UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE

LAB MANUAL
PHY110
MECHANICS I
4th edition

Prepared by:
Zaidatul Salwa Mahmud
Nurul Aimi Zakaria
Rafael Julius
 CONTENTS

NO. EXPERIMENT

0. Introduction To Error Analysis, Ethics and Professionalism

in Scientific Practices

1. Measuring Gravitational Acceleration

2. Newton’s Law of Motion

 EXPERIMENT 0

INTRODUCTION TO ERROR ANALYSIS, ETHICS AND

PROFESSIONALISM IN SCIENTIFIC PRACTICES
OBJECTIVE

To give the student an insight into the significance of data analysis, ethics and professionalism
in scientific practices. The process of interpreting a particular set of data requires careful
determination on what analysis to include. Also, the importance of having ethical and
professional science practitioner should be aware for better future in science. This topic
contains some principle of data analysis techniques required, and several ethical and
professional elements that should be practised during the conduction of this laboratory course.

A. ETHICS IN SCIENCE
According to the Oxford Dictionary, ethics are the moral principles that control or influence a
person’s behaviour. Ethics enable human to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour. Lack of ethics awareness in the community causes many ethical disputes and issues.
Each individual recognizes several common ethics norms, however, the interpretation,
application and balance of the norms are different in light of their own values and life
experiences. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. Ethical norms serve
the aims and goals of research and apply to those who conduct the scientific research.

The importance of ethical norms adherence in science research:

i. Ethical norms in research promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and
avoidance of error.
ii. Ethical standards promote values that are essential for collaborative work (Eg: trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness). Ethical standards include the authorship,
patenting policies, data sharing policies and confidentiality rules in peer review. These
standards helps to protect the intellectual property at the same time encouraging
collaboration between researchers of different disciplines and institutions.
iii. Ethical norms ensure that science research field can be held accountable to the public.
This prevent research misconduct and conflicts of interest.
 iv. Science research that follows ethical norms helps building public support for the
research. The quality and integrity of the research convince the public for support and
trust.
v. Ethics in science research promote moral and social values (Eg: social responsibility,
human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law and public health and safety).
Lack of ethical practice in research would risk the human, animals and the
environment.

