DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY

POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM

The Effect of Seeding Rate and Cultivars on Yield and Yield Components of

BreadWheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) in Gozamin Woreda, East Gojjam.

M.Sc. Thesis Research Proposal

By

Yosef Abateneh

College: College of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Department: Plant Sciences

Program: M.Sc. in Agronomy

Major Advisor: Dr. Mesfin A.

Co-Advisor: Mr. Yirsaw H.

September, 2020

Debre Markos, Ethiopia

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Table of Contents Page
Table of Contents..........................................................................................................................i

List of table.....................................................................................................................................iii

LIST OF
ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….iv

1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1

1.1Background and Justification..................................................................................................1

1.2 Statement of the problem.......................................................................................................4

1.3 Objectives of the Study..........................................................................................................5

1.3.1. General Objective...........................................................................................................5

1.3.2. Specific Objectives.........................................................................................................5

1.4. Research Question.................................................................................................................5

2. Literature Review........................................................................................................................6

2.1 Bread Wheat Production, Consumption and Distribution.....................................................6

2.2 Importance and uses of wheat................................................................................................8

2.3. Thousand Kernel weight.......................................................................................................9

2.4. Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Requirement for Wheat Production...........................................9

2.5. Wheat Seeding Rate............................................................................................................10

2.5.1 Factors affecting seeding rate of bread wheat...............................................................12

2.5.2.Wheat Grain Yield as Influenced by Seeding Rate.......................................................14

2.5.3. Yield components of wheat as influenced by seeding rate..........................................14

3. Materials and Method................................................................................................................16

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 3.1 Experimental Site.................................................................................................................16

3.2. Experimental Materials.......................................................................................................17

3.3. Experimental Design...........................................................................................................18

3.4 Data Collection....................................................................................................................19

3.4.1Phenological data...........................................................................................................19

Plant height (PH)........................................................................................................................19

Effective Tiller number (ETN)..................................................................................................19

Spike length (SL).......................................................................................................................19

3.4.2 Yield and yield components parameters.......................................................................19

(a) Spike number (SN):..............................................................................................................19

(b) Kernel number (KN):...........................................................................................................19

(c) 1000-kernel weight (g):........................................................................................................20

(d) Biomass yield (BY):.............................................................................................................20

(e) Grain yield (GY):..................................................................................................................20

(f) Straw Yield (SY)...................................................................................................................20

(g) Harvest Index (HI):..............................................................................................................20

3.5 Statistical Analysis...............................................................................................................20

Correlation analyses...................................................................................................................20

Economic analysis......................................................................................................................21

Soil Sampling and Analysis.......................................................................................................21

4. EXPECTED OUT COME AND BENEFICIARIES.................................................................21

4.1. Expected outcome...............................................................................................................21

4.2. Beneficiaries........................................................................................................................21

5. WORK PLAN............................................................................................................................22

6. BUDGET BREAKDOWN........................................................................................................23

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 6.1. Detailed Budget...................................................................................................................24

6.2. Budget summary.................................................................................................................25

7. REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................26

Appendix
1……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………31

Appendix
2……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….32

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List of table

Table1.Treatments and treatment

combinations…………………………………………………………………… 17

Table 2, prepared work plan to conduct the

experiment……………………………………………………….22

Table 3: Budget details

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…23

Table 4: Summery of
budgets……………………………………………………………………………………………
……..25

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency

BY Biomass yield

CEC cation exchange capacity

CSA Central Statistical Agency

CIMMYT International Center for Wheat and Maize Improvement

DM dry-mass

ETN Effective Tiller number

EGTE Ethiopian grain trade enterprise

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GY grain yield

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GWAO Gozamin Woreda Agriculture Office

HI Harvest index

KN Kernel Number

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

PH Plant Height

RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design

SNNPSouth Nation and Nationalities of People

SL Spike Length

SN Spike Number

SY Straw Yield

UNDP United Nation Development Program

USA United States of America

USDA United States Department Agriculture

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1Background and Justification

Wheat (Triticum spp. Aestivum L.) is a cereal grain crop, originally from the Levant region of
the Near East but now cultivated worldwide and it is a member of Poaceae family source.

The cultivation of wheat (Triticum spp.) reaches far back into history. Wheat was one of the first
domesticated food crops and for 8,000 years has been the basic staple food of the major
civilizations of Europe, West Asia, and North-East Africa. Today, wheat is grown on more land
area than any other commercial crop and continues to be the most important food grain source
for humans. Its production leads all crops, including rice, maize and potatoes source. Wheat is
the best of the cereal foods and provides more nourishment for humans than any other food
source. There are fifteen recognized species within the genus Triticum (Hanson et al., 1982).
About 90% of the world’s wheat production consists of three species: Triticum aestivum
(common or bread wheat), Triticum compactum (club wheat) and Triticum durum (durum or
macaroni wheat). Wheat is a crop of temperate region. Currently it is also becoming most
important cereals grown on a large scale in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world
(Onwueme and Sinha, 1999). The raised bread loaf is possible because the wheat kernel contains
gluten, an elastic form of protein that traps minute bubbles of carbon dioxide when fermentation
occurs in leavened dough, causing the dough to rise (Hanson et al., 1982).

Triticumaestivum, common or bread wheat, is an annual grass in the Poaceae (grass family)
native to the Mediterranean region and southwest Asia, which is one of several species of
cultivated wheat, now grown in temperate climates worldwide. Wheat is one of the top two
cereal crops grown in the world for human consumption, along with rice (Oryza sativa). (Corn,
Zea mays, is grown in larger amounts than either rice or wheat, but a significant portion of it is
used for livestock feed and biofuel, rather than human food) Source.

