Experiment Title: FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES (EXP1)

orifice is defined as an opening with a closed perimeter located in the side or bottom of a vessel, tank,
or reservoir. Orifices are used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid.

The stream line becomes parallel and the area of cross-section of jet is the least at section CC called the
“Vena Contracta”. usually located at a discharge of one half the orifice diameter from the plane of the
orifice.

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd is actual discharge divided by the ideal discharge.

Coefficient of Velocity, Cv is the ratio of the actual velocity divided by the ideal velocity.

Coefficient of Contraction, Cc is a ratio of the actual diameter of the jet divided by the ideal diameter of
the jet.
Experiment Title: COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF VARIOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICE
(EXP 2)
Venturimeter is one of most widely used flow measuring devices which are based on
Bernoulli’s equation. It consist of a short converging pipe, throat, diverging pipe and a
piezometer or manometer to measure the difference of the pressure of flowing liquid between
the pipe and throat section.

Orifice meter is also a device for measuring discharge flowing through a pipe. It works in the
same principle as that of the venturimeter with the application Bernoulli’s and continuity
equations. It is a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp-edged hole called ‘orifice’ which is
concentric with the pipe. The diameter of the orifice varies from 0.4 to 0.8 times of pipe
diameter.

pitot tube is another flow measuring device where Bernoulli’s and continuity equations are
used. The basic principle used in this device is that if the velocity of flow at a particular point is
reduced to zero, which is called the stagnation point, the pressure there increases due to
conversion of kinetic energy. By measuring this pressure at this point, the velocity flow may be
determined. It consists of a glass tube open at both ends, bent at right angle, large enough
indiameter to get rid of the capillary effect.
Experiment Title: Psychrometry (EXP 3)

Psychrometry A science associated with the measurements of water vapor content of the air.
psychrometric chart is a graph of the physical property of moist air at a constant pressure
(usually at sea level).
Temperatures
(a) Dry-bulb temperature, td Dry bulb temperature is the actual temperature measured using
an ordinary thermometer.
(b) Wet-bulb temperature, tw Wet bulb temperature is the temperature measured using an
ordinary thermometer where the bulb is enclosed in a wick or cloth that is kept moistened.
(c) Dew point temperature, tdp Dew point temperature is the temperature where the water
vapor content of moist or humid air becomes saturated and any further cooling will cause
condensation.
RH METER, SLING PSYCHROMETER

Experiment Title: HEAT-EXCHANGE SURFACE AREA (EXP4)

Experiment 5: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Refrigeration is the science of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of the
surrounding atmosphere.
1. Compressors -The job of a refrigeration compressor is to compress vapour and circulate
refrigerant around the sealed system. The compressor needs to compress the vapour that has
boiled off from the evaporator and to increase its pressure. This increased pressure helps force
the vapour back into liquid form via the condenser. Hermetic Compressors are type of
compressor that is contained in a steel case, typically used in household refrigerators, air
conditioning units and smaller industrial systems.

2. Condensers -A component is the part of refrigerator that expels heat energy which has been
picked up by the evaporator. The condenser looks very similar to the evaporator with coiled
pipes and perpendicular fins. It is situated in the high pressure area of the refrigerated system.
The compressor pumps vapour into the condenser at high pressure. As the surrounding
medium (air) is cooler than the hot vapour, heat energy is passed into the air from the
condenser tubes. A fan is often used to help dispel heat through convection.
3. Evaporators - component that is used to absorb heat from the refrigerated space. It is
usually made up of a series of fans and coiled pipes to allow for maximum exposure to the air.
The evaporator is situated in the low pressure area of the system and is designed to let
refrigeration boil off extracting heat energy in the form of latent heat from its surroundings.
Due to the Refrigerant changing from liquid to gas, energy has to be absorbed to allow it to do
this. After the refrigerant begins to exit the evaporator most of the liquid should now be a cold
vapour which is sucked towards the compressor.
4. Metering Devices - used to lower the temperature of the refrigerant before it enters the
evaporator. It does this by dramatically reducing the refrigerant’s pressure. A typical
temperature of the refrigerant leaving a metering device is 40˚F. Therefore, when the
refrigerant enters the evaporator, it is at a lower temperature than the room air temperature.
The cooler refrigerant then absorbs energy from the room lowering the air temperature.
Commonly used expansion devices in refrigeration systems and their operating principle
A. Capillary Tube - one of the simplest types of metering devices because it is nonadjustable. It
relies on a fixed restriction’s pressure drops, its temperature drops as well. Inside a house, the
air temperature remains fairly constant year round due to its heating and air conditioning
system. Capillary tubes used in refrigerators are sized to perform in that temperature range. air
conditioning system that may see outside temperature range from below freezing to over 90˚F,
he capillary tube is not as effective as other types of metering devices.
B. Automatic Expansion Valve (AEV or AXV) has the ability to change the amount of refrigerant
that passes through it based on the downstream pressure in the system. When downstream
pressure drops, the valve opens more to increase refrigerant flow to maintain a constant
pressure. This allows the valve to adjust the refrigerant flow based on pressure, which is
influenced by temperature. Therefore, this metering device can handle larger temperature
swings than the capillary tube. A common application for an automatic expansion valve is small
window unit air conditioning systems .
C. Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV) - also has the ability to change the amount of
refrigerant that passes through it. However, it regulates the amount of refrigerant based on the
temperature of the refrigerant that exits on the evaporator. This valve is very popular in air
conditioning systems because it adjusts the refrigerant flow based on the amount of internal
energy absorbed by the refrigerant. It is ideally suited for system t hat experience large
temperature swings as it can maintain superheat in the stage after. TXV are used as it is more
efficient in handling the refrigerant so as not to damage the compressor. On the other hand,
AXV are simpler in construction and is much cheaper.