This laboratory course covers several basic ethical norms that should be practiced by
individuals conducting science research. The ethical norms include:
a) Integrity
Integrity corresponds to honesty, trustworthiness, and high regard for the scientific
record. It is an aspect of moral character and experience.
b) Intellectual honesty
Intellectual honesty is an applied method of problem solving, characterized by an
unbiased and honest attitude. Relevant facts and information are not proposedly
omitted even when such things may contradict one’s hypothesis. Facts are presented in
an unbiased manner, and not twisted to give misleading impressions or to support one
view over another. Intellectual honesty also leads to proper reference citation that avoid
plagiarism.
Plagiarism is an act of using or closely imitating the language and thoughts of another
author without authorization and the representation of that author’s work as one’s own,
as by not crediting the original author.
The following are considered plagiarism:
a. turning in someone else’s work as your own
b. copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
c. failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
d. giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
e. changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving
credit
f. Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority
of your work, whether you give credit or not.
In most cases, plagiarism can be avoided through citing the original sources.
Plagiarism can be prevented by simply acknowledging that certain material has been
 borrowed and providing the readers with the necessary information to find that source
is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.
c) Personal responsibility
Science allows us to recognise facts which existed long before we become aware of
them or can take responsibility for their implications. Scientific technology that has
profound and potentially gives destructive effects on the environment, human scale,
the quality of life, and human freedom, scientists have to take responsibility for the
technological implications that they make possible. The actions should be taken
include:
i. Refuse to cooperate with applications that are humanly harmful.
ii. The technology application must be evaluated and criticized.
iii. The remote effects of technological application should be taken responsible.
iv. Humane care of animals in the conduct of research should be taken seriously.
d) Timeline & Dependability
Time management is the key to a successful research plan. Time management defined
as behaviour that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain
goal-directed activities. Good time management facilitate productivity and alleviate
stress.
The benefits of good time management include:
i. Reduce procrastination – if a task is scheduled to a specific period of time, it
will be less likely to put the tasks off until the next day.
ii. The individual would gain more control and less stress – no rushing to complete
the task on deadline.
iii. Able to complete more tasks
iv. Keep on schedule and meet deadline
Set priorities and reassessing the progress can ensure the individual to spend sufficient
time on the research activities.
e) Honesty
Honesty and fairness in proposing, performing, and reporting research should be
practised by all researchers. Accuracy and fairness in representing contributions to
research proposals and reports gives good quality results. Proficiency and fairness in
peer review also important for high impact research.
Peer review is a common method used to evaluate one’s work or research in science.
Honesty in giving review is crucial as it gives a positive impact to the quality of the
research done.
Dishonesty in research is an offense that damages the reputation of the entire
community, called as research misconduct. The elements of research misconduct
include:
 Fabrication – making up data or results or reporting research.
 Falsification – manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or
changing data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in
the research record.
 Plagiarism – appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or
words without giving accreditation.
To maintain the honesty and integrity of research activity, every person engaged in the
research must keep an audible record of all the experimental protocols, data, and
findings.
f) Trustworthiness
A research should be well referenced. The data is examined with objectivity and being
guided by the results rather than by preconceived notions. The facts and findings used
as reference should come from established, accepted and trustful sources. It is the
researcher’s responsibility to ensure the facts they used to refer to are trustworthy.
g) Collegiality and openness
Collegiality in scientific interactions, communications and sharing of resources would
facilitate more global knowledge and wider view on certain field.
B. PROFESSIONALISM IN SCIENCE
Professionalism in science are identified within scientific integrity and shows the quality of
the researcher. Scientists are expected to behave with intellectual honesty and excellence in
thinking and doing, rather than following ones emotion. Professionalism include the behaviour
of collegiality and put the society’s priority in their professional lives.
C. ERROR ANALYSIS

1. Uncertainty of measurement
Uncertainty of a measurement tells us something about the quality of the measurement.
Measurement uncertainty may come from the gauges, and the item being measured, from the
environment, from the operator, and from other sources. Uncertainty can be estimated using
statistical analysis of a set size, and use other information about the measurement process.
There are established rules to calculate the estimated total uncertainty from the given
information. Some good practice such as traceable calibration, careful calculation, good record
keeping, and revisions can reduce measurement uncertainty. When uncertainty in the
measurements assessed and specified the value measuring can be properly judged. In the
scientific measurement, the measurement of physical quantity can be write as

Measurement = best estimate ± uncertainty

2. Basic Concept in Data Analysis

The process of analysing data often begins with an attempt to arrive at a clear statement of the
physics behind the data. Data analysis means understanding the meaning of the results by
extracting information that is relevant to the objective of the experiment.

a) The experimental results will not always comply or in accordance to the law of physics
proposed by the lab manual. Simply blaming the equipment for a bad data is not
recommended. It is always better to give concise manner of explanation about what went
wrong.
b) All experimental data is imperfect. Nevertheless, a good quality of data is required to draw
a strong conclusion. The precision and accuracy of the measurements have to be put into
consideration for a good quality of data.
 Precision deals with how close the agreement is between repeated measurements.
For a precise data collection, all data must be very close to each other.
 Accuracy describes the nearness of the measurement to the standard or true value.
For an accurate data collection, all data (or average) must agree with the standard
or true value.
 A good quality of data must be both precise and accurate.

Figure 1.1 Illustrate distinguish between accuracy and precision

3. Error Analysis
It is not possible to take a measurement of physical quantity with perfect certainty for the
reason that all experimental data contain errors. However, imperfect doesn’t always mean bad
in this case. The key factor is to be aware of the type of errors and to minimize it to a certain
acceptable range.

a) Source of Experimental Error:

 Parallax Errors: Due to mistakes in reading scales.
- Parallax error can be minimized by taking a set of reading by different
observers.