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Bread wheat is one of the most ancient of domesticated crops, with archaeological evidence of
the cultivation of various species in the Fertile Crescent dating back to 9,600 B.C. The various
species have been developed into thousands of cultivars (over 25,000, by one estimate) that
differ in chromosome number from the primitive diploid types, with 7 pairs of chromosomes, to
hybrid allopolyploids, with 14, 21, and 28 chromosome pairs. Cultivars are variously categorized
according to their horticultural requirements (spring vs. winter wheat), texture and food uses
(hard wheat, which often contains more gluten and is used for bread; vs. pastry or flour wheat,
used for cakes, biscuits, and cookies), or by growth form and seed characteristics (the varieties
aestivum, compactum, and spelta are among the six major categories recognized).

Bread wheat is high in carbohydrates, protein (although it lacks several essential amino acids),
and vitamins B and E (if the grain is left whole) is used in countless breads and baked goods, and
is an important source of calories for over 1 billion people in the world. Bread wheat can be
refined into starch and wheat germ oil, and wheat gluten (the proteins that make it sticky) is used
in many products. Bread wheat is also used to make beer and as animal fodder. The FAO
estimates that global commercial production of all types of wheat was 650.9 million metric tons
in 2010, harvested from 217.0 million hectares; it is grown on around 4% of the planet’s
agricultural land. Leading producers were China, India, the U.S., the Russian Federation, and
France. Within the U.S., the states that were leading producers include Kansas, Montana, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Idaho, and Washington (Bailey et al. 1976, FAOSTAT 2012, Flora of
China 2006, Hedrick 1919, USDA 2012, van Wyk 2005.)

Ethiopia is the second largest bread wheat producer in Sub-Saharan Africa next to South Africa.
Wheat is one of the major staple crops in the country in terms of both production and
consumption. In terms of caloric intake, it is the second most important food in the country next
to maize (FAO, 2014). In the 2012/13 meher season, about 4.8 million farmers grew wheat, and
more than 1.6 million hectares of land were dedicated to bread wheat cultivation, constituting
13.5 percent of the national grain area (CSA, 2013). Bread Wheat production during 2012/13
meher season was 3.4 million metric tons, accounting for 15 percent of the total grain output in
the country (CSA, 2012, 2013).Based on CSA, 2013; both production and productivity of bread

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wheat in Ethiopia has substantially increasing due to improved agronomic practices and
improved varieties.

However, wheat production is limited with disease, low productivity, limited availability of
varieties especially using of old improved and sole variety Kekeba, Ogoloncho, Kingbird in the
study area. Hence, to make an effective selection for grain yield, understanding the genetic
variability, heritability and genetic advance as percent of mean as well as the association of grain
yield with yield contributing characters is important (Birhanu et al., 2016).

According to Abhilasha et al. (2018), the availability of a wide variability provides the breeder
with a greater chance of selecting desired material. In addition, to evolve superior genotype for
further hybridization and selection it is important to get precise information on the nature and
degree of genetic diversity present in wheat collections from principal areas of cultivation.
Existence of genetic diversity is very essential to meet the present and future crop breeding
challenges. It is a prerequisite for the development of improved cultivars with wider adaptability
and broad genetic base (Hailu, 2011).

Therefore, genetic variation of bread wheat varieties based on phonological, growth and quality
traits selection was conducted to evaluate and identify high yielding and good quality of bread
wheat based on the difference in the genetic makeup of the varieties at wonka Kebele in
Gozamin district.

Bread wheat is the third important crop next to teff and barley in area coverage(-ha) and second
in productivity (16.4q/ha) after maize (23.5q/ha)in Amhara region. Similar to the national and
regional pictures wheat in East Gojjam is the second crop next to teff in area coverage and it is
third in productivity (25.09q/ha) after maize and sorghum(CSA, 2017). Accordingly, in
GozaminWoreda of east Gojjam zone, wheat is the first important crop in area coverage
followed by maize and teff (Gozamin Woreda Agricultural Office, 2020).

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1.2 Statement of the problem
Bread wheat is the most important crop in Ethiopia. However, the average productivity of bread
wheat is very low as compared to the productivity of world bread wheat production which
attributes to poor agronomic practices like inappropriate seeding rate, inappropriate use of
recommended fertilizer, improper adjustment of row spacing, and other factors like: soil fertility
degradation, soil erosion, inappropriate weeding practices, occurrence of different insect pest and
diseases. Different organizations recommend different seeding rates and cultivars in the study
Woreda, for example Adet research center recommend 125kg/ha and 20cm, the Amhara region
agriculture bureau recommends 150kg/ha and 20cm-30cm (package recommendation, 2020),
while Ethiopia seed enterprise 200kg/ha and 20cm-30cm ,Agricultural Transformation Agency
(ATA) recommends 100kg/ha and 20cm-30cm seeding rate and row spacing respectively. The
reality however is the majorities of farmers in the Woreda do not properly use the recommended
seeding rate and cultivars (GWAO, 2020). Therefore, the potential productivity of bread wheat in
the area is not well exploited. There are a lot studies undergone before related to yr topic, justify
the major reasons to answer the question “What makes your research differed from
others”otherwise it will be unnecessary!!!

Generally, Statement of the problem is poorly written, add more justification related with your
title

Hence, a research to evaluate different seeding rates and cultivars in the experiment area is very
important to utilize the genetic potential of bread wheat in the study area. Therefore this study is
initiated with the following objectives:

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General Objective

 The objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of different seed rates and cultivars of
bread wheat in the study area.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

 To evaluate the effect of different cultivars on yield and yield components of bread
wheat.
 To determine the optimum seeding rate of bread wheat.
 To investigate the interaction effect of seeding rate and cultivars on yield and yield
components of bread wheat.

1.4. Research Question

 What will be the amount of seeds used in a hectare to get maximum yield of bread
wheat in the study area?
 What will be the cultivars for maximum bread wheat production in the study area?
 What will be the interaction effect of seeding rates and cultivars of bread wheat in the
study area?

