Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ultson

Review

Prospects and application of ultrasound and magnetic fields in the

fermentation of rare edible fungi
Wen Li a, b, Haile Ma a, *, Ronghai He a, Xiaofeng Ren a, Cunshan Zhou a
a
School of Food & Biological Engineering, Institute of Food Physical Processing, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
b
Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Key Laboratory of Edible Fungi Resources
and Utilization (South), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai 201403, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ultrasound has the potential to be broadly applied in the field of agricultural food processing due to advantages
Ultrasound such as environmental friendliness, low energy costs, no need for exogenous additives and ease of operation.
Magnetic field High-frequency ultrasound is mainly used in medical diagnosis and in the food industry for the identification of
Biological effects
ingredients and production line quality testing, while low-frequency ultrasounds is mainly used for extraction
Mechanism of action
and separation, accelerating chemical reactions, auxiliary microbial fermentation and quality enhancement in
Rare edible mushrooms
Assisted fermentation food industry. Magnetic fields have many advantages of convenient use, such as non-toxic, nonpolluting and safe.
High-intensity pulsed magnetic fields are widely used as a physical non-thermal sterilization technology in food
processing, while weak magnetic fields are better at activating microorganisms and promoting their growth.
Ultrasound and magnetic fields, due to their positive biological effects, have a wide range of applications in the
food processing industry. This paper provides an overview of the research progress and applications of ultra­
sound and magnetic fields in food processing from the perspectives of their biological effects and mechanisms of
action. Additionally, with the development and application of physical field technology, physical fields can now
be used to provide significant technical advantages for assisting fermentation. Suitable physical fields can pro­
mote the growth of microbial cells, improve mycelial production and increase metabolic activity. Furthermore,
the current status of research into the use of ultrasound and magnetic field technologies for assisting the
fermentation of rare edible fungi, is discussed.

1. Introduction have attracted widespread research attention. This paper provides an

The use of physical fields such as sound, light, electricity, magnetism
and force in food processing can help avoid the food safety problems,
destruction of nutrients and environmental pollution caused by high
temperatures in traditional processing and by excessive use of chemical
solvents. Physical fields can significantly improve food processing effi­
ciency and food quality by enhancing the mass transfer effect and by
changing the structure of biomolecules and their physicochemical
properties. The appropriate application of physical fields in fermenta­
tion engineering can improve microbial fermentation efficiency. In-
depth research on the basic theory of physical fields and the improve­
ment and optimization of technical parameters has allowed for the
development and application of corresponding processing equipment.
Since these advancements have occurred, the positive biological effects
associated with using ultrasound and magnetic fields in food processing
overview of the biological effects of and mechanisms underlying ultra­
sound and magnetic field food processing technologies. Furthermore,
this paper covers the application of the two technologies for assisting the
fermentation of rare edible fungi. These discussions should provide a
reference for promoting the industrial application of ultrasound and
magnetic field technologies.
2. Physical fields
2.1. Ultrasound
Ultrasound is a sound wave that propagates through a propagation
medium at frequencies between 20 kHz and 1 GHz; the human ear
cannot respond to these frequencies as they are too high [1,2]. Ac­
cording to the power density, ultrasound can be divided into low-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mhl@ujs.edu.cn (H. Ma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105613
Received 11 April 2021; Received in revised form 30 April 2021; Accepted 27 May 2021
Available online 1 June 2021
1350-4177/© 2021 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
W. Li et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613

intensity (<1 W/cm2) and high-intensity (10–1000 W/cm2) ultrasound Table 1

[2]. Depending on the power frequency, ultrasound can be classed as Classification of magnetic fields adapted from Zhou [50].
high power low frequency (20–100 kHz), medium power medium fre­ Magnetic Features Graphics Examples
quency (100 kHz–1 MHz) or low power high frequency (1–100 MHz) field type
[1]. According to the different working modes, ultrasound can be Constant Magnetic field Eternal Magnets
classed as sweep or fixed frequency, pulse or continuous, multi- magnetic strength and
frequency or single frequency, sequential multi-frequency or synchro­ field direction are
nous multi-frequency, counter-current circulation or non-forced flow, constant

and contact or non-contact [3].

Several review articles and textbook chapters describe ultrasound
technology for food applications [4-6]. Ultrasound has the potential to Alternating Magnetic field Industrial
magnetic strength, frequency
be broadly applied in the field of agricultural food processing due to
field direction magnetic therapy
advantages such as environmental friendliness, low energy costs, no regular change machine
need for exogenous additives and ease of operation. High-frequency
ultrasound that is non-destructive, non-invasive, fast and accurate
amongst other characteristics, is mainly used in medical diagnosis and in
the food industry for the identification of ingredients and production
Pulsating The magnetic Co-polar rotating
line quality testing [7,8]. Low-frequency ultrasound, as a non-thermal magnetic field strength magnet therapy,
physical processing technique, has low energy consumption and field varies regularly magnetic field
reduced processing time and thermal effects. Thus, low-frequency ul­ and the generated by
trasound can improve cell membrane permeability [8], enhance mate­ direction is pulsating DC
constant magnets
rial transfer and modify molecular structures [9–12]. Therefore, low-
frequency ultrasound is mainly used for extraction and separation Pulsed Intermittent Intermittent
[13–15], accelerating chemical reactions [16], freezing [17], thawing magnetic emergence of current flow into
field magnetic fields the coil of an
[18], drying [19], defoaming and degassing [19], homogenization [20],
electromagnet
emulsification [21], passivation of enzyme activity [21] and inactiva­ with various
tion of microorganisms [22]. In the food industry, low-frequency ul­ shapes of pulsed
trasound has been used effectively for aging and maturation [23], magnetic fields
pesticide residue elution [22], food cleaning and sterilization [24], os­
motic dehydration [25], auxiliary enzymatic catalysis [26], auxiliary
ultra-strong (>5 T). Weak magnetic fields are better at activating mi­
microbial fermentation (Fig. 1) [27,28], auxiliary non-enzymatic re­
croorganisms and promoting their growth [37-39]. Strong magnetic
actions [29], quality enhancement [30], flavor improvement
fields kill microorganisms [40].
[26,29,31,32], active substance encapsulation [33] and membrane
High-intensity pulsed magnetic fields are widely used as a physical
bioreactors cleaning [34,35].
non-thermal sterilization technology in food processing [41-45]. This
technology overcomes the side effects of heat sterilization on the flavor
2.2. Magnetic fields and nutrient contents of products, and the toxic side effects of chemical
non-thermal sterilization reagent residues on the human body. High-
A magnetic field is a physical field that transmits the interaction intensity pulsed magnetic fields show unique superiority in the pro­
between, and is created by, moving charges or electric currents. Mag­ cessing of juices, milk and other foods. High-intensity pulsed magnetic
netic fields are classified into static and dynamic, and uniform and non- fields destroy the structure of microbial cells and hinder their normal
uniform fields. Constant magnetic fields are called static magnetic fields, physiological activities. This technology is associated with a short ster­
while alternating and pulsating magnetic fields are dynamic magnetic ilization time and low energy consumption, and is better for maintaining
fields. A magnetic field with equal or approximately equal intensity in the original nutrients and flavor substances in the food [45]. The non-
all parts of the space is called a uniform magnetic field. If this is not the thermal biological effect of weak magnetic fields is achieved via the
case, the field is called a non-uniform magnetic field (Table 1). Ac­ electromagnetic waves having a triggering effect on microorganisms.
cording to the effect of magnetic fields on organisms, magnetic fields are This affects the metabolic energy of the biological system itself, changes
classified into different intensity levels: weak (<1 T), strong (1–5 T) and the structural characteristics of biological cells [46,47], affects the

Fig. 1. Sweeping multi-frequency ultrasound slot equipment and fermentation system adapted from Zhang [36]. 1, ultrasonic generator; 2, ultrasonic transducer; 3,
slot chamber; 4, inlet port; 5, sampling port; 6, sterilization vent; 7, pressure gauge; 8, outlet port; 9, condenser; 10, peristaltic pump; 11, fermentation bottle; 12,
constant temperature stirring water bath.

