Prof. Dr. Ayman I.

Bakry
➢Again, as we learned previously that the main parameters
involved in all hydraulic turbomachines and that influence their
performance are: the fluid quantities (represented in the flowrate
(Q) and the head (H)) and the mechanical (associated with the
machine itself) quantities (represented in the power (P), speed
(N), size (D) and efficiency (h)).

➢Although they are all of equal importance, the emphasis placed

on certain of these quantities is different for pumps and turbines.
➢We concluded also that every machine has its own set of the
performance characteristics when it is running at a constant
given speed. These characteristics can be derived from the
theoretical performance and mainly conducted as three curves
(up to now) having the discharge (Q) as an independent variable
versus the head (H), the input shaft power (P) and the overall
efficiency (h) as dependent variables. These curves are normally
plotted together on the same figure in what is so-called “the
fundamental performance characteristic curves diagram”. 2
➢In real practice the procedures to obtain these real
characteristics curves from the theoretical are headache and
inconvenience. Thus, we simply employ the experimental method
to determine such curves for each different turbomachine by
carrying out a series of experiments on a particular test-rig
especially prepared for this purpose in turbomachines production
companies.

➢A typical test-rig is shown in the figure. The experiments are

carried out for a given constant speed value in the same order as
followed in the accompanying table to fill the columns. This is
accomplished by varying the discharge in steps and then
registering the corresponding readings of the other variables.

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(All these results are
conducted at a given
measured value of (N) using a Exp. 1 Exp. 2 …… Exp. x
tachometer)

Discharge Q (measured) √ √ √ √

Hm, s (measured) √ √ √ √

Hm, d (measured) √ √ √ √

Hm=Hm, d - Hm, s (calculated) √ √ √ √

Psh (measured) using a

√ √ √ √
dynamometer

Output fluid
power(calculated) √ √ √ √
P=rgQHm

Overall
efficiency(calculated) √ √ √ √
h=P/Psh= rgQHm/ Psh
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➢A typical complete set of experimental results for the
performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump, for example, is
shown in the following figures.

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➢We would like to emphasis here on the idea that every set of
these performance characteristics curves are given for a specific
machine of certain size (diameter) and running at a specific
constant speed. If we have another different machine or the same
machine but running at another value of speed, then we will have
another completely different set of characteristics curves.

➢Now, machines belonging to the same family, i.e., being of the

same design but manufactured in different sizes and even maybe
running at different speeds within practical limits. Thus, they
constitute a series of geometrically similar machines. In fact, each
size and speed combination will produce a unique set of
characteristics, so that for one family of machines, the number of
characteristics needed to be determined is impossibly large. Also,
too large machines need expensive fixed and running costs for
constructing and operating large test-rigs enough to test such
machines .
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➢Here, the importance of the dimensional analysis and similarity
theory appears to solve this problem. As we reviewed before, the
variables affecting the performance of the machines are replaced by
a dimensionless groups which are valid for similar machines that
operate under dynamically similar conditions. As we mentioned
before, similar machines have the same figure of performance
characteristics curves when this figure is plotted between the
dimensionless groups of Φ versus each of ψ and Kp. One can note
the disappearing of the efficiency curve where similar machines have
the same efficiency corresponding to each Φ value.

➢At the end of the analysis, the dimensionless groups provided the
similarity laws governing the relationships between the variables
within one family of geometrically similar machines. Thus, if we
apply these similarity laws between two different (for example, one
prototype and one model) but similar machines and even if they are
running at different speeds, one can be able to derive a set of
characteristics curves for a prototype machine from a corresponding
known set of test data for a geometrically similar model. 8
➢In the following, the similarity laws will be given as:

➢Or in another form as:

➢Remembering that:

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➢The following example is useful in , the similarity laws will be
given as:

A centrifugal pump, impeller diameter of 0.5 m, when running at

750 rpm gave on test the following performance characteristics:
Performance characteristics of 0.5 m Pump at 750 rpm.
Q (m3/min) 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
H (m) 40.0 40.6 40.4 39.3 38.0 33.6 25.6 14.5 0
Efficiency (%) 0 41 60 74 83 83 74 51 0

Predict the performance of a geometrically similar pump of 0.35 m

diameter and running at 1450 rpm. Plot both sets of
characteristics.

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➢Let for simplicity the given pump has the suffix 1 instead of p
(refer to 0.5 m pump) and the suffix 2 instead of m (refer to 0.35 m
pump). Thus, from the equation:

The values of Q1 and H1 are given by the table above. Therefore,

by multiplying them by the multipliers calculated above, the
values of Q2 and H2 may be tabulated. These, together with the
same values of efficiency constitute the predicted characteristic
of pump 2 as follows:
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Performance characteristics of 0.35 m Pump ② at 1450 rpm.
Q (m3/min) 0 4.64 9.28 13.92 18.56 23.2 27.8 32.5 37.0
H (m) 73.2 74.3 74.0 71.9 69.5 61.5 46.8 26.5 0
Efficiency (%) 0 41 60 74 83 83 74 51 0

Remembering the characteristic of pump 1 is as follows:

Performance characteristics of 0.5 m Pump ① at 750 rpm.