Figure 1.2 Parallax errors

 Systematic Errors: Built-in errors in the measuring instruments, mostly affect the
accuracy of the experiment.
 - Systematic errors can be reduced by careful calibration of the instruments or
changing the way in which the experiment was done.

Figure 1.3 Systematic error

- The measurement can be corrected by subtracting positive zero error or add for
negative zero error

 Random errors: Fluctuating reading during the measurements, affect the precision
of the results.
- Random errors can be reduced by averaging a sufficiently large amount of
results.

b) Absolute Error and Relative Error

Absolute error is an estimation of the difference between the measured value and the real
value. For example, if the exact height of an object is 30 cm and the observer estimate the
height falls between 28 cm and 32 cm, then the height of the object is

Height, h = 30 cm
Error, h = 2 cm
So, the height of object, h ± h = 30 ± 2 cm

Relative error is the absolute error divided to the exact value of the measured physical
quantity. For example, the relative error of the height measured is,

Absolute error
Relative error =
exact value
2

30
 0.067

c) Calculating Experimental Errors

Between an experimental measurement X and the true value Y , there is always estimated
error X . A better way of expressing an experimental data should be in the form X  X .
With such estimation, the measured quantity most likely lies from X  X to X  X .

 Mean and Standard Deviation

For a set of measurement X, the average can be express as the mean of the
measurements  X  and X as the standard deviation.

1 n 1
X  
n i 1
X i  ( X 1  X 2  X 3 ....... X n )
n
1 n
X  
n  1 i 1
( X i   X ) 2

The mean value gives the average and the standard deviation measures how widely
spread the measured values are on either side of the mean.

Example 1
Table 1: Time taken (s) to complete 100 m of unknown car.
5.10 5.11 5.13 5.12 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.10 5.30 5.11

Mean (Average)  X 
n  10
1 10 1
X  
10 i 1
X i  ( X 1  X 2  X 3  X 4  X 5  X 6  X 7  X 8  X 9  X 10 )
10
1 10 1
 X    X i  (5.10  5.11  5.13  5.12  5.10  5.11  5.12  5.10  5.3  5.11)
10 i 1 10
 X   5.13

Standard Deviation X

1
[(5.10 − 5.13)2 + (5.11 − 5.13)2 + (5.13 − 5.13)2 + (5.12 − 5.13)2 +
∆𝑋 = √ 10 − 1
(5.10 − 5.13) + (5.11 − 5.13)2 + (5.12 − 5.13)2 + (5.10 − 5.13)2 + (5.30 − 5.13)2 + (5.11 − 5.13)2 ]
2

= 0.06055

The measured time to complete 100m of unknown car is then can be written as:
t  5.13  0.06s

 Error propagation
Suppose two calculated physical quantities A and B contain error of A and B.
Measuring other physical quantity C from A  A and B  B will caused the
presence of error in the new quantity so that C  C.

Addition and Subtraction

The rule of transferring the errors in both addition and subtraction is either by following
the simple average error or by using the standard deviation.

Simple Average Error

C  ( A  A)  ( B  B) or C  ( A  A)  ( B  B)
C  A  B

Standard Deviation
C  ( A  A)  ( B  B) or C  ( A  A)  ( B  B)
C  (A)2  (B) 2

Example 2

Initial temperature of object T1 = 28  1 0C

Final temperature of object T2 = 78  1 0C

Difference in temperature, T = T2 – T1
=78-28
=50 0C
Error, T = T2 + T1
=1+1
=2 0C
Difference in temperature T  T = 50  2 0C
Multiplication and Division
For any combination of multiplication or division, the calculation may follows the rule
of simple average error or standard deviation.