2
W. Li et al.
chemical bonds and molecular conformation of nucleic acids, proteins
and biological macromolecules [48,49], and affects free radical activity
[50]. The biological effects caused by magnetic fields are affected by
multiple factors, such as frequency range, field strength range and ma­
terial handling conditions. For example, high-intensity pulsed magnetic
field sterilization technology results in a “biological window effect”
[51,52]; magnetic induction strength and enzymatic reaction rate does
not show a linear relationship [53], but inhibition and promotion
alternately. Although the mechanisms underlying magnetic effects have
not been thoroughly revealed, magnetic fields have been used in medical
aid therapy [54-57] and in the food industry for sterilization [24,43,58-
61], passivation of enzyme activity [45,62], preservation of fruits and
vegetables [63-66], auxiliary microbial fermentation (Fig. 2) [67-70],
auxiliary enzymatic reactions [71], component separation and extrac­
tion [72-75], strain mutagenesis [76,77], quality enhancement [78-80],
improvement of seed growth and physiological properties [81], and
reduction of microbial adsorption of heavy metals [82]. Other research
fields have used magnetic fields for a wide range of applications [83,84].
3. Physical field technology characteristics and mechanisms of
action
3.1. Ultrasonic field technology characteristics
Ultrasound has cavitation, mechanical and thermal effects [85-87]
(Fig. 3). The ultrasonic cavitation effect refers to the nucleation of tiny
bubbles in the liquid under the action of ultrasonic waves, and to a series
of kinetic processes such as bubble nucleus oscillation, growth,
contraction and collapse. Ultrasonic cavitation is divided into steady-
state cavitation (acoustic pressure less than 10 W/cm2) and transient
cavitation (acoustic pressure greater than 10 W/cm2). Steady-state
cavitation subjects cells or biological macromolecules to the shear
stress generated by microacoustic flow and the osmotic dynamics
generated by the secondary electro-optical effect of cavitation, and thus
intensifies biochemical processes. Transient cavitation generates high
temperature and high pressure (7000–16000 K and 5 × 107 Pa) in the
cell, while generating strong redox radicals and potential, which can
destroy cell structures or break cells, leading to macromolecular damage
or cell death [88]. Ultrasonic mechanical effects refer to how the
propagation of ultrasonic waves in the medium cause the medium mass
to vibrate, accelerating the mass–liquid transfer process and promoting
biological mass transfer. This mechanical force can prompt the substrate
to enter the active site of microbial catalysts, enhance the affinity be­
tween substrate and enzymes, and improve the speed of biological re­
actions. However, stronger ultrasonic intensities can also damage the
structure of biological macromolecules in culture media (such as
fermentation broths) and cause other biological effects, such as the
mutation of genetic traits. The ultrasonic thermal effect refers to how the
vibration energy of the ultrasonic wave is continuously absorbed by the
propagation medium and converted to heat energy, which increases the
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of low-frequency alternating magnetic field equip­
ment 1, 220 V AC power supply; 2, single contact regulator; 3, magnetic field
coil; 4, shaker; 5, shaker switch; 6, shaker speed adjustment button; 7,
speed display.
3
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
temperature of the medium. The thermal effect can provide an ideal
reaction environment for substrate–enzyme reactions [89,90]. Howev­
er, when the rate of thermal energy deposition exceeds thermal diffusion
or conduction in the tissue, the temperature increase causes the dena­
turation and inactivation of intracellular molecules [87,91,92]. There­
fore, organisms respond to ultrasound effects at low intensities and
suitable frequency conditions, but there is also a stress response to
acousto-photothermal and chemical factors, such as high frequency,
high pressure and high temperature, caused by different ultrasound
conditions. The applications and mechanisms of action of low-frequency
ultrasound in the food industry are listed in Table 2.
3.2. Mechanism of action of low-frequency ultrasound fields
The positive biological effects caused by low-frequency ultrasound
include (1) changes in cell membrane permeability and increased cell
growth rate; (2) changes in molecular conformation and intensification
of reaction processes; and (3) activation of intracellular signal trans­
duction systems and changes to the synthesis of metabolites within the
organism.
The cavitation, mechanical and thermal effects of ultrasound all lead
to positive changes in cell membrane permeability. Firstly, via the
cavitation effect, the interaction between the cavitation bubble and the
cell membrane (push–pull effect) can increase the permeability of the
cell membrane [4]; the electrical effect produced by cavitation can
change the surface potential of the cell membrane, and the osmotic force
increases the cell membrane permeability [106]. Secondly, a microjet
shear force is generated by ultrasonic cavitation and by the mechanical
effect of the acoustic radiation. This force acts on the cell, forming a
cavity on the surface of the cell membrane, which increases the
permeability of the cell membrane. Thirdly, via the thermal effect, cells
absorb the ultrasonic energy and the temperature of biological tissues
increases; this leads to increases in the fluidity and permeability of
cytoplasmic membranes [107]. The formation of cell membrane cavities
and increases in fluidity accelerate the transport and exchange of sub­
stances inside and outside the cell, promote cell growth and reproduc­
tion, and increase metabolite production. Meanwhile, the electrical
potential also accelerates the activation of calcium channels, increases
the intracellular Ca2+ concentration, and shortens the growth cycle of
cells [108].
When used in food processing, ultrasonic cavitation and mechanical
effects affect the fermentation culture substrate, enzymatic substrate,
biocatalyst, and metabolite molecular structure. These ultrasonic effects
also improve the reaction system environment, enhance the reaction
efficiency, and strengthen the reaction process. Firstly, with respect to
the effects of ultrasound on substrates, ultrasound can promote the
release of large substrate active sites in fermentation or enzymatic
substrates. This is achieved through mild physical denaturation, such as
protein defolding and peptide fragment targeting, and enhances sub­
strate nutrient utilization and metabolite enrichment [109]. With
respect to the effects of ultrasound on biocatalysts, ultrasound can
regulate the enzyme active center, improve the distribution of groups
and intermolecular forces of the biocatalyst, reduce the number of
irregular curls in the molecular structure, promote the formation of the
highly active transition state of enzymes, and improve the affinity be­
tween the substrate and enzyme [90]. With respect to the effects of the
ultrasound on products and reaction processes, mechanical mass trans­
fer effects promote product diffusion and extracellular transfer. Product
release and mechanical mass transfer further intensify the kinetic re­
actions of substrates and products [110,111]. Ultrasonic effects also
promote the formation of specific functional groups and molecular
structures in the products and influence the properties and activities of
the products [112,113]. Furthermore, in terms of how ultrasound can
improve the reaction system environment, ultrasonic cavitation in­
creases the number of bubbles in the medium, which increases the ex­
change space of gas and liquid and increases the amount of dissolved
W. Li et al.
Fig. 3. Ultrasonic effects. Note: Cavitation bubble development process and atomic force microscopy image of ultrasound-treat zein adapted from Ren [94].
oxygen in the medium [114]. At the same time, the rapid rupture of
cavitation bubbles produces an environment that is characterized by
free radical oxidation, high temperature and pressure, and accelerated
chemical reactions [115].
The cavitation, mechanical and thermal effects of ultrasound affect
the expression of genes associated with metabolic synthesis pathways of
organisms, mostly in the context of defense responses to stressful envi­
ronments. Ultrasound activates signaling molecules in the organism,
which, upon binding to intracellular receptors, become transcriptional
promoters that act on specific regulatory sequences to initiate gene
transcription and expression, and to synthesize metabolites [116].
When ultrasound acts on an organism, the multiple biophysical ef­
fects produced can lead to the intensification of biological processes
through different mechanisms. Appropriate ultrasound conditions can
promote the growth of microbial cells and the synthesis of beneficial
metabolites as described above. However, when ultrasound reaches a
certain dose, the cavitation, mechanical and thermal effects generate
high temperatures, high pressure and free radicals. These can cause cell
structure destruction and shearing of biological macromolecules or
conformational changes that cause irreversible damage, thus inhibiting
biological processes. Thus, these high ultrasonic doses are mostly used
for processes such as auxiliary sterilization and blunting enzyme activ­
ity. In addition, the ultrasonic cavitation effect and its secondary effects,
or high pressure and high frequency transient mechanical effects, can be
used to shear genes and change protein expression levels to achieve
mutagenic breeding.
3.3. Magnetic field technology characteristics
The responses of biological systems to magnetic fields, which can
also be described as the biological effects of electromagnetic waves, can
be divided into thermal and non-thermal effects. The thermal effects are
caused by the temperature changes caused due to Joule heating by the
electromagnetic waves entering the biological system. The non-thermal
effects are directly caused by the electromagnetic waves entering the
4
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
biological system. In other words, the thermal effects are caused by the
energy carried by the electromagnetic waves, while the non-thermal
effects are caused by the information carried by the electromagnetic
waves.
The biological effects of magnetic fields are characterized by the
window effect, magnetic field strength threshold, hysteresis and syner­
gism. The window effect refers to how an organism only responds to a
particular strength of magnetic field. Further, the magnetic field must be
within a certain range or strength threshold to cause biological effects.
The term hysteresis is used to describe how a period of time must elapse
before the organism exhibits the corresponding magnetic field effect.
Finally, synergism describes how a very weak applied magnetic field can
stimulate a very strong biological response. The applications and
mechanisms of action of magnetic field technology in the food industry
are listed in Table 3.
3.4. Mechanism of action of weak magnetic fields
The biological effects of weak magnetic treatments are mainly due to
the affects the treatment has on the medium properties, physicochemical
properties of cell membranes, structure of biological macromolecules,
and free radicals. Magnetic fields can produce positive biological effects
by influencing several aspects of media parameters, cell morphology
structure, enzyme activity [118,119] and gene expression [130-133].
3.4.1. Effect of magnetic field treatment on the medium
Magnetic field treatment changes the properties of the culture me­
dium. For example, it has been shown that increasing the strength of the
magnetic field treatment reduces the conductivity of Spirulina culture
solution and increases the NO3-N content; this facilitates cellular uptake
and metabolism [134]. However, it has also been suggested that mag­
netic fields do not increase the consumption of nitrogen by cells and are
not responsible for increasing cell growth. The nitrate that is absorbed
by cells through the active transport system is reduced to nitrite by ni­
trate reductase, and then to ammonium by nitrite reductase. In cells
W. Li et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613

Table 2
Applications and mechanisms of action of low-frequency ultrasound in the food industry.
Applications Mechanism of action Reference

Auxiliary separation and extraction Accelerates mass transfer and increases the rate of component dissolution. [14,93]

Auxiliary enzymatic catalysis Changes the molecular conformation of substrate and enzyme, promotes the contact between substrate and enzyme, and [26,94]
enhances the reaction.

Auxiliary microbial fermentation Improves microbial morphology, activity and rheological properties of fermentation broth. [27,95
28,34]

Auxiliary membrane filtration, Cavitation effect (microjet) and mechanical effect to break the concentration difference of deposited particles on both sides [34,35]
membrane separation of the membrane.

Defoaming, degassing Accelerates bubble aggregation, enlargement and rupture. [96,97]

Emulsification, homogenization Reduces the particle size and molecular mass of biomolecules and increases solubility. [21,32]

Osmotic dehydration, drying Accelerates the vibration and migration of water molecules, increases the rate of water diffusion, and increases the mass [19,98-100]
transfer driving force.

Auxiliary freezing Cavitation bubbles act as nuclei to promote ice crystal formation, and the shear forces generated by cavitation reduce the [17]
size of ice crystals and accelerate the freezing rate.

Auxiliary thawing The microjet formed by cavitation bubble rupture increases the flow velocity of thawing medium, accelerates the heat [18]
exchange between thawing material and medium, and strengthens the convective heat transfer effect.

Pesticide residue elution The strong oxidizing ability of free radicals generated by cavitation accelerates the emulsification of fat-soluble [101]
components, exposes their hydrophilic groups and degrades them into the water; or reduces the adhesion of pesticide
residues on food and agricultural products through the mechanical effect.

Auxiliary cleaning and sterilization The cavitation effect produces high temperature and high pressure to destroy the cell wall or cell membrane of bacteria; the [102]
free radicals with strong oxidizing properties are produced to destroy the DNA of microbial cells and inactivate enzymes to
kill bacteria.

Aging and maturation The cavitation effect generates hydroxyl radicals, and the number of molecules with hydrogen bonding increases, and the [103]
hydrogen bonds between molecules are broken, accelerating various chemical reactions such as esterification and
oxidation.

Auxiliary mutagenesis breeding The high temperature and pressure generated by the cavitation effect shear biological macromolecules such as DNA and [104]
proteins and change the molecular conformation.

Auxiliary non-catalytic reactions The high temperature and pressure generated by the cavitation effect promote the unfolding of molecular structures, [29]
intensify the collision of reactive groups, and accelerate the reaction process.