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2. Literature Review

2.1 Bread Wheat Production, Consumption and Distribution

Bread wheat, one of the most important staple food crops, is grown on about 225 million ha
worldwide from the equator to latitudes of 60 N and 440S and at altitudes ranging from sea level
to more than 3000 m. Approximately 600 million tons of wheat is produced annually, roughly
half of which is in developing countries (Aquino et al., 2002). The only limitation production is
humid and high-temperature areas in the tropics and high latitude environments where fewer
than 90 frost-free days are available for crop growth. The world’s largest producers of wheat are
China, India, and the USA, producing annually 100, 70, and 64million tons with productivities of
3.8, 2.6, and 2.9 t/ha, respectively (Aquino et al., 2002). Only 10% of total wheat produced is
sold on the export market, the primary exporting countries are USA, Canada, Australia, and
France, and developing countries consume most of the wheat sold on the export market (Aquino
et al., 2002). In some countries, such as those in North Africa, per capita consumption of wheat
is as high as 240 kg (FAO, 2001).

Out of the total grain crop area in Ethiopia, 79.98% (8.5million hectares) was under cereals. Teff,
maize, wheat and sorghum took up 22.70% (2.4 million hectares), 16.00% (1.7 million hectares),
13.91% (nearly 1.5 million hectares) and 13.82% (nearly 1.5 million hectares) of the grain crop
area, respectively. Cereals contributed 86.12% (about 128.8 million quintals) of the grain
production. Maize, wheat, teff and sorghum made up 25.25% (37.8 million quintals), 16.47%
(24.6 million quintals), 16.30% (24.4 million quintals) and 15.49% (23.2 million quintals) of the
grain production in the same order (CSA, 2006).

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Ethiopia is the second largest bread wheat producer in Sub-Saharan Africa next to South Africa.
Bread wheat is one of the major staple crops in the country in terms of both production and
consumption. In terms of caloric intake, it is the second most important food in the country next
to maize (FAO, 2014). Bread wheat is mainly grown in the highlands of Ethiopia, which lie
between 6 and 16° N and 35 and 42° E, at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 2800 meters above sea
level and with mean minimum temperatures of 6OC to 11OC (Hailu, 1991; MOA, 2012). There
are two varieties of wheat grown in Ethiopia: durum wheat, accounting for 60 percent of
production, and bread wheat, accounting for the remaining 40 percent (Bergh et al., 2012).
Oromia accounts for over half of national wheat production (54 percent), followed by Amhara
(32 percent); Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) (9 percent); and Tigray (7
percent) (CSA, 2013). Of the current total wheat production area, about 75 percent is located in
the Arsi, Bale and Shewa wheat belts (MOA, 2012).Forty-six percent of the 13 million ha
classified as highly suitable for wheat production is located in Arsi and Shewa. Altitude plays an
important role in the distribution of wheat production through its influence on rainfall,
temperature, and diseases.

In the 2012/13 meher season, about 4.8 million farmers grew wheat, and more than 1.6 million
hectares of land were dedicated to wheat cultivation, constituting 13.5 percent of the national
grain area (CSA, 2013). Wheat production during 2012/13 meher season was 3.4 million metric
tons, accounting for 15 percent of the total grain output in the country (CSA, 2012, 2013).
Official statistics indicate that wheat production in 2012/13 was 18 percent higher than in the
previous year, and wheat production has steadily increased over the last decade. Data from the
Central Statistics Agency (CSA) indicate that the observed increase in wheat production over the
last ten years can be attributed both to expansion of production area and yield improvements.
Between1995/96 and 2012/13 wheat production area increased from 0.8million ha to 1.6 million
ha, and yield increased from 1.2t/ha to 2.1 t/ha. Wheat produced in Ethiopia is used mainly for
domestic food consumption, seed, and industrial use. For instance, in 2012/13 household
consumption accounted for 58 percent of the total wheat produced. Seed and sales represented
about19percent each, and the remainder is used for animal feed and as in-kind payments for
labor. Of the total wheat sold, about 50percent is commercialized within farmers’ district to local
retailers and consumers (Breghetal. 2012). On average, households in Ethiopia spend 9percent of
their total per capita food expenditure on wheat, second only to maize. (Berhaneetal, 2011).

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Wheat accounts for about 10-15 percent of all the calories consumed in country (Berhaneetal.
2011; FAO, 2014). Moreover, estimated total wheat Consumption (for food, seed and industrial
use) is rapidly increasing at the national level.

Annual wheat consumption reached 4.2million metric tons in 2012/13 from2million metric tons
in 1995/96 (USDA, 2013). According to Abu(2013), wheat consumption growth is higher in
urban areas due to higher population growth, changes in life style, and the rising prices for teff.
Although wheat production has significantly increased over the last 15 years, domestic
production consistently falls short of consumption requirements, so the country is net importer of
wheat. Wheat is by far the most important staple imported from abroad–most commercial
imports and humanitarian food aid takes the form of wheat. Although the ratio of imported wheat
to domestic production has declined in recent years, bread wheat production self‐sufficiency is
only about 78 percent (CSA, 2013; USDA, 2013). Bread wheat imports account for about
22percent of the domestic consumption and33percent of the bread wheat market (Abu, 2013).
All commercial wheat imports to Ethiopia are controlled by the Ethiopian Grain Trade Enterprise
(EGTE), which makes wheat available to flour mills, consumer associations, and organized
government and private employed staff at subsidized prices (Bergh et al., 2012; Abu, 2013).
While the subsidy on imported wheat aims at keeping wheat prices low for (urban) consumers, it
has the indirect effect of reducing prices paid to wheat farmers, thus discouraging domestic
wheat production and sales. Only in 2012/13 marketing season did the EGTE resume the local
purchase of wheat, after three years of relying entirely on international purchases. However,
EGTE only purchased 15,000MT, which is about 2.5 percent ofthe2013 commercial imports, so
the local purchase program had a negligible effect in stimulating domestic production.

2.2 Importance and uses of wheat

Bread wheat is the widely grown food crop in the world (585 x10 metric tons of grain produced
in 1996, relative to 562 x10 mt of rice). World wheat production doubled during the 25 year
period to 1984-85 (Briggle and Curtis 1987) and in absolute terms, more than half of this
increase occurred in the developed world.