Simple Average Error

( A  A)
C or C  ( A  A)( B  B)
( B  B )
C A B
 
C A B
 A B 
C  C  
 A B 

Standard Deviation
 A   B 
2 2

C  C     
 A  B 

Example 3

The mass of water is = 50 ± 2 g. The volume of water 2.1 ±0.1 m3. Calculate its density

mass, m
density, ρ =
volume, v
0.05
=
2.1
=0.023 kgm -3
 Δm Δv 
error, Δρ=  + ρ
 m v 
 0.002 0.1 
= +  0.023
 0.05 2.1 
density,ρ  Δρ =0.023±0.002 kgm -3

Multiplication with constant

For a physical quantities obtain by multiplying the variables with an exact number, the
error in the measured quantities is calculated by taking the product of the error with the
same exact constant;
C  aB
C  aB
Provided that a is a constant with negligible error.

Raised to a power
 For a physical quantities obtain are raised to a power , multiply the percentage
uncertainty by that power:
ΔA Δp
A = pn , A =n p

Example 4

A cylinder has a radius of 1.60 ± 0.01 cm and a height of 11.5 ± 0.1 cm. Find the
volume.
V = π r2h
= π 1.60  × 11.5
2

= 92.488 cm3 = 92 cm3

 Δr Δh 
Δv=2  + v
 r h 
 0.01 0.1 
=2  + 92
 1.6 11.5 
V±Δv=92 ± 3 cm3

 Percentage Error
Percentage error is used to compare an approximate value to an exact value. It reads as
X Y
Percentage Error  100%
Y
where X and Y are the experimental value and the exact (theoretical) value
respectively.

 Percentage Different
Percentage different is applied when comparing two measured quantities, X1 and X2.
Neither of which of the values can be considered exact or better than the other. It reads
as
X1  X 2
Percentage Different  100%
( X1  X 2 ) / 2

4. Graphical Analysis
In physical experiment, we are often required to investigate the relationship between measured
variables. Usually, the general case is to purposely change the values of specific quantity
(manipulated variable) to observe the effect of the changes to other quantity (responding
variable). Plotting the graph of variables will easily give the functional relationship. The
common confusion we usually faced is when the experiment is about calculating some
parameter values from the functional relationship. If the relationship is linear, making used the
gradient will simply enable us calculating the desired values analytically.

Let's say physical phenomena X is described by the following formula

A  BC
Then,

Figure 1.4 Calculation of slopes

To minimize the effect of uncertainties, it is always recommended to use points as far apart as
possible. The the maximum and minimum best-fit lines is one of the method to determine
the final uncertainty. For the example,

Figure 1.5 Maximum and minimum best-fit lines

Gradient of best fit, m = 9.78 ms-2

Max gradient, mmax = 9.88 ms-2
Min gradient, mmin = 9.72 ms-2
Δ m = ½ (mmax - mmin )
Therefore, gradient m = (9.78± 0.08 ) ms-2
 EXPERIMENT 1

MEASURING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

OBJECTIVE

1. To investigate the functional relationship between height of fall and falling time.
2. To determine the acceleration due to gravity, g by studying the motion of a freely
falling body.
3. To investigate different mass object will affect the value of g.

THEORY
If a body of mass m is accelerated from the state of rest in a constant gravitational field
(gravitational force mg), it performs a linear motion. By applying the coordinate system in a
way that the x axis indicates the direction of motion and solving the corresponding one-
dimensional equation of motion, we get:
𝑑2 ℎ(𝑡)
𝑚 = 𝑚. 𝑔
𝑑𝑡 2
We obtain, for the initial conditions
h(0) = 0
𝑑ℎ(0)
=0
𝑑(𝑡)
The coordinate h as a function of time (see Figure2)
1
ℎ(𝑡) = 2 𝑔𝑡 2 (1)

The height is directly proportional to the square of time. This can be displayed by a
representation of h (t2).

From the regression line of the data, we can calculate the gravitational acceleration because
the slope is equal to ½ g according to equation (1).