Flavor improvement Enhances the biosynthesis of valuable metabolites (secondary) by stimulating the activity of plant cells (physiological). [31]

Meat tenderization Disrupts the integrity of myocytes or enhances the interaction of free radical acoustic chemical reaction products with the [105]
meat protein matrix.

containing high concentrations of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-
carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), large amounts of nitrogen and sul­
fur, which are necessary for cell growth, are consumed to produce the
enzyme. Magnetic field treatment alters the protein profile but does not
affect medium consumption [135]. Magnetic fields may change the
energy level and spin direction of electrons in the medium. In addition,
magnetic forces alter ion exchange, and the changes in ion exchange can
change the pH of the medium [136]. The use of magnetic field-treated
water (magnetized water) for the cultivation of Cordyceps militaris, and
the synergistic effect of magnetized water and selenium ions in the
medium, has been shown to trigger a series of physiological and
biochemical changes [137]. Magnetized water has significant effect on
the extracellular enzyme activity (protease, polyphenol oxidase and
amylase), mycelial growth and medicinal ingredients (D-mannitol and

Table 3
Applications and mechanisms of action of magnetic field technology in the food industry.
Applications Mechanism of action Reference

Auxiliary separation and The energy generated by the magnetic field is used to change the microstructure of antimagnetic substances, causing changes [74,75,117]
extraction in the physicochemical properties and intensifying the reaction process.

Auxiliary/inhibited The enzyme active center, enzyme tertiary structure and kinetic parameters of enzymatic reactions are affected. [118,119]
enzymatic catalysis

Auxiliary microbial The magnetic field changes the physicochemical properties of fermentation substrate; affects the microstructure of microbial [38,69,70,120-
fermentation cells; accelerates the mobility of cell membrane lipids; and promotes cell growth. 122]

Strain mutagenesis The magnetic field affects the structure of cellular genetic material, causing changes in genomic DNA and regulating gene 118[123]
transcription and expression.

Auxiliary sterilization The magnetic field affects the morphology of bacteria, causing cell shrinkage and leakage of contents. [60,62,124-129]

Freshness preservation The magnetic field inhibits the enzyme active center and the affinity between the enzyme and substrate. [65]

Improving meat structure The magnetic field causes increased hydrogen bonding, which affects protein structures and gel properties. [55]

Improving seed growth Magnetic field treatment improves primary metabolism. [77]