Q (m3/min) 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
H (m) 40.0 40.6 40.4 39.3 38.0 33.6 25.6 14.5 0
Efficiency (%) 0 41 60 74 83 83 74 51 0

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The characteristics of both pumps are plotted in the Figure.

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➢Furthermore, the characteristics curves for the same machine i.e.
self-similar , but, running at different speeds can be predicted using
the similarity laws by simply putting (D1=D2) to obtain the simple
form of the similarity laws (called also the affinity laws) as:

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➢SCALE EFFECTS:
➢In the application of the similarity laws it was assumed that all
criteria of dynamical similarity are satisfied. i.e. all the dimensionless
groups remain the same. In real case, this is not true with regards to
the dimensionless groups representing the Reynolds number, the
mach number and the relative roughness.

➢Consider at first the Reynolds number, which is a function of both

the speed and the diameter. Thus in real practice, Re is not constant.
However, for water and air this effect is usually small because the
values of Re are usually very high, the flow being fully turbulent.
➢A similar consideration of Mach number indicates that an increase
of tip speed (through increasing either N or D) will make the Mach
number higher. This not only means that one of the conditions of
dynamical similarity is not satisfied but, in addition, may also mean
that the compressibility effect may now be of considerable
importance. The second point must be watched carefully in the
application of similarity laws to fans and compressors.
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➢Consider now the effect of relative roughness. Absolute roughness
(e) is the mean height of surface perturbances, which, therefore,
remains the same for a given material and process used in the
manufacture of the machine, irrespective of its size. Thus, any
change of machine size involves a change of relative roughness
(e/D). On the whole, the larger the machine, the smaller the relative
roughness will be. This tend to make frictional losses relatively less
important in larger machines.
➢In practice, it is also difficult to maintain geometrical similarity in
clearances and some material thicknesses. The same gauge of sheet
metal, for example, may be used for a range of sizes of fabricated
impeller blades. Such deviations from geometrical similarity must
obviously cause some departures from the idealized predictions
based on the aforementioned similarity laws.
➢All such departures, which do occur in practice and which due to
the Re, Mach number, relative roughness or lack of strict geometrical
similarity, are usually referred to as the scale effect. In general, the
scale effect tends to improve the performance of larger machines.18
➢SPECIFIC SPEED:
➢The performance of geometrically similar machines, i.e. machines
belonging to one family, is governed by similarity laws and may be
represented for the whole family by a single plot of dimensionless
characteristics as have been discussed before.
➢Thus, the performance of machines belonging to different families
may be compared by plotting their dimensionless characteristics on
the same graph. In the Figure, for example, three different types of
characteristic curves belonging to three different families of pumps
are shown in the Figure.

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➢Detailed comparison may then be achieved by analyzing the
various aspects of the sets of curves. This method of comparison is
satisfactory and often needed, but it lacks the brevity required in
machine classification.
➢In fact to classify the machines families we need to define a new
term called the specific speed or known also as type number.
➢We all know that every machine is designed to meet a specific duty,
usually referred to as the design point. For a pump, for example, this
would be stated in terms of the discharge and the head developed
and, thus, represents a particular point on its basic performance
characteristic. The design point is normally associated with the
maximum efficiency of the machine.
➢It is useful to compare machines by quoting the values of Φ, ψ, and
KP corresponding to their design points. However, since for pumps
Φ and ψ are the two most important parameters, their ratio would
indicate the suitability of a particular pump for large or small
volumes relative to the head developed. 20
➢Furthermore, if the ratio is obtained in such a way that the impeller
diameter is eliminated from it, then the comparison becomes
independent of the machine size.
➢This can be achieved by raising Φ to power (½) and ψ to power (¾).
This process results the specific speed parameter as:

➢It must be realized that a value of specific speed can be calculated

for any point from the infinitely number of points on the
characteristic curve. However, all of these points of no practical
interest except one point only which lies at the design point or (BEP).
Thus, this point is used for define the specific speed, i.e. for machine
classification as well as comparison and design purposes. 21
➢The specific speed, since it is obtained from dimensionless
coefficients, is also a dimensionless quantity provided a constant
system of units, such as SI, is used. Thus, if we use the discharge in
m3/s, the head in m and the speed in rev/s or rad/s, then we will
obtain the dimensionless specific speed in as(rev) or (rad) as:

➢Unfortunately, in real practice there are many companies around

the world which produce pumps. Usually, they use their own local
system of units. Therefore, the specific speed becomes inconsistent
and depends essentially on the units used for the definition of each
relevant quantity within it. Hence, a conversion factor should be
applied when we use different systems of units. 22
➢The conversion factors of specific speed for some different units
into SI units are given in the Table:

➢With the aid of specific speed the various types of pumps may be
classified and compared as will be described in the following figures.
Also, since the specific speed refers to the design point it is used as
the most important design parameter in the field of turbomachinery
design.
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