5. Refrigeration Accumulators are designed to protect against damage to the compressor. Its
purpose is to store any excess liquid refrigerant and oil that may have not boiled off in the
evaporator. The accumulator is situated between the evaporator and compressor in the suction
line (pipe running between the two components). Liquid cannot be compressed and therefore
will eventually damage the compressor, often known as “slugging”. This is when a compressor
tries to compress liquid. Also a large enough quantity of liquid can remove oil off of the
bearings causing rapid wear and breakdown. Accumulators collect small amounts of oil and
refrigerant into the suction line so as not to cause compressor damage. When the liquid
refrigerant enters the accumulator it strikes a deflector plate that causes anything liquefied to
rest in the holding tank.
6. Refrigeration Receiver commonly used on a refrigeration system that uses a TXV valve as its
metering device.Its main purpose is to temporarily store excess refrigerant in its liquid state
that is not required when load conditions are low. The TXV also needs a supply of refrigerant in
its liquid form at all times. The receiver provides a constant supply of liquid to the TXV. Freon
sometimes can back up into the condenser in some systems if no receiver is installed, this
component prevents this. The refrigerant charge in a system with a receiver is actually
excessive than what is required. This is to insure that at all times and operating conditions,
there is enough Freon to present constant liquid to the TXV.
7. Sight Glass component gives you a view inside the system to see how much liquid compared
to gas exists where the component is situated. Refrigeration systems sometimes have a sight
glass at the condenser outlet. The inlet of the sight glass is supplied by refrigerant from the
liquid line and at this point not much vapour should be evident. If bubbles or flash gas are seen
it shows that maybe there is a problem in the system due to the fact mainly liquid should be
seen at this point. This is especially necessary on a TXV metering system. So the site gas is a
great tool to give an invaluable insight into the inner workings of the system and
troubleshooting.

Coefficient of Performance or COP is defined as the ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator
to the work done on the refrigerant. Since the heat extracted in the refrigerator is the
Refrigerating effect, COP can be written as:
THE REFRIGERATION TRAINING UNIT

Experiment 6: DETERMINATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger are commonly used in liquid to liquid heating and cooling
applications. It consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed in a cylindrical shell. A simple shell and
tube heat exchanger is shown in the figure. To ensure that the shell-side fluid will flow across
the tubes and thus induce higher heat transfer, baffles are placed in the shell as shown in the
figure. With baffles the flow within the shell is generally at right angles to the tubes.
Flow Arrangements in Heat Exchanger
1. Parallel flow/ Co-current flow It is one which two fluid streams enters at one end, flow
through it in the same direction and leaves at the other end.
2. Counter flow It is the one in which two fluid streams
flow in opposite directions.
Calculation of Heat Transfer:

Logarithmic mean temperature difference,

Heat exchanger efficiency,

The Multi Heat Exchanger Unit - used for studying three types of heat exchangers namely:
Concentric, Shell and tube and plate to plate heat exchanger, both on parallel and counter flow
conditions.
Experiment 7: OSBORNE REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATOR
Reynolds number (Re) is an experimental number used to predict the flow velocity in fluid flow
at which turbulence will occur. It is a non-dimensional velocity can be defined as the ratio of a
fluid’s inertia force to the viscous or friction forces.
Experiment 8: Coefficient of Performance of Refrigeration and Heat Pump System
Refrigeration Diagram

However, if the refrigerant flow is reversed it can be used as means to warm a cool body by
converting the compressor work into heat energy; this is called a heat pump.
Heat Pump Diagram

Performance of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems If heat engines performances are
expressed in terms of thermal efficiency, the ratio of its useful work over the heat added to the
system, then the performance of a refrigeration/heat pump system is expressed in terms of
Coefficient of Performance (COP), the ratio the heat absorbed/rejected over the work input to
the compressor.
Experiment 9: ENERGY LOSSES IN BENDS
Minor losses of energy occur due to local resistances to flow resulting in change of velocity
either in magnitude or direction or both.

Due to sudden expansion or enlargement of the pipe section, the flow is decelerated abruptly.
experiences additional change in static pressure.

Experiment 10: PUMP IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Centrifugal pumps are often used together to enhance either the flow rate or the
deliverypressure beyond that available from the single pump.