5
W. Li et al.
polysaccharide) content in submerged cultures of C. militaris [138].
3.4.2. Effect of magnetic field treatment on cell morphology
Magnetic field treatment affects the microstructure of the cell; it
causes an acceleration of cell membrane lipid fluidity, which allows the
cell to respond to external stressful stimuli and thus protect the interior
of the cell. The enhanced membrane permeability increases the uptake
capacity for nutrients required for microbial growth. By affecting the
permeability of cell membranes and the receptor sites of proteins,
magnetic fields can be used to regulate the passage of antibodies across
cell membranes. Magnetic fields induce random movement of charged
biomolecules in the cell and increase cell viability. Magnetic field
treatment also leads to biological changes by affecting the rate of
biochemical reactions, the binding of molecules to membranes, and
signaling between cells, and through changes to growth rate and cell
function [139].
3.4.3. Effect of magnetic field treatment on biological macromolecules
Magnetic field treatment stimulates the growth of biological organ­
isms and may affect microbial metabolism by altering carbohydrate and
protein synthesis and essential amino acid accumulation [136]. Because
metabolic reactions are all based on differences in charge and systemic
ions, the movement of electrons and ions may lead to changes in bio­
molecular concentrations (such as of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids)
[140]. Changes in cell structure and morphology caused by magnetic
field treatment may also lead to the breakdown of proteins into smaller
peptides [136]. Magnetic field treatment can enhance microbial meta­
bolic pathways leading to the accumulation of carbohydrates, thus
stimulating growth [140]. Magnetic field treatment can interfere with
enzyme kinetics and alter enzyme activity by increasing the rate of
collision between biocatalysts and substrates, by altering the aggrega­
tion state of enzymes, by triggering conformational changes in enzymes,
or by increasing the rate of diffusion [141].
3.4.4. Effect of magnetic field treatment on free radicals
The effect of magnetic field treatment on free radical concentrations
is amplified if each radical within a pair have opposite charges. Magnetic
field treatment may also induce oxidative stress in organisms by altering
the energy level, electron spin orientation and radical concentration.
This, thus changes the relative likelihood of recombination of other in­
teractions and possibly produces biological effects [135].
4. Application of low-frequency ultrasound and weak magnetic
fields in the fermentation of rare edible fungi
The growth period of wood-rotting edible mushroom substrates is
long and susceptible to the influence of factors such as cultivation region
and environmental climate, and the quality level of substrates varies.
The production of rare edible mushrooms is scarce. This hinders in-
depth study of the biological activities of the mushrooms. In recent
years, liquid fermentation technology has provided new ideas to obtain
a variety of rare edible mushrooms, such as Phellinus igniarius and
Ganoderma lucidum, and their active secondary metabolites. Liquid
fermentation technology is advantageous as it protects the environment,
is based on short fermentation cycles, allows the acquisition of large
amounts of mycelia and fermentation solution, and is easy to manage
and control. More importantly, the active ingredients in the mycelium
cultivated by this technology are comparable to those in the substrate.
This supports the development of edible and medicinal mushroom re­
sources and the utilization of their active ingredients, which compen­
sates for the shortage in the market, meeting people’s needs.
With the development and application of physical field technology,
physical fields can now be used to provide significant technical advan­
tages for assisting fermentation. Physical fields have a certain degree of
influence on cell morphology and structure and on biomolecular active
substances. Suitable physical fields can promote the growth of microbial
6
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
cells, improve mycelial production and increase metabolic activity. Both
ultrasound and magnetic field techniques produce biological effects and
can be applied to assist microbial fermentation. In this paper, six rare
edible fungi (Grifola frondosa, Hericium erinaceus, Phellinus igniarius,
Cordyceps militaris, Ganoderma lucidum and Antrodia cinnamomea; Fig. 4
(a)) were selected to provide an overview of the status of domestic and
international research on the use of ultrasound and magnetic fields for
assisting edible fungi fermentation.
Grifola frondosa, a rare medicinal fungus, has fresh, crispy seeds and
tastes like shredded chicken. The dried mushrooms have a unique aroma
and are rich in protein, amino acids, trace elements, vitamins and other
nutritional elements. Some studies have shown that the bioactive sub­
stance of G. frondosa, G. frondosa polysaccharide, is effective in lowering
blood sugar, blood lipids, and cholesterol, regulates the immunity of the
body, and has anti-tumor properties. At present, liquid fermentation of
G. frondosa is an effective and quick method used to obtain the active
G. frondosa polysaccharide. A low-intensity alternating magnetic field
has a promotional effect on the liquid fermentation of G. frondosa, and
has been shown to significantly increase the mycelial biomass. When the
magnetic induction intensity was 35 Gs, the initial magnetic treatment
intervention time was 1 h after inoculation, and the duration of action
was 3 h, the magnetic field had the strongest effect on the growth of the
G. frondosa mycelium; the dry mass of the G. frondosa mycelium was
increased by 11.43% and the total amount of all nutrients was increased.
The “biological window effect” of the magnetic field on the growth of
G. frondosa was observed at 3 h and 5 h of the magnetic field treatment
[121]. The researchers investigated the cause of the window effect by
analyzing the change in fermentation broth pH. The peak value of
fermentation broth pH occurred at the time of the window effect of
magnetic field treatment, and it was speculated that the occurrence of
the window effect was related to the change of fermentation broth pH.
Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe hypha morphological
changes of G. frondosa mycelium after low intensity magnetic field
treatment, and it was found that the surface of mycelium was wrinkled,
mycelium was rotated, some mycelium appeared expanded and thinner,
more branches were produced, and the structure of mycelium was
looser. It is presumed that the mycelium produced a stress response to
the magnetic field treatment. The loose structure of mycelium helps the
transfer and transport of nutrients and metabolites in the fermentation
broth, thus promoting the growth of mycelium and achieving the effect
of magnetic field to promote fermentation.
Hericium erinaceus, which belongs to the subphylum Hymenomyco­
tina, order Russulales and family Hericiaceae, is a valuable food and
medicinal mushroom. Polysaccharides are among the main active in­
gredients of H. erinaceus, and have anti-aging, anti-tumor, anti-
mutagenesis and anti-radiation properties. These bioactive poly­
saccharides also function in immune system regulation and are used to
treat hypoglycemia and hypolipidemia. It has been shown that a mag­
netic field will promote the growth of H. erinaceus and its extracellular
polysaccharide secretion. Further, it was found that the effect of the
magnetic field on the extracellular polysaccharide secretion of
H. erinaceus had a lag relative to the effect on the mycelium. A magnetic
field strength of 1.06 A/m and an action time of 12 h had the strongest
growth-promoting effect on the mycelium of H. erinaceus, and the
growth rate of the dry mass of H. erinaceus reached 140.1%. The growth
promotion effect of the magnetic field on the extracellular poly­
saccharide of H. erinaceus was the strongest at 48 h. The rate of increase
in the extracellular polysaccharide mass concentration of H. erinaceus
reached 271.7%. At 24 h, a magnetic field strength of 0.8 A/m was used
to promote the production of the extracellular H. erinaceus poly­
saccharide, and the increase in extracellular polysaccharide mass con­
centration reached 187.5% [142]. The magnetic field treatment
changed the permeability of the cell membrane of H. erinaceus, causing
the exocytosis of intracellular polysaccharides, resulting in the senes­
cence and death of some mycelium, as shown by the increase of myce­
lium biomass of H. erinaceus with the magnetic field treatment before 24
W. Li et al.
Fig. 4. Artificially cultivated edible fungi (a), and A. cinnamomea mycelium obtained by physical field-assisted fermentation (b, c, d, e).
h. The magnetic field showed a promotion effect on the extracellular
polysaccharide production, mainly due to the autolysis of senescent and
dead cells. The promotion effect of magnetic field on the growth of
H. erinaceus mycelium has an intensity window effect and a time win­
dow effect. It was inferred that the biological indicators were changed
under a certain field strength and a certain duration of action.
Phellinus igniarius, a rare medicinal fungus belonging to the family
Hymenochaetaceae, is rich in polysaccharides, amino acids, flavonoids,
triterpene acids, aromatic acids, melanin, phenolic pigments and other
chemical elements. P. igniarius possesses anti-tumor, antioxidant,
bactericidal and immune activity regulation effects and thus has both
high nutritional and medicinal value. It was found that weak magnetic
field-assisted fermentation could increase the mycelial polysaccharide
and flavonoid production of P. igniarius, and could enrich the mono­
saccharide composition of mycelial polysaccharides. At the same time,
the weak magnetic field-assisted mode helped to improve the total
antioxidant capacity and the superoxide anion radical-scavenging abil­
ity of P. igniarius. The maximum yield of mycelial flavonoids was 0.6918
mg/100 mL at a magnetic field strength of 120 mT, which was 2.09
times higher than that of the control. The maximum total antioxidant
capacity was 10.1133 U/mL at a magnetic field strength of 180 mT,
which was 55.69% higher than that of the control. The maximum
scavenging capacity of superoxide anion radicals was 89.2123 U/L,
which was obtained at a magnetic field strength of 90 mT and was
22.59% higher than the value obtained in the control. The weak mag­
netic field-assisted fermentation did not significantly change the flavo­
noid species of the mycelium, but did have an effect on the ratio of
compounds, such as polysaccharides and proteins. There was a certain
promotional effect on the protein content in the P. igniarius mycelia, and
this effect was most obvious at the magnetic field strength of 120 mT,
with an elevation of 13.81% compared with the control. The weak
magnetic field-assisted fermentation of mulberry has been shown to be
conducive to the enrichment of mycelial Ca, Na, and Zn elements [143].
The mycelium cells need to adapt to new environment for cell prolif­
eration. The external stresses could cause a series of stress responses in
microorganisms, hence affecting the cell membrane permeability. When
the magnetic field strength gradually increases, the cell membrane
fluidity increases in order to maintain the original osmotic pressure, ion
permeability, and signaling, and the increase in membrane fluidity
promotes more metabolism of the cells. The intracellular polysaccharide
content of the P. igniarius mycelium was also found to be significantly