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Whilst the consumption of wheat products is long-standing in developed countries, in developing
countries, it represents a valuable source of calories and protein. The consumption of wheat in
developing countries increased by 73% in the 10 year period 1972-82 (Briggle and Curtis 1987).

The primary use of wheat is to produce food for humans. Grain that is not good enough for
human food is used for animal feed. Many different food products are made from the different
classes of wheat (Beuerlein, 2001).Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened,
flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous and
for fermentation to make beer, other alcoholic beverages, bio fule. Bread wheat is planted to a
limited extent as a forage crop for livestock.

Traditionally, bread wheat is used for making "dabo", "dabokolo","genfo", "kinche" and other
types of food. The straw is good source for animal feed and is also used for thatching roofs. The
potential of bread wheat will be its entry into the export market, if production is expanded and
productivity is increased. This will save the foreign currency used to import bread wheat.

2.3. Thousand Kernel weight

In bread wheat, Kernel weight can give an indication of flour yield since large, well filled dense
grain will contain a greater amount of endosperm (Tadesse, 2003).Thousand grain weights can
sometimes be improved by using appropriate seeding rate and cultivars, latter applications,
particularly when flag leaf senescence’s delayed by nitrogen applications after flag leaf
emergence (Gooding and Davies, 1997). As well as maintaining yield increasing phosphate
availability has improved thousand grain weight and specific weight (Hagras, 1985). From
studies conducted in the Nitosol zones of the central highlands of Ethiopia, a positive and linear
response of bread wheat to appropriate seeding rate and cultivars and applied N fertilizer was
evident in selected agronomic parameters such as plant height, number of spikes m-2, thousand
kernel weights of grains and grain yield (Amsal et al., 2000).

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2.4. Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Requirement for Wheat Production
Wheat can be produced on different soils. However, for better production fertile soil is required.
Wheat thrives on well-drained, fertile to heavy textured soils particularly silt and clay loams with
a high nutrient status. Fertilizers, particularly those containing nitrogen and phosphorus, are the
major inputs affecting wheat yield and quality (Bacon 1995). Therefore, maintaining crop
nutrition is vital in growing a healthy crop and for achieving high yield and quality. The
management of the nutritional needs of crops can vary depending on soil conditions and the
actual development of the crop Asnakew et al.(1991)and Efrem et al(2000) indicated that are the
major reasons why productivity of wheat under small holder farming system in Ethiopia is too
low in the highlands is the gradual depletion of soil nutrients. Nitrogen and phosphorus are in the
order are the two major nutrients that Limit crop production and will even become more
important with intensified use of high yielding crops/cropping systems(Efrem et al(2000).

2.5. Wheat Seeding Rate

Seeding rate is an important factor can influence on yield and quality of bread wheat
(TriticumaestivumL.). Traditionally, bread wheat seeds are broadcasted on the prepared surface
in the study area. Soil is prepared mainly by animal power even in the mountains (steep slope).
Poor seed bed (land) preparation and seed broadcasting have been identified as major causes of
lower bread wheat productivity in the study area. Adoption of seeding rate or cultivars by all
farmers is expected in near future. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on proper seeding
rate and cultivars direction required for maximal yield of wheat varieties. We, therefore,
designed an experiment to examine the effect of seeding rate and cultivars on yield and yield
attributing characters and grain yield of bread wheat.

Plant density is one of the major factors determining the ability of the crop to capture resources;
it is of particular importance that it is being under fairly close control by the farmers in most
bread wheat producing systems. There has been interest in defining the relationships between
density and crop yield quantitatively in order to establish optimum populations and maximum

10
attainable yields under various situations. As a result, the effect of density on bread wheat plant
size and crop productivity has received attention (Harper, 1977). There is no uniform
recommendation by agronomists regarding the seeding rate for unit area, for example, Ciha
(1993) reported that higher yield can be obtained by sowing 75 kg seed ha-1. While Singh and
Singh (1984), Khan (1993) and Shah (1994) recommended 100 kg seeding rate ha-1 for
obtaining higher grain yield of bread wheat. The farmers are growing different varieties of bread
wheat under the same ecological conditions using the same seeding rate. There is a great
variability in the obtained yield.

Although wheat production of Pakistan is increasing sufficiently but the average per acre yield
in Pakistan (2639 kg/ha; Govt. of Pakistan, 2010) is far below than the world’s average and that
of developed countries of the world such as Germany (7282 kg/ha), Egypt (6251 kg/ha), Mexico
(4404 kg/ha) and China (3729 kg/ha) (FAO, 2002). Even with in the country there is much
difference in yield gap in average (2639 kg/ha) as compared to the potential (7200 kg/ha) of our
existing wheat varieties. It is desired to have higher yield per unit area to meet the increasing
demand of food grain for rapidly growing population of the country. The main factors
responsible for low yield are less or more plant population and inadequate crop nutrition. Plant
density is a major factor determining the ability of the crop to capture resources and generate
yield. It can be developed by using a suitable seeding rate. Growth and yield of wheat are
affected by environmental conditions and can be regulated by sowing time and seeding rate
(Ozturket al., 2005). Maximum genetic potential of high yielding wheat varieties cannot be
harvested without ensuring proper seeding rate. It is of particular importance in wheat production
because it is under the farmers control in most cropping systems (Satorre, 1999). Consequently,
there is value in defining relationships between density, tiller production and wheat yield to
establish optimum seeding rates for various regions (Anderson and Sawkins, 1997).

As the plant density increases, the competition for resources especially for nitrogen also
increases that badly affect the ultimate yield. Provision of additional nitrogen can be
hypothesized to further enhance the yield by increasing plant population but up to an optimum
level. Further higher nitrogen can lead to the lodging of plants at higher seed rate (Naziret al.,
2000). Nitrogen occupies a conspicuous place in plant metabolism. All vital processes in plant
are associated with protein, of which nitrogen is an essential constituent. Consequently to get

11
more crop production, nitrogen availability is essential in the form of chemical fertilizers. Proper
use of nitrogen is also considered for farm profitability and environment protection
(Makowskiemployed to compare the differences among the treatments means (Steel et al., 1997).