APPARATUS
1. Phet Projectile Motion Simulation (to be downloaded from :
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/projectile-motion
PROCEDURE

1. Click the link given : https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/projectile-motion

2. Click download or Play button.

3. Choose Intro
4. This screen will appear.

5. Adjust the angle to -90degree as shown in figure

6. Adjust the height and reduce the initial speed to 0m/s

7. Start the experiment by manipulating the height. Start with 15m height and click the
blast button.
8. Measure the time by drag the timer button on the ground. It will display the actual
time when it reaches the ground.

9. Repeat step 7 and 8 and fill in the result in the data sheet below for pumpkin.

10. Click the reset button and repeat the step 7 and 9 for different types of object. Choose
any object.

11. Create another data sheet for the object that you choose.
RESULTS

Table 3.1 Experimental Data for Pumpkin

Mass pumpkin : __________
Height of fall, Time, t (s) t2 (s2)
h (m)

Table 3.2 Experimental Data for _____________

Mass ________ : __________
Height of fall, Time, t (s) t2 (s2)
h (m)
 ANALYSIS

1. From the data, plot graph for:

a. Height of fall as a function of falling time,
b. Height of fall as a function of the square of falling time, and
2. Using the height of fall as a function of the square of falling time graph, determine
the gradient (slope) of the graph and calculate the value g.
3. Calculate value of uncertainties of g (∆g).
4. Calculate the percent difference between the value of g calculated in part (1) above
(gexperiment) and the standard value of gstandard = 9.81m/s2. What is the percent error in
this experimental value?
5. Is there any experimental errors? Discuss.

CONCLUSION
Refer objective.
 EXPERIMENT 2

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

OBJECTIVE

1. To investigate the relationship between total forces acted on an object with

acceleration of the object.
2. To study the Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

APPARATUS

Phet Simulation:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/forces-and-motion

PROCEDURE
A. Non-Friction Surface
1. Proceed to “Force Graph” tab.
2. Set the parameter setting as:
i. Object: Small Crate.
ii. Friction: Ice (no friction).

iii. Add acceleration graph, by click on .

3. For the first data, set the force applied, Fapplied to 500 N.
4. Press play button to begin.
5. Record the acceleration, a. Tabulate the results in Table 1.
6. Click “Reset All” for second reading.
7. Repeat above steps at least three times for each data.
8. Repeat step 2 until 7 for another 9 data.
B. Friction Surface
1. Proceed to “Force Graph” tab.
2. Set the parameter setting as:
i. Object: Small Crate.
ii. Friction: Wood.

iii. Add acceleration graph, by click on .

3. For the first data, set the force applied, Fapplied to 500 N.
 4. Press play button to begin.
5. Record the acceleration, a. Tabulate the results in Table 2.2.
6. Click “Reset All” for second reading.
7. Repeat above steps at least three times for each data.
8. Repeat step 2 until 7 for another 9 data.

RESULTS
Table 2.1 Experimental Data for Non-friction Surface
Applied Friction Total force, Acceleration, a
force, Fapplied force, Ffriction Ftotal (m/s2)
(N) (N) (N) a1 a2 a3 a4

Table 2.1 Experimental Data for Friction Surface

Applied Friction Total force, Acceleration, a
force, Fapplied force, Ffriction Ftotal (m/s2)
(N) (N) (N) a1 a2 a3 a4

ANALYSIS
 1. From the data, plot graph for:
a. Total force as a function of acceleration for non-friction surface.
b. Total force as a function of acceleration for friction surface.
2. From both graphs, state the relationship between the total force with the acceleration
of the object.
3. Does the graph obeys Newton’s Second Law of Motion? Explain.
4. Determine the gradients (slopes) of the graphs. What do the gradients represents?
Explain.
5. Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion, prove that the coefficient of kinetic friction,
μk between the small crate and the wood surface is 0.3.