increased in the study of ultrasound-assisted liquid fermentation of
P. igniarius. In this study, the ultrasound was applied 3.8 days after the
fermentation started, with an ultrasonic action time of 65 min and a
7
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
cycle of 25 s/5 s of working time/interval time. The yield of intracellular
polysaccharides of the P. igniarius mycelium treated with ultrasound was
1.8002 g/L, which was approximately 22.64% higher than the yield in
the control. Furthermore, the polysaccharides were found to have a
strong in vitro antioxidant capacity [28]. The changes in cell
morphology observed by laser scanning confocal microscope indicated
that ultrasound could change the morphology and structure of
P. igniarius mycelium, and accelerate the transfer of nutrients and
metabolites.
Cordyceps militaris is a medical fungus that has various pharmaco­
logical effects. C. militaris is rich in cordyceps polysaccharides, cordy­
cepin, cordycepic acid, nucleosides and other bioactive substances.
These substances have important antibacterial, anti-tumor and anti-
radiation properties and play a role in the regulation of immune func­
tion. The types, contents and pharmacological effects of artificially fer­
mented Cordyceps are similar to those of wild Cordyceps. Thus,
artificially fermented Cordyceps have important application value and
are also significant for the conservation of Cordyceps resources. It was
found that the yield of extracellular C. militaris polysaccharides showed
an increasing trend with increasing strength of the applied magnetic
field (0.015–1.500 T). The highest yield of extracellular C. militaris
polysaccharides was observed at 1.250 T and 25 min of treatment time.
However, the yield of extracellular polysaccharides of C. militaris was
lower in the magnetic treatment group than in the control group, and the
magnetic treatment inhibited the production of extracellular C. militaris
polysaccharides [144].
Researchers have found that charged ions in a culture medium (500
mL of rice broth, containing 5 g glucose, 1 g potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, 1 g magnesium sulfate, 1 g peptone, 1 g beef paste and1 g
yeast powder), such as Na+, K+ and Cl− , were affected by the magnetic
field. The magnetic field changed the permeability of the biofilm to the
ions and affected the metabolism, biochemical processes, and membrane
potential of the microorganisms. With increasing magnetic treatment
intensity, the biofilm of C. militaris may be partially damaged, and when
in an extreme physical environment, C. militaris may self-protectively
secrete and release extracellular polysaccharides. This may explain
why the production of extracellular polysaccharides by C. militaris
showed an increasing trend with the increase in the intensity of the
applied magnetic field. Metal atoms (Fe, Mn, Co, Cu and Mo) in the
activity centers of C. militaris enzymes are subjected to magnetism due to
the magnetic field, which results in changes in enzyme activity. The
magnetic field interferes with the transfer and transport of electrons or
ions in the organism, leading to metabolic disorders and inhibiting the
growth of the organism. These phenomena may explain why the
W. Li et al.
production of extracellular polysaccharides by C. militaris was lower
under magnetic field treatment than in the blank control [144]. In the
author’s opinion, the combination of magnetic field properties indicates
that magnetic field action has a window effect. In the study of magnetic
field-assisted C. militaris fermentation, the window effect was observed
at a low magnetic field strength (0.5 T). Analysis of the mechanism
underlying this window effect may further resolve the specific mecha­
nism by which the magnetic field acts in C. militaris fermentation. Some
researchers have also used different magnetic treatment conditions to
study the biological effects generated with respect to the mycelial
growth of C. militaris. Using the mycelial growth amount as an indicator,
the optimal magnetic treatment condition to generate positive biological
effects was found to be 1.25 T for 10 min [145].
Ganoderma lucidum has been widely used as a traditional Chinese
medicine for thousands of years. Among the secondary metabolites of
G. lucidum, triterpenes are the main active ingredients with pharmaco­
logical activities such as anti-aging, anti-viral, anti-tumor, anti-inflam­
matory, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and
immunomodulatory activities. Liquid fermentation of G. lucidum as a
method for efficiently producing G. lucidum triterpenes has received
wide attention from researchers across the globe. Studies have shown
that the biomass of G. lucidum mycelia and the production of triterpe­
noids increased by 26.99% and 33.62%, respectively, under optimal
sonication conditions. Ultrasonication significantly increased the intra­
cellular and extracellular polysaccharide (by 18.48% and 35.90%,
respectively) and flavonoid (by 30.27% and 2.00%, respectively) con­
tents with respect to the control group. The intracellular mycelial cal­
cium ion concentration was also increased after ultrasound treatment,
indicating that the ultrasound treatment affected mycelium cell mem­
brane permeability [27]. It was inferred that the extremely significant
increase in intracellular flavonoids content might be due to the stress
response to ultrasound intervention. The improvement of extracellular
polysaccharides and flavonoids contents might be due to the short-term
sonoporation caused by ultrasonic treatment, which promoted the
transport of substances inside and outside cells, so as to relieve feedback
inhibition in cells and promote cell metabolism.
Antrodia cinnamomea belongs to the phylum Basidiomycetes and
family Fomitopsidaceae. A. cinnamomea mainly grows in the inner wall
of the decaying trunk of the bull camphor tree in Taiwan, China. The
fungus possesses anti-tumor, liver protection, and swelling and pain
relief functions. The main active metabolites of A. cinnamomea are
polysaccharides and triterpenoids. A. cinnamomea polysaccharides have
anti-tumor and anti-hepatitis B virus functions. Meanwhile, triterpe­
noids regulate body immunity, lower blood pressure and possess anti­
oxidation and anti-inflammatory properties. Researchers have found
that a magnetic field could promote the liquid fermentation of
A. cinnamomea. The magnetic induction intensity was set at 80 Gs, the
initial intervention time of the magnetic treatment was 3 d after inoc­
ulation, and the duration of the magnetic treatment was 4 h per day.
Under these conditions, the production of mycelial biomass, triterpenes
and polysaccharides could be significantly increased, and the fermen­
tation time was shortened. It was found that the low-frequency alter­
nating magnetic field treatment affected the cell structure, increased the
fluidity of mycelial cell membranes, and promoted the exchange of
substances inside and outside the cell. Transcriptome sequencing of the
A. cinnamomea mycelium before and after magnetic field treatment
showed that the expression of genes related to amino acid metabolism,
signal transduction, the citric acid cycle and cytokinesis were upregu­
lated by the magnetic field treatment [146].
During weak magnetic field-assisted A. cinnamomea liquid fermen­
tation at 90 mT and after 9 days of fermentation, the mycelial biomass,
polysaccharide production and triterpenoid production in the fermen­
tation broth were found to be the highest. Furthermore, these conditions
led to the mycelia being more dispersed, better extended and fuller; the
mycelial polysaccharides had the best anti-tumor activity; the total
antioxidant capacity of triterpenoids was significantly improved; and
8
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
the content of volatile substances with antibacterial activity increased
[147]. Wang [148] also found that the magnetic field had the strongest
promotional effect on the growth and triterpene production of the
A. cinnamomea mycelium at a magnetic field strength of 60 mT. At this
field strength, the increase in the A. cinnamomea mycelium production
was approximately 23.53% and in triterpene production was 28.19% at
36 h after the initiation of fermentation. After this time point, the
mycelium and triterpene production showed a decreasing trend with the
increase of magnetic field action time. The effects of magnetic field on
the A. cinnamomea mycelium and triterpene production were consistent.
The researcher also found that the surface morphology of the mycelium
obtained by magnetic field-assisted fermentation was loose and partly
wrinkled (Fig. 4(d, e)), and the magnetic field-assisted fermentation had
no significant effect on the composition of triterpene compounds in the
A. cinnamomea mycelium compared with conventional fermentation
[148]. In the same study, ultrasound was also applied to a liquid culture
of A. cinnamomea for 48 h, with an ultrasonic power of 60 W/L, fre­
quency of 68 kHz, and a total treatment time of 15 min [148]. Under
these ultrasound conditions and shake-flask culture conditions, the
mycelium yield was 7.78 g/L and the triterpene yield was 0.32 g/L,
which were 17.52% and 39.13% higher, respectively, compared with
the control group. Compared with conventional fermentation, ultra­
sound had a greater effect on the surface microstructure and internal cell
structure of the A. cinnamomea mycelium (Fig. 4(b, c)), and there was no
significant difference in the composition of triterpene compounds. Re­
searchers have investigated the effects of different frequencies of ul­
trasonic treatment on the germination of A. cinnamomea spores. First,
A. cinnamomea spores were inoculated into potato dextrose agar (PDA)
medium, and then 8 h later, the spores were treated with ultrasound at
frequencies of 22 kHz and 68 kHz for 15 min, and the fermentation
continued for 19 h. Via microscopic observation, the researchers found
that the germination rate of A. cinnamomea spores was increased by
approximately 40–60%. Analysis using scanning electron microscopy
revealed that ultrasound damaged the cell wall of A. cinnamomea spores
to a certain extent. This was beneficial as it reduced the barrier of the cell
wall to spore germination, thus promoting the germination of
A. cinnamomea spores.
Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the effects of
physical fields in food fermentation applications. Low frequency ultra­
sound can influence the course of fermentation by improving mass
transfer and cell permeability to improved process efficiency and pro­
duction rates [4]. Magnetic fields have effects on foods at the subatomic
particle level, or at the level of DNA, compounds, subcellular organelles
and cells [83]. To understand the effects of physical fields on foods and
to test the hypothesis, it is necessary to use multidisciplinary (physics,
chemistry) and multi-technology (multi-omics, bioinformatics) to
elucidate the interactions between food and physical fields.
Compared with traditional fermentation, low frequency ultrasound
and low-intensity magnetic fields has been employed for enhancing
fermentation rates. Physical field-assisted fermentation could improve
the mass transfer, reduce fermentation periods, improve the produc­
tivity and quality of fermented products. Low frequency ultrasound
processing of milk has been reported to reduce fermentation time of
yoghurt and improve the final product properties [4], and low-intensity
magnetic field-assisted fermentation can increase the mycelial biomass,
polysaccharide and triterpenoid yield of Antrodia camphorata, and
shorten fermentation time [121]. However, the use of ultrasound and