In addition, optimum plant population should be maintained so as to achieve the expected yield
of crop in a given area. According to Acquaah (2002), over-seeding caused intense competition
among plants or under-sowing resulted in under-utilization of the resource and reduced
productivity. Therefore, to achieve optimum yield within a given area and time, the use of
optimum plant population along with other agronomic practices is indispensable. Regassaet al.
(1992) reported that in Ethiopia, farmers use higher than recommended seed rate as means of
suppressing weeds. But analysis of variance indicated that seeding rate has no significant effect
on most wheat crop parameter or on weed density (Regassaet al., 1992).

Higher seeding rate (up to 175 kg/ha ) increased grain yield for broadcast sowing by
compensating for seed buried deeper or left uncovered on the surface. A seed rate of 125 kg/ha
was sufficient for optimum yielded with drilling of either the early maturing cultivars or late
maturing (Tanner et al, 1991). The optimum planting density at one site may not applied other
locations because of regional variation in weather and soil type mean that further trial needed at
each site to validate general recommendations (Azam-Ali and Squire, 2002). However, so far in
the District, optimum seeding rate of wheat is not developed through research. Therefore, this
study will be proposed with the objectives to study the effects of different seeding rates and
cultivars and their interaction effects on yield and yield components of bread wheat.

2.5.1 Factors affecting seeding rate of bread wheat

Practical seeding rate of crops is dependent upon the factors such as seed bed preparation, seed
size, germination ability, seedling survival, planting methods and moisture availability (Sisodia
and Patel, 1985; Tanner et al., 1991). High seeding rates are required for poor seedbed, and for a
grain with reduced germination capacity and vice versa (Gooding and Davies, 1997). As
explained by Peterson (1965) and Lockhart and Wiseman (1983), seeding rate generally,
increases for cultivars with larger seed size and low tillering capacity. Moreover, late sowing,

12
broadcasting seeds, heavy clay soils and low soil moisture, requires higher seed rates of sowing.
For high yielding, short stature cultivars, a seeding rate of 100-125 kg/ha have been found
desirable. In places where due to climate, early growth is restricted or the growing season is
short, a higher seeding rate (more than 125 kg/ha) is recommended. For good crop of bread
wheat, yielding 5 tones/ha, there should be about 500 ear heads per square meter. Such a stand
can be achieved at a seeding rate of 100 kg/ha with row spacing of 22.5 cm for all those cultivars
which tiller readily, and at seeding rate of 125 kg/ha with rows spaced at 20.0 cm for the
cultivars which are shy in tillering (Onwueme and Sinha, 1999).

Reedy (2006) found that early maturing and poor tillering varieties need closer spacing with
higher seeding rate compared with long duration and profusely tillering varieties. Similarly, late
sowing crops demand closer row spacing and higher seeding rate to compensate for the lesser
number of tillers and shorter growing periods. In addition to these, Marshal and Ohms (1987)
reported that grain yield of bread wheat can be increased significantly by narrow row spacing
and high seeding rates. The narrow spacing gives 7 to 8% increase in grain yields where planting
occur near optimum.

Seeding rate studies indicated that rates for broad cast bread wheat had to exceed rates for drilled
seeds by 20-30%. Thus 150 kg/ha of seeding rate was recommended for broadcast and Maresha
incorporated seeded, while drilling required a seeding rate of 125 kg/ha. It was recognized,
however, that varieties with poor tillering ability required seeding rates as high as 160 kg even
when drilled (Tanner et al., 1991). Frederick and Marshal (1985) reported that increasing seeding
rate had little effect on yield for bread wheat planted at optimum date. Similarly, Schlehuber and
Tucker (1967) indicated that the heavier rates of seeding produced appreciably higher yields
when sown either earlier or later than the optimum planting date. Darwinkelet al. (1977)
concluded that high seeding rates are advantageous only when conditions such as delayed
planting and low temperature inhibited tillering.

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2.5.2. Wheat Grain Yield as Influenced by Seeding Rate

Maximum yield can be achieved either by increasing the stand density or by increasing the yield
per plant at relatively low stand density. The actual yield of bread wheat is determining number
of grains per spike and weight (size) of the grain. These components are interrelated; for
example, by increasing the number of heads (by dense plant population or more tillers), the
number of grains per spike and also the size of the grain may be reduced (Darwinkelet al., 1977;
Lockhart and Wiseman, 1983; Reedy, 2006).

According to Sisodia and Patel (1985), no responses to seeding densities in bread wheat yield
varying from 40-150 kg/ha was observed. This is because of compensation that occurs between
yield components. However, Peter et al. (1988) indicated that seeding rate above or below the
optimum for prevailing conditions may diminish yield. The yields of grain are parabolic ally
related to plant density.

2.5.3. Yield components of wheat as influenced by seeding rate

Among important yield components, stand density, i.e., number of heads per unit area, is
manipulated to certain extent by seeding density (Sisodia and Patel, 1985). In very dense stand,
both inter plant and intra- plants competitions are sufficiently severe to reduce all yield
components (Frederic and Marshal, 1985). Reducing seeding rate may result in more tillers and
spike per plant, and more spiklete per spike but in many cases reduced grain yield per hectare
(Darwinkel, 1980). When early season conditions were unfavorable, tiller production were
limited and unable to compensate at lower plant densities, as result, yield increased as seeding
rate increased by having higher spikes per square meter at higher seeding rate (Sisodia and Patel,
1985).

High seeding rate generally increases spikes per square meter, however, fewer and smaller
kernels per spike can occur which results in little change in total grain yield (Willey and Holiday,
1971).As seeding rate increased, yield can be increased, and the increase in yield can be

14
explained due to increasing spike number per square meter while kernels weight remained
constant (Gallegher, 1984). On other hand, yield was similar from medium to high seeding rate
because kennels weight is reduced while number of spikes per square meter is increased (Spiertz
and Ellen, 1978). Compensation occurred among yield components that stabilized yield as plant
density changed (Darwinkel et al., 1977).