CONCLUSION
Refer objective.
 FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE (AS120) PHY110
GRADING RUBRICS WRITTEN LABORATORY REPORT (20%) PHYSICS

CRITERIA/MARKS
ITEM
0 1 2 3 MARKS
Objective The objective is not
The objective is clearly written.
(Conceptualisation) written at all.
No method description Some method description does Method description exactly
Methodology
presented. not exactly reflect the conducted reflects the conducted
(Conceptualisation -
experiment, and/ or does not experiment, and follow scientific
description)
follow scientific writing format. writing format.
Methodology No setup drawing A non-labelled drawing is present. A labelled drawing of
(Conceptualisation – presented. experimental setup is presented.
setup drawing)
Incomplete data Number of data is appropriate but Data is relevant; number of data
Presentation of data
not properly tabulated. is appropriate and tabulated
(Implementation)
properly.
Analysis of data Wrong calculation, Correct formulae are used but All calculations are presented
(Analysis - missing some, or no with minor errors. using the correct formula and
calculation) calculation presented. dimensions.
No graph presented. Incorrect transfer of data or major Graph is presented but some of Graph is drawn with a title, suitable scale,
Analysis of data errors. the items are missing. labelled axes, the best fit line drawn and
(Analysis - graph) the gradient obtained, errors are
determined when needed.
No discussion given. No justification, but suggestions Justification does not really Results are justified scientifically, and
on the improvement of the support the results, but deviation from the theoretical value is
Discussion
experiment are made. suggestions on the improvement discussed, and suggestions on the
(Context)
of the experiment are made. improvement of the experiment are
made.
Sources of error are not General sources of error are Analyzes sources of error as Analyzes various sources of error as
Discussion analyzed or discussed. discussed, but do not clearly arise seen in the data, but seen in the data and suggestions on the
(Experimental Error) from the data. suggestions on the improvement improvement of the experiment are
lack detail or relevance. made.
Conclusion is not Conclusion is far from the Conclusion is stated according
Conclusion written. objectives, and/or results are not to the objective, results are
(Synthesis & written with/without the written with the uncertainties.
Evaluation) uncertainties

TOTAL MARKS /20

 FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE (AS120) PHY110
GRADING RUBRICS FOR VIDEO PRESENTATION (20%) PHYSICS
Attrib Sub CRITERIA/MARKS
ute attribute 0 1 2 3 4 MARKS

Reluctantly accept and Accept and carry out Accept and carry out Accept and carry out
carry out tasks, with tasks with positive tasks with positive tasks with positive
Independen results below the attitude, however attitude and performs attitude and performs
Values and Attitudes

ce course expectations. performs results below results according to the results more than the
the course expectations. course expectations. course expectations.

No attempt to explain. Attempt to explain with Attempt to explain with Attempt to explain with
Dedication incorrect both theory and correct theory or correct theory and
equation. equation. equation.
No sources/ Sources/ references/ Some sources/ Sources/ references/ A good variety of sources/
references/ examples examples are exclusively references/ examples examples presented references/ examples
Dedication presented. one type. variety. Most sources meet the required variety presented in terms of
used are weighted in the assignment. scholarly/ published
towards certain type. sources.
Work Late submit task after Late submit task after Late submission, and Late submission Submission on time.
Responsibil notified by lecturer and notified by lecturer, after notified by lecturer.
ity does not provide however provide
(Timeline) acceptable notification. acceptable notification.
Does not demonstrate Demonstrate the ability to Consistently
Ethics and Professionalism

Work the ability to work with work with others in demonstrates active and
Relation others in groups. groups. independent ability to
(Collegiality) work with others in
groups.
The contents are The contents are not very The contents are clear
unclear and inaccurate. much clear, and doubly and accurate.
The contents are accurate. The contents are
Integrity reported inaccurately The contents are reported accurately and
and contain false and reported inaccurately and in a way that can be
misleading data cannot be clearly clearly understood.
understood.
Majority of information Most information in All information in
Work Ethics was copied, and no student’s own words, with student’s own words and
(Plagiarism) referencing occurred. little references occurred. used references where
needed.
TOTAL MARKS /20