magnetic fields in the fermentation of edible mushrooms has not been
sufficiently studied. Current research is mostly focused on assisting the
extraction of active ingredients. One reason for this is that the mecha­
nisms by which physical fields aid fermentation are unclear. A second
reason is that ultrasound technology, despite more than 10 years of
development, is often used as an auxiliary technology for research, not
as a separate, cutting-edge technology.
Some investigators have also reported that physical field-assisted
fermentation may also have negative effects on microorganisms in
W. Li et al.
food fermentation. Ultrasound caused negative changes in wine senso­
rial properties with the formation of negative oxidative smell of burns or
smoke [4], while magnetic field had a negative effect on the number of
Fusarium oxysporum conidia [149] and the production of extracellular
C. militaris polysaccharides [37]. Using physical field for specific food
fermentation applications, an appropriate frequency and power condi­
tions should be considered.
Although ultrasound is widely used in hospitals, airports, and other
places, the use of ultrasound for cleaning led to rapid developments in
ultrasound technology with a consequent reduction in the cost of
equipment, the interactions between ultrasound and microorganisms in
food fermentation are complex and not well understood, which brought
challenges to industrial application. As a mature technology, in addition
to the need for continuous equipment innovations and for elucidating
how to apply the technology well in the food field (for rare food and
medicinal mushrooms), there is a need for in-depth research into the
mechanisms underlying ultrasound action. The lack of application of
magnetic fields in fermentation processes is partly due to the lack of
understanding of the molecular conditions of most fermentation pro­
cesses (especially those involving the synthesis of extracellular prod­
ucts). Conflicting results and lack of reproducibility are considered
typical problems in magnetic field studies, and differences in re­
searchers’ results may be due to the experimental design, microbial
strain, exposure time, magnetic field system and field detection methods
used.
5. Conclusions and prospects
There are many advantages associated with using low-frequency
ultrasound and weak magnetic fields for assisting rare edible mush­
room fermentation. Without a significant temperature rise, the cavita­
tion, mechanical and chemical effects of ultrasound and the non-thermal
biological effects of magnetic fields can be used to strengthen the bio­
logical mass transfer effect, promote reaction processes and modify
biological macromolecules. These effects enhance biosynthesis effi­
ciency and significantly improve product safety and biological activity.
Thus, there are great prospects for the industrialization of these physical
field technologies.
In previous research, physical fields have mostly been used for
auxiliary strengthening and cannot be used independently to complete
the processing operation. The use of the equipment by researchers across
the globe in a single mode also limits the application of the physical
fields in industry. Therefore, further basic theoretical research should be
carried out to analyze the mechanisms by which physical fields act. In
addition, industrial application problems associated with equipment
development and industrial scale production should be addressed to
overcome technical bottlenecks and to promote the industrialization
process. Through these advancements, it should become possible to
effectively use physical fields in the processing of food and agricultural
products.
Funding
This research was funded by Shanghai Agriculture Applied Tech­
nology Development Program, China (No. 2020-02-08-00-12-F01484),
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31901812), Jiangsu
Province Key R&D Program (Modern Agriculture Key Project) (No.
BE2018368) and Shanghai Agricultural Science and Technology Inno­
vation Action Plan (No. 21N31900800).
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wen Li: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing. Haile Ma: Conceptualization,
Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administra­
tion, Resources, Supervision. Ronghai He: Conceptualization,
9
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
Methodology, Supervision. Xiaofeng Ren: Conceptualization, Method­
ology, Supervision. Cunshan Zhou: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
References
[1] A. Chávez-Martínez, R.A. Reyes-Villagrana, A.L. Rentería-Monterrubio,
R. Sánchez-Vega, J.M. Tirado-Gallegos, N.A. Bolivar-Jacobo, Low and high-
intensity ultrasound in dairy products: applications and effects on
physicochemical and microbiological quality, Foods 9 (2020) 1688.
[2] W.U. Fei-Fei, L. Chao, L.I. Hua-Qiang, L.Z. Zhao, X.U. Yong-Ping, Y.Z. Long,
Q. Chen, Z.M. Zhang, Research progress of applications of ultrasonic technology
in food industry, J. Food Saf. Qual. (2017).
[3] S.M.R. Azam, H. Ma, B. Xu, S. Devi, S.L. Stanley, M.A.B. Siddique, A.S. Mujumdar,
J. Zhu, Multi-frequency multi-mode ultrasound treatment for removing pesticides
from lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and effects on product quality, LWT, 143 (2021)
111147.
[4] K.S. Ojha, T.J. Mason, C.P. O’Donnell, J.P. Kerry, B.K. Tiwari, Ultrasound
technology for food fermentation applications, Ultrason. Sonochem. 34 (2017)
410–417.
[5] R. Pathak, T. Leong, 1.29 - Consumer acceptability of ultrasonically processed
foods, in: K. Knoerzer, K. Muthukumarappan (Eds.), Innovative Food Processing
Technologies, Elsevier, Oxford, 2021, pp. 504–518.
[6] M. Ashokkumar, Applications of ultrasound in food and bioprocessing, Ultrason.
Sonochem. 25 (2015) 17–23.
[7] A. Gallipoli, A. Gianico, M.C. Gagliano, C.M. Braguglia, Potential of high-
frequency ultrasounds to improve sludge anaerobic conversion and surfactants
removal at different food/inoculum ratio, Bioresour. Technol. 159 (2014)
207–214.
[8] M. Matouq, Z. Al-Anber, N. Susumu, T. Tagawa, H. Karapanagioti, The kinetic of
dyes degradation resulted from food industry in wastewater using high frequency
of ultrasound, Sep. Purif. Technol. 135 (2014) 42–47.
[9] H. Wang, K. Xu, Y. Ma, Y. Liang, H. Zhang, L. Chen, Impact of ultrasonication on
the aggregation structure and physicochemical characteristics of sweet potato
starch, Ultrason. Sonochem. 63 (2020), 104868.
[10] Y. Hemar, C. Xu, S. Wu, M. Ashokkumar, Size reduction of “reformed casein
micelles” by high-power ultrasound and high hydrostatic pressure, Ultrason.
Sonochem. 63 (2020), 104929.
[11] H. Zhang, G. Chen, M. Liu, X. Mei, Q. Yu, J. Kan, Effects of multi-frequency
ultrasound on physicochemical properties, structural characteristics of gluten
protein and the quality of noodle, Ultrason. Sonochem. 67 (2020), 105135.
[12] J. Jin, H. Ma, B. Wang, A.-E.-G.-A. Yagoub, K. Wang, R. He, C. Zhou, Effects and
mechanism of dual-frequency power ultrasound on the molecular weight
distribution of corn gluten meal hydrolysates, Ultrason. Sonochem. 30 (2016)
44–51.
[13] H. Heidari, S. Ghanbari-Rad, E. Habibi, Optimization deep eutectic solvent-based
ultrasound-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction by using the desirability
function approach for extraction and preconcentration of organophosphorus
pesticides from fruit juice samples, J. Food Compos. Anal. 87 (2020), 103389.
[14] E. Bruno Romanini, L. Misturini Rodrigues, A. Finger, T. Perez Cantuaria
Chierrito, M. Regina da Silva Scapim, G. Scaramal Madrona, Ultrasound assisted
extraction of bioactive compounds from BRS Violet grape pomace followed by
alginate-Ca2+ encapsulation, Food Chem. 338 (2021), 128101.
[15] S.K. Ulug, F. Jahandideh, J. Wu, Novel technologies for the production of
bioactive peptides, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 108 (2021) 27–39.
[16] S. Shokri, S.S. Shekarforoush, S. Hosseinzadeh, Stimulatory effects of low
intensity ultrasound on the growth kinetics and metabolic activity of Lactococcus
lactis subsp, Lactis, Process Biochemistry 89 (2020) 1–8.
[17] Z. Zhu, P. Zhang, D.-W. Sun, Effects of multi-frequency ultrasound on freezing
rates and quality attributes of potatoes, Ultrason. Sonochem. 60 (2020), 104733.
[18] Y.-Y. Wang, M. Tayyab Rashid, J.-K. Yan, H. Ma, Effect of multi-frequency
ultrasound thawing on the structure and rheological properties of myofibrillar
proteins from small yellow croaker, Ultrason. Sonochem. 70 (2021), 105352.
[19] Y. Li, X. Wang, Z. Wu, N. Wan, M. Yang, Dehydration of hawthorn fruit juices
using ultrasound-assisted vacuum drying, Ultrason. Sonochem. 68 (2020),
105219.
[20] X. Fan, S. Li, A. Zhang, H. Chang, X. Zhao, Y. Lin, Z. Feng, Mechanism of change
of the physicochemical characteristics, gelation process, water state, and
microstructure of okara tofu analogues induced by high-intensity ultrasound
treatment, Food Hydrocolloids 111 (2021), 106241.
[21] O. Sarheed, D. Shouqair, K.V.R.N.S. Ramesh, T. Khaleel, M. Amin, J. Boateng,
M. Drechsler, Formation of stable nanoemulsions by ultrasound-assisted two-step
emulsification process for topical drug delivery: Effect of oil phase composition
and surfactant concentration and loratadine as ripening inhibitor, Int. J. Pharm.
576 (2020), 118952.
W. Li et al.
[22] E.A. Alenyorege, H. Ma, I. Ayim, J.H. Aheto, C. Hong, C. Zhou, Effect of multi-
frequency multi-mode ultrasound washing treatments on physicochemical,
antioxidant potential and microbial quality of tomato, J. Food Meas. Charact. 13
(2019) 677–686.
[23] G. Cravotto, A. Binello, 1 - Low-frequency, high-power ultrasound-assisted food
component extraction, in: K. Knoerzer, P. Juliano, G. Smithers (Eds.), Innovative
Food Processing Technologies, Woodhead Publishing, 2016, pp. 3–29.
[24] A. Taiye Mustapha, C. Zhou, H. Wahia, R. Amanor-Atiemoh, P. Otu, A. Qudus,
O. Abiola Fakayode, H. Ma, Sonozonation, Enhancing the antimicrobial efficiency
of aqueous ozone washing techniques on cherry tomato, Ultrason. Sonochem. 64
(2020), 105059.
[25] N. Barman, L.S. Badwaik, Effect of ultrasound and centrifugal force on carambola
(Averrhoa carambola L.) slices during osmotic dehydration, Ultrason. Sonochem.
34 (2017) 37–44.
[26] X. Gao, T. Feng, E. Liu, P. Shan, Z. Zhang, L. Liao, H. Ma, Ougan juice debittering
using ultrasound-aided enzymatic hydrolysis: Impacts on aroma and taste, Food
Chem. 345 (2021), 128767.
[27] L. Sun, L. Liu, L. Yang, Y. Wang, M. Dabbour, B.K. Mintah, R. He, H. Ma, Effects of
low-intensity ultrasound on the biomass and metabolite of Ganoderma lucidum in
liquid fermentation, J. Food Process. Eng. 44 (2021), e13601.
[28] H. Zhang, H. Ma, W. Liu, J. Pei, Z. Wang, H. Zhou, J. Yan, Ultrasound enhanced
production and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from mycelial
fermentation of Phellinus igniarius, Carbohydr. Polym. 113 (2014) 380–387.
[29] H. Yu, Q. Zhong, Y. Liu, Y. Guo, Y. Xie, W. Zhou, W. Yao, Recent advances of
ultrasound-assisted Maillard reaction, Ultrason. Sonochem. 64 (2020), 104844.
[30] X. Zhu, Z. Zhang, L.M. Hinds, D.-W. Sun, B.K. Tiwari, Applications of ultrasound
to enhance fluidized bed drying of Ascophyllum Nodosum: Drying kinetics and
product quality assessment, Ultrason. Sonochem. 70 (2021) 105298.
[31] A.R. Jambrak, M. Šimunek, M. Petrović, H. Bedić, Z. Herceg, H. Juretić, Aromatic
profile and sensory characterisation of ultrasound treated cranberry juice and
nectar, Ultrason. Sonochem. 38 (2017) 783–793.
[32] C. Wu, D.J. McClements, M. He, L. Zheng, T. Tian, F. Teng, Y. Li, Preparation and
characterization of okara nanocellulose fabricated using sonication or high-
pressure homogenization treatments, Carbohydr. Polym. 255 (2021), 117364.