Ejaz et al. (2002) reported that increasing seeding rate resulted in higher number of spikes per
square meter but decreased number of kernels per spike. On the other hand, reducing seeding
rate may lead to increased spike per plant, spikelete per spike, and kernels per spike (Darwinkel,
1980; Momhamed and Osman, 1981). Seeding rate above optimum may result in more spikes per
unit area but reduced spike fertility and kernel weight (Darwinkel, 1980; Jeosph et al., 1985).
The number of spikelet and grain per spike was found to decrease linearly with increase in
seeding rate for both semi-dwarf and local varieties. Similarly, length of spike decreased linearly
with an increase in seeding rate (Momhamed and Osman, 1981).

Willey and Holiday (1971) reported that at above optimum seeding rate, kernels weight and
kernel number per spike declined because of inter-plant competition. Similarly, at low seeding
rate, bread wheat plant produced more tillers and progressively the later appearing tillers
produced fewer and smaller kernels (Power and Alessi, 1978).

Jeosphet al. (1985) conducted a three year study to measure the effect of sowing time and
seeding rate on the development and yield of bread wheat grown under high yielding condition
in Victoria and obtained high yield as spike density increased as result of seeding rate. Bread
wheat dry matter production decreased with delay in sowing time but was increased by raising
seeding rate from 40 to 80 kg/ha. Moreover, the number of spike per m2 increased with seeding
rate but declined with each 4-week delay in sowing time. Hussins and Pan (1993) reported that
kernels per spike decrease with increase in seeding rate. Spikes per square meter and seeding rate
were directly related. Kernels per spike and kernels weights were both inversely related to
seeding rate because of inter-plant competition.

As seeding rate increased, biological yield increased because higher seeding rate resulted in
higher seedling emergence per unit area and produced maximum biological yield (Ejazet al.,
2002). Straw yield also increased as seeding rate increased (Ghaffar and Shalidula, 1987). Lower

15
seeding rate increased harvesting index when compared withhigher seeding rate which may be
due to higher biological yield at higher seeding rate and has decreased HI (Ejazet al., 2002).

3. Materials and Method

3.1 Experimental Site

The study will be conducted at Wonka kebele farmers training center(FTC), in Gozamin Woreda
of East Gojam Zone, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. The Woreda is located at 100 2’
- 100 8’ North and 370 3’ - 380 1’ East at about 300 km distance from Addis Ababa in
Northwest direction. Wonka kebele is located about 5kilometres from the Woreda and Zonal
capital, Debre Markos town in south west direction. The Woreda covers a total land area of
122,713 ha with widely varying altitudinal ranges from 850 to 3000 m.a.s.l. The topography of
the Woreda is estimated to be 9% mountainous, 16% valley and 74% plane (Gozamin Woreda
Agricultural Office, 2020). Moreover, about 90% of the cultivated land soil is Oxisols(Red in
colour), while the study area has a soil of totallyoxisols. The study site (wonka) is located at an
altitude of about 2321m.a.s.l. (GWAO, 2014).

The total monthly annual rainfalls as well as mean maximum and minimum temperature
recorded for the year 2019 were 1689 mm, 22.8 0C and 10.8 0C, respectively. The site receives
more rainfall during crop growing period (i.e. from June to September half).

The Woreda is characterized by three sub-agro ecological zones, namely, M3-7 (cold to very
cold moist mountain) covering 17%, M2-5 (tepid to cool plateau) covering 74% and M1-4 (hot
to warm moist gorge) covering 9% of the Woreda total land area .

The rainfall of Wonka kebele is characterized by a unimodal pattern that distributed uniformly
over the growing season, which starts about the middle of May and extends to about the mid of
November.

Over 98% of the population of Gozamin are involved in agriculture and live on a very low
annual income mainly due to very low land productivity attributed to poor agronomic practices

16
like inappropriate seeding rate, inappropriate use of fertilizer, improper adjustment of cultivars,
inappropriate weeding practices and soil fertility depletion caused by crop removal of nutrients
and accelerated soil erosion. Bread wheat (Triticumaestivum), teff (Eragrostistef), maize (Zea
mays), barley (Hordiumvulgare), and wild oat (Avenaspp) (local name “Engido”), are the
dominant crops cultivated in Gozamin Woreda. Bread wheat, maize, teff, barley and wild oat
(local name “Engido”) are the dominant cultivated crops listed in their order of area coverage at
the present study area (GWAO, 2019).

3.2. Experimental Materials

The experiment is factorial with combination of five seeding rate of bread wheat (i.e.100, 125,
150, 175, 200kgha-1) and three cultivars of bread wheat (i.e.Ogolucho, kekeba and king bird)
with uniform application of N, P, S and B (NPSB) for all plots. Nitrogen will be applied in the
form of Urea in split application while P and S is applied in the form of NPS in band application
at the time of sowing based on the recommended rate of the study area(i.e 92kg P2O5 or 200kg
NPS and 184kgN or 322kg Urea per hectare). Moreover, as Ogolucho, Kekeba and Kingbird is
the most common and widely distributed variety in the area, it will be used for this experiment.

Table1.Treatments and treatment combinations

Treatment code Seeding rate Cultivars Treatment

Combination(SC)
(TR) (S) (C)

TR1 100kg/ha(S1) Ogolucho(C1) S1C1

TR2 125kg/ha(S2) Ogolucho(C1) S2C1

TR3 150kg/ha(S3) Ogolucho(C1) S3C1

TR4 175kg/ha(S4) Ogolucho(C1) S4C1

TR5 200kg/ha(S5) Ogolucho(C1) S5C1

TR6 100kg/ha(S1) Kekeba(C2) S1C2

TR7 125kg/ha(S2) Kekeba(C2) S2C2

TR8 150kg/ha(S3) Kekeba(C2) S3C2

17
 TR9 175kg/ha(S4) Kekeba(C2) S4C2

TR10 200kg/ha(S5) Kekeba(C2) S5C2)

TR11 100kg/ha(S1) Kingbird(C3) S1C3

TR12 125kg/ha(S2) Kingbird(C3) S2C3

TR13 150kg/ha(S3) Kingbird(C3) S3C3

TR14 175kg/ha(S4) Kingbird(C3) S4C3

TR15 200kg/ha(S5) Kingbird(C3) S5C3)

3.3. Experimental Design

The two experimental factors five seeding rate of bread wheat (100, 125, 150, 175, 200 kgha-1) and three cultivars of
bread wheat (Ogolucho, kekeba and king bird) were factorially combined and were tested using randomized
complete block design (RCBD) with three replications.

