Mass and weight calculations:

1. Find the weight in kN of a 10kg body located in Mars if the gravitational acceleration at the Mars
surface is 39% only of the earth’s gravity.
a. 0.04 b. 0.045 c. 0.050 d. 0.055
2. A spring scale is used to measure force. During a trip to the moon, an astronaut carrying this scale
weighs a sample of moon’s rock and the scale reads 4.5kg. If the spring were calibrated for earth’s
gravitational pull and the moon’s gravitational attraction is 1.8m/s2, determine the weight in kg of the
rocks on the earth.
a. 22. 525 b. 23.545 c. 24.525 d. 25.525
3. The total weight of an airplane at sea level is 20kips. Determine the weight of this plane in kN when
flying at an altitude of 50,000ft. NOTE: The acceleration of gravity decreases by 3.33 x 10-6 fps2 per
foot of elevation.
a. 89 b. 90 c. 95 d. 100
4. A solid fuel rockets used by the newly developed spaceship developed 10 million pounds of thrust on
takeoff. Determine the mass of the payload in pounds that it can accelerate at 100ft/ s2 from the surface
of the earth.
a. 1.44x106 b. 2.44x106 c. 3.44x106 d. 4.44x106

B. Mass Density, Weight Density, Specific Gravity Calculations:

1. A cylindrical can 150mm in diameter is filled to a depth of 100mm with a fuel oil. The oil has a mass
of 1.56kg. Calculate the density, weight density and relative density of the oil. Answers: 881, 8.65,
0.881.
2. It is estimated that the mass of the earth is 5.98 x 1024kg, its mean radius is 6.38 x 106m. How does the
density of earth compare with the standard density of water?
a. 3.2times b. 4.8times c. 6.15times d. 5.5times
3. What volume of mercury (SG= 13.54) in liters would weigh the same as 0.020m3 of fuel oil, which has
a specific weight of 9.42kN/m3?
a. 1.42 b. 2.42 c. 3.42 d. 4.42
4. A pump delivers 75gpm of water (SG = 0.993) to a vertical cylindrical tank 10ft in diameter and 10ft
high. Find the following:
a. The mass flow rate of water in lbm/min. 622
b. The time required to fill the tank in minutes. 78.3
5. A wastewater pump delivers water into a 3-m per side cubical tank at the rate of 300L/min. The
specific gravity of the wastewater is 1.2. Calculate the mass flow rate of wastewater in kg/s and the
time required to completely fill the tank in hours.
a. 6 & 1.5 b. 6.5 & 2.0 c. 6.75 & 2.5 d. 6.25 & 3.0
6. An unknown gas whose gas constant is 0.267kJ/kg-K is at an absolute pressure of 1bar and 25oC. If
local gravity is 9.75m/s2, determine the following!
a. The mass density. → 1.257kg/m3
b. The weight density. → 0.0123kN/m3
7. Air at standard atmospheric pressure of 101.325kPa has a weight density of 12.02N/m3. Find its
temperature in oC.
a. 15.2 b.16.2 c. 17.2 d. 18.2
8. A gas which is a known product of combustion has a mass density of 1.799kg/m3 at 25oC and
101.325kPa. Find the gas constant in kJ/kg-K and identify the gas.
a. 0.169 b. 0. 178 c. 0.189 d. 0.199

C. Temperature Calculation:

1. Change the following to the desired temperature unit.

a. 68oF to oC and Kelvin → 20oC and 293K
b. 25oC to oF and Rankine → 77oF and 537R
c. -40oF to Kelvin → 233K
2. A new temperature scale is developed by a certain scientist in which the boiling and freezing point of
water at normal atmospheric pressure are at 80oP and 30oP, respectively. If this thermometer reads 70oP,
compute the absolute temperature of water in Kelvin and Rankine. Answers = 353&635.4
3. A pollution engineer in one of his study about industrial solvent proposes a new temperature scale base
on 100oX and 250oX as the freezing and boiling point of water at normal barometric condition,
respectively. Determine the absolute temperature of water in Rankine when his thermometer reads
60oX.
a. 444 b. 445 c. 446 d. 447
4. A Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometer is both immersed in water. Calculate the absolute temperature
of water in K and R when the two thermometers give an identical reading:
a. 230&450 b. 233&415 c. 233&433 d. 235&420

5. A new temperature scale is desired with a freezing point of water at 0oX and the boiling point at
1000oX. If this scale reads 500oX, determine the absolute temperature in Kelvin and Rankine.
a. 323&583 b. 323&582 c. 322&583 d. 322&582

D. Pressure Calculation:

1. In a steam power plant, the steam exhausting from the turbine enters the condenser at a pressure of
2inHg vacuum. Determine the equivalent absolute value of this pressure in the following units.
a. kPa if the atmospheric pressure is standard → 95.55
b. psia if the barometric pressure is 29.6inHg → 13.56
c. bar if the atmospheric pressure is 754mmHg → 0.74
2
d. kg/cm if the atmospheric pressure is 762Torr → 0.964
2. Given the barometric pressure of 14.5psia, make the following conversion:

a. 80psig to psia → 94.5 c. 110psia to Torr gage = 4937.415

b. 20inHg vac to bar → 0.656

List of References

1. Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala: FLUID MECHANICS: FUNDAMENTALS AND

APPLICATIONS, THIRD EDITION, Published by McGraw-Hill, New York, NY 10020.
Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
2. Michael L. Boles and Yunus A. Cengel: THERMODYNAMICS: AN ENGINEERING
APPROACH, EIGHTH EDITION, Published by McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY 10121.
Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education.
3. Munson, Bruce R., Young, Donald F., Okiishi, Theodore H., Huebsch, Wade W. Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley &
Sons.
4. Virgil Moring Faires, Clifford M. Simmang, Alexander Brewer: Problems on Thermodynamics,
6th ed., McMillan Publishing Company, Inc., Copyright © 2009 by
5. Committee on Physics, composed of professors from MIT, NU, UST, TIP, FU, UP, chaired by
Pof. Magtira, Dr. del Rosario, Dr. Zara: College Physics, Part 1, Quezon City, c1962.