[33] Q. Liang, X. Ren, X. Zhang, T. Hou, M. Chalamaiah, H. Ma, B. Xu, Effect of
ultrasound on the preparation of resveratrol-loaded zein particles, J. Food Eng.
221 (2018) 88–94.
[34] T. Kobayashi, T. Kobayashi, Y. Hosaka, N. Fujii, Ultrasound-enhanced membrane-
cleaning processes applied water treatments: influence of sonic frequency on
filtration treatments, Ultrasonics 41 (2003) 185–190.
[35] M.O. Lamminen, H.W. Walker, L.K. Weavers, Mechanisms and factors influencing
the ultrasonic cleaning of particle-fouled ceramic membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 237
(2004) 213–223.
[36] Z. Zhang, F. Xiong, Y. Wang, C. Dai, Z. Xing, M. Dabbour, B. Mintah, R. He, H. Ma,
Fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a one liter flask coupled with an
external circulation ultrasonic irradiation slot: Influence of ultrasonic mode and
frequency on the bacterial growth and metabolism yield, Ultrason. Sonochem. 54
(2019) 39–47.
[37] L.O. Santos, R.M. Alegre, C. Garcia-Diego, J. Cuellar, Effects of magnetic fields on
biomass and glutathione production by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Process Biochem. 45 (2010) 1362–1367.
[38] M.A. da Motta, J.B.F. Muniz, A. Schuler, M. da Motta, Static Magnetic Fields
Enhancement of Saccharomyces cerevisae Ethanolic Fermentation, Biotechnol.
Prog. 20 (2004) 393–396.
[39] M. Taskin, N. Esim, M. Genisel, S. Ortucu, I. Hasenekoglu, O. Canli, S. Erdal,
Enhancement of invertase production by Aspergillus niger Oz-3 using low-
intensity static magnetic fields, Prep. Biochem. Biotech. 43 (2013) 177–188.
[40] M. Singla, N. Sit, Application of ultrasound in combination with other
technologies in food processing: A review, Ultrason. Sonochem. 73 (2021)
105506.
[41] J. Korolczuk, J. Rippoll Mc Keag, J. Carballeira Fernandez, F. Baron, N. Grosset,
R. Jeantet, Effect of pulsed electric field processing parameters on Salmonella
enteritidis inactivation, J. Food Eng. 75 (2006) 11–20.
[42] F. Xu, B. Wang, C. Hong, S. Telebielaigen, J. Nsor-Atindana, Y. Duan, F. Zhong,
Optimization of spiral continuous flow-through pulse light sterilization for
Escherichia coli in red grape juice by response surface methodology, Food Control
105 (2019) 8–12.
[43] Z. Liu, X. Gao, J. Zhao, Y. Xiang, The sterilization effect of solenoid magnetic field
direction on heterotrophic bacteria in circulating cooling water, Procedia Eng.
174 (2017) 1296–1302.
[44] L. Lin, X. Wang, R. He, H. Cui, Action mechanism of pulsed magnetic field against
E. coli O157:H7 and its application in vegetable juice, Food Control 95 (2019)
150–156.
[45] L. Lin, X. Wang, H. Cui, Synergistic efficacy of pulsed magnetic fields and
Litseacubeba essential oil treatment against Escherichia coli O157:H7 in
vegetable juices, Food Control 106 (2019) 106686.
[46] J. Wang, Y. An, F. Li, D. Li, D. Jing, T. Guo, E. Luo, C. Ma, The effects of pulsed
electromagnetic field on the functions of osteoblasts on implant surfaces with
different topographies, Acta Biomater. 10 (2014) 975–985.
[47] J. Cai, X. Shao, Q. Yang, Y. Yang, Z. Yan, E. Luo, X. Feng, D. Jing, Pulsed
electromagnetic fields modify the adverse effects of glucocorticoids on bone
architecture, bone strength and porous implant osseointegration by rescuing
bone-anabolic actions, Bone 133 (2020), 115266.
[48] T. Saliev, D. Begimbetova, A.-R. Masoud, B. Matkarimov, Biological effects of
non-ionizing electromagnetic fields: Two sides of a coin, Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.
141 (2019) 25–36.
10
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
[49] M. Cifra, J.Z. Fields, A. Farhadi, Electromagnetic cellular interactions, Prog.
Biophys. Mol. Biol. 105 (2011) 223–246.
[50] H.J. Zhou, M.A. Hai-Le, W.U. Ping, H.N. Zhang, Progress in understanding
magnetic biological effect in food processing, Food Science (2014).
[51] S.J. Webb, A.D. Booth, Absorption of microwaves by microorganisms, Nature.
[52] C.F. Blackman, L.S. Kinney, D.E.W. House, Multiple power-density windows and
their possible origin, Bioelectromagnetics 10 (1989) 115–128.
[53] Z. Zhang, G. Bai, D. Xu, Y. Cao, Effects of ultrasound on the kinetics and
thermodynamics properties of papain entrapped in modified gelatin, Food
Hydrocolloids 105 (2020), 105757.
[54] H. Yacoob, Amending the efficiency of antimicrobial against multi-drug-resistant
Pseudomonas aeruginosa by low-frequency magnetic fields, Bull. Exp. Biol. Med.
170 (2020).
[55] L. Dong, G. Li, Y. Gao, L. Lin, Y. Zheng, Effect of priming low-frequency magnetic
fields on zero-Mg2+ -induced epileptiform discharges in rat hippocampal slices,
Epilepsy Res. 167 (2020), 106464.
[56] A. Maldonado-Moreles, T. Cordova-Fraga, H. Bonilla-Jaime, P.Y. Lopez-Camacho,
G. Basurto-Islas, Low frequency vortex magnetic field reduces amyloid β
aggregation, increase cell viability and protect from amyloid β toxicity,
Electromagn. Biol. Med. 40 (1) (2021) 191–200.
[57] N. Dolgova, Z. Wei, B. Spink, L. Gui, Q. Hua, D. Truong, Z. Zhang, Y. Zhang, Low-
field magnetic stimulation accelerates the differentiation of oligodendrocyte
precursor cells via non-canonical TGF-β signaling pathways, Mol. Neurobiol. 58
(2021) 855–866.
[58] H.C. Deeth, N. Datta, Heat treatment of milk | non-thermal technologies: pulsed
electric field technology and ultrasonication, in: J.W. Fuquay (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of Dairy Sciences (Second Edition), Academic Press, San Diego, 2011,
pp. 738–743.
[59] N. Zhu, Y.-L. Wang, Y. Zhu, L. Yang, N. Yu, Y. Wei, H. Zhang, A.-D. Sun, Design of
a treatment chamber for low-voltage pulsed electric field sterilization, Innovative
Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 42 (2017) 180–189.
[60] X.U. Shen-Shi, M.A. Hai-Le, Sterilization and biological window effects of pulsed
magnetic field on Staphylococcus aureus and its inactivation dynamics, Food Sci.,
(2010).
[61] Sudarti, Utilization of extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic field is as
alternative sterilization of Salmonella Typhimurium in Gado-Gado, Agric. Agric.
Sci. Procedia 9 (2017) 317–322.
[62] J.T. Jin, B.S. Zheng, K.J. Xiao, Effect of high-intensity pulsed magnetic field on
inactivation of strawberry peroxydase and sterilization of strawberry juice, Sci.
Technol. Food Ind. (2010).
[63] H.F. Zhang, L.Q. Zhao, Huhhot, Application of heat treatment on storage and
preservation of fruit and vegetable, storage and process, (2005).
[64] J.H. Mok, W. Choi, S.H. Park, S.H. Lee, S. Jun, Emerging pulsed electric field
(PEF) and static magnetic field (SMF) combination technology for food freezing,
Int. J. Refrig 50 (2015) 137–145.
[65] S. Gao, X.J. Wang, G.Z. Wang, Application of magnetic field to fruit and vegetable
preservation, Food Res. Dev. (2015).
[66] M. Kumar, M. Kaur, An innovation in magnetic field assisted freezing of
perishable fruits and vegetables: a review, Food Rev. Int. 36 (2019) 1–20.
[67] J.R. Mattar, M.F. Turk, M. Nonus, N.I. Lebovka, H. El Zakhem, E. Vorobiev,
S. cerevisiae fermentation activity after moderate pulsed electric field pre-
treatments, Bioelectrochemistry 103 (2015) 92–97.
[68] D.C. Alvarez, V.H. Pérez, O.R. Justo, R.M. Alegre, Effect of the extremely low
frequency magnetic field on nisin production by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis
using cheese whey permeate, Process Biochem. 41 (2006) 1967–1973.
[69] D. Guo, Y. Zhao, G.E. Lu, M.A. Haile, L.I. Zhenjiang, Effect of low-
intensitymagnetic field on cell membrane fluidityof Taiwanofungus camphoratus
mycelia in liquid fermentation, Acta Edulis Fungi (2018).
[70] G. Qu, P. Lv, Y. Cai, C. Tu, X. Ma, P. Ning, Enhanced anaerobic fermentation of
dairy manure by microelectrolysis in electric and magnetic fields, Renewable
Energy 146 (2020) 2758–2765.
[71] A. Wasak, R. Drozd, D. Jankowiak, R. Rakoczy, The influence of rotating
magnetic field on bio-catalytic dye degradation using the horseradish peroxidase,
Biochem. Eng. J. 147 (2019) 81–88.
[72] Y. Zhou, Z. Zhang, S.G. Zhang, Y. Bi, P. Zhang, C. Pang, W. Hu, Z.B. Liu, L. Zhou,
Using orthogonal array design to optimize the extraction of wolfberry flavonoids
by magnetic field treatment, Food Sci. 33 (2012) 98–101.
[73] J. Zhang, W.U. Song-Hai, W.X. Chen, F. Wang, Effects of static magnetic field on
antioxidant activities of black pepper extracts, Chem. Ind. Eng. (2012).
[74] M.Q. Zhou, G. Yu, Study on extraction from orange peel under magnetic field,
(2009).
[75] N. Heidari, A. Ghiasvand, S. Abdolhosseini, L. Ghaedrahmati, A. Barkhordari,
V. Jalili, Magnetic field-assisted solid-phase extraction of nucleoside drugs using
Fe 3 O 4 @PANI core/shell nanocomposite, J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol. 43
(17-18) (2020) 733–741.
[76] M. Zhang, Q. J, Study on increasing neutral protease production by pulsed
magnetic field mutagenesis in combination with optimization of fermentation
conditions, Packag. Food Mach., (2019).
[77] T. Asghar, Y. Jamil, M. Iqbal, H. Zia ul, M. Abbas, Laser light and magnetic field
stimulation effect on biochemical, enzymes activities and chlorophyll contents in
soybean seeds and seedlings during early growth stages, J. Photochem.
Photobiol., B 165 (2016) 283–290.
[78] Juanjuan, Guo, Yuanhua, Zhou, Kun, Yang, Xiaoli, Yin, Jing, Zhenshun, Effect of
low-frequency magnetic field on the gel properties of pork myofibrillar proteins,
Food Chem., (2018).
W. Li et al.
[79] Y. Tan, Y. Jin, N. Yang, Z. Wang, Z. Xie, X. Xu, Z. Jin, X. Liao, H. Sun, Influence of
uniform magnetic field on physicochemical properties of freeze-thawed avocado
puree, RSC Adv. 9 (2019).
[80] L. Zhang, Z. Yang, Q. Deng, Effects of pulsed magnetic field on freezing kinetics
and physical properties of water and cucumber tissue fluid, J. Food Eng. 288
(2021), 110149.
[81] S. Kataria, L. Baghel, K.N. Guruprasad, Alleviation of adverse effects of ambient
UV stress on growth and some potential physiological attributes in soybean
(glycine max) by seed pre-treatment with static magnetic field, J. Plant Growth
Regul. 36 (2017) 550–565.
[82] W. Shao, R. Ebaid, A.-E.-F. Abomohra, M. Shahen, Enhancement of Spirulina
biomass production and cadmium biosorption using combined static magnetic
field, Bioresour. Technol. 265 (2018) 163–169.
[83] H.L.A. Miñano, A.C.d.S. Silva, S. Souto, E.J.X. Costa, Magnetic fields in food
processing perspectives, applications and action models, Processes 8 (2020) 814.
[84] M. Sarraf, S. Kataria, H. Taimourya, L.O. Santos, R.D. Menegatti, M. Jain,
M. Ihtisham, S. Liu, Magnetic Field (MF) applications in plants: an overview,
Plants 9 (2020) 1139.
[85] A. Patist, D. Bates, Ultrasonic innovations in the food industry: From the
laboratory to commercial production, Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 9 (2)
(2008) 147–154.
[86] D. Knorr, M. Zenker, V. Heinz, D.-U. Lee, Applications and potential of ultrasonics
in food processing, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 15 (2004) 261–266.
[87] T.J. Mason, L. Paniwnyk, J.P. Lorimer, The uses of ultrasound in food technology,
Ultrason. Sonochem. 3 (3) (1996) S253–S260.
[88] A.Z. Sulaiman, A. Ajit, R.M. Yunus, Y. Chisti, Ultrasound-assisted fermentation
enhances bioethanol productivity, Biochem. Eng. J. 54 (2011) 141–150.
[89] H. Ma, L. Huang, J. Jia, R. He, L. Luo, W. Zhu, Effect of energy-gathered
ultrasound on Alcalase, Ultrason. Sonochem. 18 (2011) 419–424.
[90] S. Barton, C. Bullock, D. Weir, The effects of ultrasound on the activities of some
glycosidase enzymes of industrial importance, Enzyme Microb. Technol. 18
(1996) 190–194.
[91] T. Lesko, A.J. Colussi, M.R. Hoffmann, Sonochemical decomposition of phenol:
evidence for a synergistic effect of ozone and ultrasound for the elimination of
total organic carbon from water, Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 (2006) 6818–6823.