The experiment is factorial with two factors namely, seeding rate and Cultivars with 5 and
3treatment levels respectively. The experimental design is Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with 3 replications. The plot size will be 1m x 2m which is (2 m2) containing
5seedingrate.100kg,125kg,150kg,175kgand200kgfor1cultivars(i.eOgoloncho),5seedingrate100kg
,125kg,150kg,175kgand200kgfor1cultivars(i.ekakaba),5seedingrate.100kg,125kg,150kg,175kg,2
00kg for 1 cultivars(i.e king bird), respectively. The space between blocks will be 1m while it
will be 0.5m between plots in each block. The plot size will be 2m by 1 m which is (2 m 2)
containing 4 rows of 2 m length and inter-row spacing of 25 cm. The net plot size (harvestable
area) will be used by excluding two outer rows on both sides of each plot and 0.5m row length at
both ends of the rows to avoid possible border effects. Thus the net plot size will be 0.5m x 1m
(0.5 m2) considering only internal two rows. To prepare the experimental field, oxen driven local
plow (Maresha) will be used in accordance with conventional farming practices. Accordingly,
the field will be ploughed four times, (starting from September to first week-November 2020).

Phosphorous at a rate of 92 kg P2O5 ha -1and nitrogen at 184 kg N will be applied following the
recommended fertilizer application rate to the area. Urea (46% N) and NPS (19%N and38%P
and S 7% P2O5) will be used as sources of N, P and S fertilizers. The full rate of the
phosphorous fertilizer (92 kg P2O5 ha-1) and a portion of the nitrogen fertilizer (61.33 Kg N)

18
will be applied as basal at the time of planting and the remaining 122.66 kg N will be applied as
top-dressing at mid tillering stage of the crop (35-40days after emergence). The field will be
weeded 2-3 times as needed manually during the cropping season to control weeds and weed-
crop competition. Moreover, all the necessary field management practices including disease and
insect pest control will be carried out as required during the experimental period.

3.4 Data Collection

3.4.1Phenological data
Days to emergence will be recorded when 50% of the plants in each plot emerges, days to
heading will be recorded when 75% of the spikes fully emerges and days to maturity for wheat
will be recorded when 90% of the plants in a plot reaches physiological maturity.

Growth parameters

Plant height (PH): The average height of ten randomly selected plants from the net plot area of
each plot will be measured in centimeters from the ground to the top of spike, excluding owns at
maturity and means will be taken.

Effective Tiller number (ETN): The number of effective (fertile) tillers from two randomly
selected 0.5m row length will be counted at physiological maturity.

19
Spike length (SL): The spike length will be taken from randomly selected ten plants of the inner
rows in centimeter and the mean length will be recorded on each plot. It will be measured from
the base to the upper most part of the spike excluding owns.

3.4.2 Yield and yield components parameters

(a) Spike number (SN):The total number of spikes from two randomly selected 0.5m length of
the plot will be counted from each plot.

(b) Kernel number (KN):Number of kernels per spike will be counted from ten randomly
selected plants from the inner rows of each plot and the mean kernel number will be taken.

(c) 1000-kernel weight (g):Thousand grains will be counted after harvesting at random from
each plot and their weights will be taken with accurate balance at harvesting.taken from clean
grain yield of each plot and weighed with sensitive balance and adjusted to 12.5% moisture
content to determine thousand seeds weight in gram.

(d) Biomass yield (BY):Total biomass or biological yield will be measured by weighing the sun
dried total above ground plant biomass (straw + grain) of the net plot.with sensitive electrical
balance repeatedly until you get a constant weight after harvesting and proper drying with
sunlight.

(e) Grain yield (GY):Grain yield will be measured by taking the weight of the grains
threshed from the net plot area and will be converted to kilograms per hectare after adjusting
the grain moisture content to 12.5%.

20
(f) Straw Yield (SY): Straw yield will be determined by subtracting grain yield from total above
ground biomass.

(g) Harvest Index (HI):The fraction of grain yield (GY) to the above ground biological yield
(BY) will be considered as harvest index.

HI = GY

BY

3.5 Statistical Analysis

The data collected for different parameters will be subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA)
appropriate to randomized complete block design (RCBD) according to (Gomez and Gomez,
1984) and using SAS statistical software (SAS 2000) with a general linear model procedure.
Mean separation will be done by LSD at 5% or 1%significance level

Correlation analyses: will be carried out by calculating simple correlation coefficients between
yields and yield components.

Economic analysis
Economic analysis will be performed following the CIMMYT partial budget analysis
methodology (CIMMYT, 1988) to identify the economically profitable seed ratesand cultivars.

Soil Sampling and Analysis

Soil samples will be taken from 10 representative spots of the experimental field at 0-30 cm
depth before sowing and one composite sample will be made out of it for the purpose of
characterization. The composite sample will be prepared for analysis and will be air- dried as
well as grinded to pass through a 2mm sieve. The Soil sample will be used for analyze soil pH,
Soil texture, available P, Organic carbon content, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the total
N will also be determined by using different methods and procedures in the laboratory.

21
 4. EXPECTED OUT COME AND BENEFICIARIES

4.1. Expected outcome

•Optimum seeding rate and for different bread wheat varieties will be identified.

4.2. Beneficiaries

The extension workers will have current information about seeding rate and different
bread wheat varieties to advice the farmers and farmers in the study area will learn from
the experiment and change the results gained into practice to increase their production.

5. WORK PLAN

Table 2, prepared work plan to conduct the experiment

NO Activities 2013

Month

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

1 Proposal Write up

2 Proposal
Submission

3 Proposal Defense

4 Site selection

5 Soil sample - before

22
 planting

6 Field Preparation

7 Sowing

8 1st weeding

9 2nd weeding

10 Other Management
Practices

11 Data Collection

12 Harvesting-and
threshing

13 Data analysis and

Interpretation

14 Thesis Write Up

15 Thesis Editing

16 Thesis Submission

17 Consulting Advisers

18 Final-thesis
submission-and
thesis defense

6. BUDGET BREAKDOWN

6.1. Detailed Budget

Table 3: Budget details

No Description/cost item Unit Quantity Unit Total Cost Remarks

23
 Price/Birr price/Birr

1 Experimental material
purchase

1.1 Materials

Spade Pcs 1 100 100

Shovel Pcs 1 100 100

Hoe Pcs 1 100 100

Ruler Pcs 1 20 20

Nylon string Roll 1 100 100

Wood for pegs Pcs 160 2 320

Measuring tape/Meter Pcs 1 160 160

Fertilizer Bag/sacks Pcs 72 5 360

Bag made of close Pcs 36 5 180

Threshing convas Pcs 1 90 90

Metal sheet for sign boards Pcs 1 150 150

Sickle for harvesting Pcs 1 100 100

Sub-total 1780

1.2 Stationary & communication

materials

Pen Pcs 2 10 20

Fixer Pcs 1 20 20

Writing pad Pcs 1 30 30

Photo copy paper Ream 2 150 300

Printing paper Ream 1 450 450

CDMA with card for internet Pcs 1 1200 1200

Toner Pcs 1 850 850

24
 Flash Disk Pcs 1 200 200

Document bag Pcs 1 300 300

Telephone Min 500

Sub-total 3870

1.3 Seed and fertilizer

Seed Kg 1.35 3200 43.20

Fertilizer Kg

NPSB Kg 1.8 1500 27

UREA Kg 2.898 40.5

Sub-total 110.70

1.4 Rents

Land rent M2 15 200 3000

Oxen rent for ploughing No of 5 300 1500

oxen/day

Sub total 4500

2 Wage

Daily Laborer for different No 15 100 1500

works

Guarding No 1 400 1600 5months

Sub total 3100

3 Laboratory analysis Time 1 500 500

4 Perdiam Days 35 100 3500

5 Transport Cost L/sum 1500

6 Contingency 10% 1886

7 Total 20,746.7

25
6.2. Budget summary

Table 4: Summery of budgets

No Description Total expenses (Birr)

A Personnel 3100

B Stationary 3870

C Field Supplies 1780

D Laboratory Analysis 500

E Perdium 3500

F Seed and fertilizer 110.7

G Transport 1500

H Land rent 4500

I Contingency 10% 1886

Grand total 20,746.7

But actually I will not have a budget Source because of self-sponsor.

26
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 Appendix -1. Inputs required for the experiment

N0 Detailed descriptions Seed and fertilizer rate ( 4rows /plot Total amount required
with25cm apart and 2m length)

Per ha. Per Per row Seed Fertilizer

plot(2m2)
(2m-length)

1 Wheat Varieties

1.1 Ogolucho(in 3 plots) 100kg 20gm 5gm 60gm -

>> 125kg 25gm 6.25gm 75gm

>> 150kg 30gm 7.5gm 90gm

>> 175kg 35gm 8.75gm 105gm

>> 200kg 40gm 10gm 120gm

Total 450gm

1.2 Kekeba(in 3 plots) 100kg 20gm 5gm 60gm

>> 125kg 25gm 6.25gm 75gm

>> 150kg 30gm 7.5gm 90gm

>> 175kg 35gm 8.75gm 105gm

>> 200kg 40gm 10gm 120gm

Total 450gm

1.3 Kingbird(in 3plots) 100kg 20gm 5gm 60gm

>> 125kg 25gm 6.25gm 75gm

>> 150kg 30gm 7.5gm 90gm

>> 175kg 35gm 8.75gm 105gm

>> 200kg 40gm 10gm 120gm

Total 450gm

2 Fertilizer

2.1 NPSB(in 45 plots) 200kg 40gm 10gm - 1800gm

32
 Urea (in 45 plots) 322kg 64.4gm 16.1gm - 2898gm

Inputs: 1) seed required, a) ogolucho=0.45kg b) kekeba 0.45kg c)

kingbird=0.45kgTotal=1.35kg

2. Fertilizerrequired, a) NPSB=1.8kg b) Urea =2.898kg

Appendix2, Figure: 1 Field Experiment and Randomization Layout

west 23m

T
R1T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
10 6 14 12 11 1 15 9 7 5 3 8 13 4 2

1m 9m

T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T

7 2 13 8 4 10 1 11 3 12 15 6 5 14
9 R2
0.5m
0.5m

1m

T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
R3
15 12 13 3 1 11
4 8 14 6 7 9 2 5 10


Between blocks 1m

Between each plots 0.5m

Border both directions 0.5m
Area: L=15m+8m=23m

One Plot size= 1m*2m =2m2

Inter-row spacing in each plot=25cm W=6m+3m=9m

Total area coverage=207m2

33
 2m
One plot size=2m2
1m

T=treatment

DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY

COLLAGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

Msc Program in Agronomy

GRADUATE PROGRAM

THESIS PROPOSAL APPROVAL SHEET

Submitted by:

Yosef Abateneh ____________ ____________

Name of the student Signature Date

Approved by:

1. Mesfin A. (PhD) ____________ ____________

Name of Major Advisor Signature Date

2. Mr.Yirsaw H. ____________ ____________

Name of Co-Advisor Signature Date

3._____________________ ________________ __________

Name of Department head, Signature Date

34
4.______________________ ________________ ____________

Name of College Postgraduate coordinator Signature Date

5.______________________ ________________ ____________

Name of College Dean Signature Date

35