[92] F. Yang, N. Gu, D. Chen, X. Xi, D. Zhang, Y. Li, J. Wu, Experimental study on cell
self-sealing during sonoporation, J. Control. Release 131 (2008) 205–210.
[93] Y. Jin, L. Li, Q. Liu, N. Ai, Optimization of extraction process of sodium alginate
from Laminaria japonica by ultrasonic-complex enzymatic hydrolysis method,
Sci. Technol. Food Ind. 42 (2021) 132–137.
[94] X. Ren, Q. Liang, H. Ma, Effects of sweeping frequency ultrasound pretreatment
on the hydrolysis of zein: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity and
thermodynamics analysis, J. Food Sci. Technol. 55 (2018) 4020–4027.
[95] G. Huang, S. Chen, C. Dai, L. Sun, W. Sun, Y. Tang, F. Xiong, R. He, H. Ma, Effects
of ultrasound on microbial growth and enzyme activity, Ultrason. Sonochem. 37
(2017) 144–149.
[96] M.D. Morey, N.S. Deshpande, M. Barigou, Foam destabilization by mechanical
and ultrasonic vibrations, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 219 (1999) 90–98.
[97] M. Zenker, V. Heinz, D. Knorr, Application of ultrasound-assisted thermal
processing for preservation and quality retention of liquid foods, J. Food Prot. 66
(2003) 1642.
[98] X.F. Wu, M. Zhang, A.S. Mujumdar, C.H. Yang, Effect of ultrasound-assisted
osmotic dehydration pretreatment on the infrared drying of Pakchoi Stems,
Drying Technol. (2019) 1–12.
[99] M.S. Zhou, L.I. Ying-Ying, L.U. Zhi-Fang, Effects of ultrasonic infiltration on
dehydration and rehydration of Letinous edodes, Sci. Technol. Food Ind. (2018).
[100] Y.H. Liu, W.U. Jian-Ye, J.X. Liu, L. Luo, C.J. Chong, S. Miao, D.L. Luo, Ultrasonic-
assisted osmotics dehydration and subsequent hot-air drying of pear slices, Food
Sci. 35 (2014) 23–28.
[101] X. Wang, Y. Wu, J. Li, A. Wang, G. Li, X. Ren, W. Yin, Ultrasound-assisted deep
eutectic solvent extraction of echinacoside and oleuropein from Syringa
pubescens Turcz, Ind. Crops Prod. 151 (2020), 112442.
[102] L. Yanglae, K. Hyunse, B. Minhyuck, Research on ultrasonic sterilization effect of
treatment equipments, J. Korean Soc. Manuf. Technol. Eng. (2013).
[103] H. Wang, Y. Tao, Y. Li, S. Wu, D. Li, X. Liu, Y. Han, S. Manickam, P.L. Show,
Application of ultrasonication at different microbial growth stages during apple
juice fermentation by Lactobacillus plantarum: Investigation on the metabolic
response, Ultrason. Sonochem. 73 (2021) 105486, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ultsonch.2021.105486.
[104] W. Zhu, X. Miao, X. Zhang, X.U. Ting, B. Zhang, D.O. Biochemistry, B. University,
Breeding research of ultrasonic-high temperature inducement on Agrocybe
aegerita Huang Chalmydospore, Northern Horticult., (2017).
[105] A. Sergeev, N. Shilkina, V. Tarasov, S. Mettu, O. Krasulya, V. Bogush, E. Yushina,
The effect of ultrasound treatment on the interaction of brine with pork meat
proteins, Ultrason. Sonochem. 61 (2020) 104831.
[106] Braungart, C. Dale, Effect of ultrasound on permeability of cell membrane,
Acoust. Soc. Am. J., 37 (1965) 1195-1195.
[107] N. Kudo, K. Okada, K. Yamamoto, Sonoporation by single-shot pulsed ultrasound
with microbubbles adjacent to cells, Biophys. J. 96 (12) (2009) 4866–4876.
[108] B. Wang, L. Shi, Z. Jing, Y. Yu, Y. Yang, The influence of Ca2+ on the proliferation
of S. cerevisiae and low ultrasonic on the concentration of Ca2+ in the S.
cerevisiae cells, 32 (2003) 35-42.
[109] J.Q. Jia, H.L. Ma, W.R. Zhao, Z.B. Wang, L. Luo, Effect of ultrasound treatment on
structure and functional properties of wheat germ albumin, Guocheng Gongcheng
Xuebao/Chin. J. Process Eng. 1 (2009) 107–112.
11
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
[110] S.J. Zhu, Y.H. Shi, L.E. Guo-Wei, Effects of ultrasound on the hydrolysis of casein
by trypsin, J. Wuxi Univ. Light Ind. (2005).
[111] Y. Zou, Y. Ding, W. Feng, W. Wang, Q. Li, Y. Chen, H. Wu, X. Wang, L. Yang,
X. Wu, Enzymolysis kinetics, thermodynamics and model of porcine cerebral
protein with single-frequency countercurrent and pulsed ultrasound-assisted
processing, Ultrason. Sonochem. 28 (2016) 294–301.
[112] D.J. McClements, Chapter 4 - ultrasonics in food processing, in: A.G. Gaonkar
(Ed.), Food Processing, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, 1995, pp. 59–70.
[113] S. Ruan, J. Luo, Y. Li, Y. Wang, S. Huang, F. Lu, H. Ma, Ultrasound-assisted liquid-
state fermentation of soybean meal with Bacillus subtilis: Effects on peptides
content, ACE inhibitory activity and biomass, Process Biochem. 91 (2020) 73–82.
[114] W.G. Pitt, S.A. Ross, Ultrasound increases the rate of bacterial cell growth,
Biotechnol. Prog. 19 (2003) 1038–1044.
[115] A.M.N. Abesinghe, N. Islam, J. Vidanarachchi, S. Prakash, K. Silva, A. Karim,
Effects of ultrasound on the fermentation profile of fermented milk products
incorporated with lactic acid bacteria, Int. Dairy J. 90 (2019) 1–14.
[116] G. Huang, Y. Tang, L. Sun, H. Xing, H. Ma, R. He, Ultrasonic irradiation of low
intensity with a mode of sweeping frequency enhances the membrane
permeability and cell growth rate of Candida tropicalis, Ultrason. Sonochem. 37
(2017) 518–528.
[117] Y. Zhou, Z. Zhang, S.-G. Zhang, Y. Bi, P. Zhang, C. Pang, W. Hu, Z.-B. Liu, L. Zhou,
X. Xiao, Using orthogonal array design to optimize the extraction of wolfberry
flavonoids by magnetic field treatment, Food Science 33 (2012) 98–101.
[118] F. Cristina, Fraga, Alexsandra, Valério, V. Almeida, D. Oliveira, Marco, L. Di,
Débora, Effect of magnetic field on the Eversa? Transform 2.0 enzyme: Enzymatic
activity and structural conformation, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., (2018).
[119] N. Emamdadi, M. Gholizadeh, M.R. Housaindokht, Investigation of static
magnetic field effect on horseradish peroxidase enzyme activity and stability in
enzymatic oxidation process, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 170 (2021) 189–195.
[120] Study on increasing neutral protease production by pulsed magnetic field
mutagenesis in combination with optimization of fermentation conditions,
Packag. Food Mach., (2019).
[121] L.I. Xin-Yi, Y.E. Xiao-Fei, M.A. Hai-Le, W.M. Liu, L. Sun, N. Kong, Stimulation of
Griflola frondosa liquid fermentation through low-intensity alternating magnetic
field and its preliminary study of biological window effects, Food Ferment. Ind.
(2017).
[122] B. Zhao, H. Sha, J. Li, S. Cao, G. Wang, Y. Yang, Static magnetic field enhanced
methane production via stimulating the growth and composition of microbial
community, J. Cleaner Prod. 271 (2020), 122664.
[123] A.B. Al-Hawash, S. Li, X. Zhang, X. Zhang, F. Ma, Productivity of γ-Linoleic acid
by oleaginous fungus Cunninghamella echinulata using a pulsed high magnetic
field, Food Biosci. 21 (2018) 1–7.
[124] M. Gao, H. Ma, K. Guo, Sterilization effect of pulsed magnetic field and its
influence on milk nutrient components, Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. (2005).
[125] D.D. Guo, K.J. Xiao, Non-thermal sterilization of milk by intense pulsed magnetic
field, Food Res. Dev. (2010).
[126] Y. Zhu, C. Li, H. Cui, L. Lin, Antimicrobial mechanism of pulsed light for the
control of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and its application in carrot juice, Food
Control 106 (2019) 106751.
[127] L.I. Mei, Y.Z. Peng, Y.D. Shuang, Experimental study on sterilization effects of
pulsed electromagnetic field, Journal of Heilongjiang Commercial College
(Natural Sciences Edition) (2003).
[128] W.U. Ping, Y. Zeng, W.W. Wang, Y.U. Xiao-Chen, S.S. Ren, M.A. Hai-Le, Study on
the sterilization effect of pulsed magnetic fields on Listeria Grayi, Sci. Technol.
Food Ind.
[129] Sudarti, Utilization of extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic field is as
alternative sterilization of Salmonella Typhimurium In Gado-Gado, Agric. Agric.
Sci. Procedia 9 (2016) 317–322.
[130] J. Qian, M. Zhang, C. Dai, S. Huo, H. Ma, Transcriptomic analysis of Listeria
monocytogenes under pulsed magnetic field treatment, Food Res. Int. 133 (2020),
109195.
[131] M. Kimsa-Dudek, A. Krawczyk, A. Synowiec-Wojtarowicz, Sławomir Dudek,
K. Pawłowska-Góral, The impact of the co-exposure of melanoma cells to
chlorogenic acid and a moderate-strength static magnetic field, J. Food Biochem.
44 (12) (2020), e13512.
[132] Q. Liao, Y. Liu, J. Zhang, L. Li, M. Gao, A low-frequency magnetic field regulates
Monascus pigments synthesis via reactive oxygen species in M. purpureus, Process
Biochem. 86 (2019) 16–24.
[133] Y. Wan, J. Zhang, H. Han, L. Li, Y. Liu, M. Gao, Citrinin-producing capacity of
Monascus purpureus in response to low − frequency magnetic fields, Process
Biochem. 53 (2017) 25–29.
[134] W. Depei, G. Dewei, P. Zhiyin, Y. Shujuan, Primary study of Zarrouek-media
treated by special magnetic field on production of polysaccharide of Spirulina
platensis, Food Sci., 25 (1998) 11–13.
[135] K.M. Deamici, L.O. Santos, J. Costa, Magnetic field action on outdoor and indoor
cultures of Spirulina: Evaluation of growth, medium consumption and protein
profile, Bioresour. Technol. 249 (2018) 168.
[136] M.C. Veiga, M.M. Fontoura, M. Oliveira, J. Costa, L.O. Santos, Magnetic fields:
biomass potential of Spirulina sp. for food supplement, Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng.
43 (2020) 1231–1240.
[137] L. Bo, Y. Yang, The experimental study on surviving ability of yeast cells in
magnetized water, Biomed. Eng. Clin. Med. (2000).
[138] Z. Bo, Z. Guocai, L. Liannan, W. Yuting, Z. Guozhen, W. Xian, Z. Qiushuang,
Effects of biomagnetic effect on the bioactive metabolite production in fruiting
body of Cordyceps militaris, Bull. Bot. Res, 33 (2013) 508-511.
W. Li et al.
[139] S.F. Barnes, Mechanisms for electric and magnetic fields effects on biological
cells, IEEE Trans. Magn. 41 (2005) 4219–4224.
[140] L.O. Santos, K.M. Deamici, J. Garda-Buffon, V. Costa, J. Alberto, B.C. Menestrino,
Magnetic treatment of microalgae for enhanced product formation, World J.
Microbiol. Biotechnol. (2017).
[141] G.N. Lucena, C.C.d. Santos, G.C. Pinto, R.D. Piazza, W.N. Guedes, M. Jafelicci
Júnior, A.V. de Paula, R.F.C. Marques, Synthesis and characterization of magnetic
cross-linked enzyme aggregate and its evaluation of the alternating magnetic field
(AMF) effects in the catalytic activity, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 516 (2020),
167326.
[142] M. Gao, F. Xia, P. Zhu, Influence of alternating magnetic field on growth and
polysaccharide outside the cell of lions mane hericium, Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric.
Mach. 40 (2009) 139–340.
[143] Z. Wei, Response regularity of Phellinus igniarius based on submerged
fermentation assisted by weak magnetic field, Master Thesis, Jiangsu University,
Jiangsu Province, China., (2017).
12
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 76 (2021) 105613
[144] H.Y. Zhang, Effects of magnetic treatment on exopolysaccharide of Cordyceps
militaris, J. Anhui Agric. Sci. (2010).
[145] X.U. Ti-Sen, The effects of magnetic treatment on the growth amount of cordyceps
militaris, J. Dezhou Univ., (2011).
[146] L. Zhu, H. Ma, M. Lu, P. Wu, Effects of low-intensity alternating magnetic field on
liquid fermentation of Antrodia camphorata, Mod. Food Technol., 035 (2019)
153-159,154.
[147] Z. Gan, H. Jie, C. Chang, X. Wang, D. Pan, Study of the effect of weak magnetic
field on the decolorizationof azo dye by Fe-based amorphous alloy powders,
Gongneng Cailiao/J. Funct. Mater. 46 (2015), 14140–14143 and 14148.
[148] W. Wang, Research on effect of ultrasound and magnetic field on fermentation of
Antrodia cinnamomea ATCC 200183, Master Thesis, Jiangsu University, Jiangsu
Province, China, 2015.
[149] P. Nagy, G. Fischl, Effect of static magnetic field on growth and sporulation of
some plant pathogenic fungi, Bioelectromagnetics 25 (2010) 316–318.