Chemical equations

 Balanced chemical equation:

2Al(s) + 3Br2(l) → 2AlBr3(s)

Can be used to deduce the reacting masses and amount ratios.

 Reaction in the excess of one reagent:

2Al(s) + 5Br2(l) → 2AlBr3(s) + 2Br2(l)

Limiting reagent Reagent in excess which remains after reaction

 Ionic equations (ionic compounds in water dissociate to ions):

H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

Ions present on both sides of equation are called spectator ions.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 -2

 Yield and atom economy

Yield Atom economy

𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
= =
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓

The possible reasons for the low yield in a reaction are:

• Incomplete reaction

• Losses of product during separation

• Formation of undesired by-products

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 -1

 Atµmic structure

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1

 The – elemen tary p articles
O +

J.J. Thomson in 1897 discovered

electrons and later proposed the
«plum pudding» model.

Rutherford's experiment with gold foil in

1909 disproved the uniform distribution
of charge in the atom and led to the
discovery of protons.

The true nature of the atomic nucleus was established with

the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 2

 Atµmic structure. Revisiµn
 The atomic number (Z) of an element tells you the number of protons in an
atom.

 The mass number (A) is the sum of the numbers of protons (Z) and neutrons.

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons.

 Relative atomic mass (RAM) is the average mass of all elements isotopes
relative to 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 3

 3
Iso 1 Topes
Although atoms of the same element always have the same number of
protons, they may have different numbers of neutrons. Atoms that differ
only in the number of neutrons are called isotopes.

mass number
is different

atomic number
is the same

Isotopes are identical in their chemical properties. That's because the properties of

an element are determined by the number of electrons in the outer electron shell.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 4

 Iµnizatiµn Energy
!
… is the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole
of atoms (for 1st I.E.) or ions (for other I.E.) in the gaseous state.

 The first ionization energy shows how easily an atom loses an electron to form a 1+ ion.
Na(g) → Na+(g) + e- 1st I.E. = + 496 kJ mol-1.

Consider the difference between 1st I.E. and 2nd I.E.!

 The second ionization energy is the energy required to make 2+ ion from a 1+ ion.
Na+(g) → Na2+(g) + e- 2nd I.E. = + 4563 kJ mol-1.

The series of successive ionization

energies for an element provide
evidence for the existence of
electron shells around the nucleus.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 5

 Tips tµ remember
 The sharp increase (big jump) in I.E. corresponds to ionization of inner shell
electrons and gives you information about the group number of an element and the
electrons on the outer shell.

 In all periods 1st I.E tends to increase across a period due to increase in nuclear
charge making it harder to remove an electron and noble gases (with complete
outer shell) will have the highest values of 1st I.E.

 Down the group 1st I.E decreases as a) outer shell electrons are further from the
nucleus; b) nuclear charge increases, but the electrons are shielded.

 The most stable ion of an element is the ion with the

configuration of a noble gas (without outer shell electrons).

 The reactivity of metals tends to increase as the I.E. decreases.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 6

 I.E. acrµss periµds II and III
1. Boron and Aluminium have lower 1st I.E. than Beryllium and Magnesium.

Ionisation energy decreases despite the increase in nuclear charge. Outer electron in
p-orbital which is of a slightly higher energy than the s-orbital. Requires less energy to
remove it.

2. Oxygen and Sulfur have lower 1st I.E. than Nitrogen and Phosphorus.

In nitrogen and phosphorus all

p-electrons are unpaired. In sulfur
and oxygen, one of the p-orbitals
contains two electrons. The repulsion
between the paired electron makes
it more easily removed despite the
increase in nuclear charge.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 7

 Practical task µ
The first five ionization energies of an element, X, are shown in the table.
What is the mostly likely formula of the oxide of X?

Ionization energy 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Value / kJ mol–1 631 1235 2389 7089 8844

Big jump between 3rd and 4th I.E. tells you that this element is in group 3.

Its most stable ion is X3+. Therefore its oxide will have the formula X2O3.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 8

 Mass Spectrµmeter
3

1
4
5 6
1. The sample is vaporized and vapor is ionized by bombardment with high energy
electrons.
2. The positive ions are accelerated by an electric field.
3. Ions pass through a slit and form a beam in which ions move in the same direction.
4. The ions are deflected in a magnetic field.
5. Only ions with particular mass/charge ratio reach the ion detector.
6. The signal is amplified and recorded.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 9

 Mass Spectrµmetry (MS)
1. A beam of high energy electrons from an electron gun hits the sample
and knocks electrons from atoms (or molecules) so that they form positive
ions. Nearly all the atoms (or molecules) lose just one electron and form
ions with a 1+ charge, but a small number typically around 5% lose two
electrons to form a 2+ charge.

2. Positive ions are attracted towards negatively charged plates and are
accelerated to a high speed. The speed they reach depends on their
mass. Lighter ions go faster. Some ions pass through slits in the plates,
forming the ions into a beam.

3. After deflection ions strike the detector, accept electrons and create a
current proportional to the abundance of each ion.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 10

 Iµn deflectiµn
The beam of ions moves into a magnetic field at right angles to its direction of travel,
which deflects the ions into an arc of a circle. The deflection depends on the mass to
charge ratio and the strength of the magnetic field which is gradually increased so
that ions of increasing mass enter the detector one after another.

a) Heavier ions are

deflected less than
lighter ones.
m+ > M+

b) 2+ ions are deflected

twice as much of 1+ ions
with the same mass.
M2+ > M+
Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 11
 Mass Spectra µf atµms and mµlecules
The peaks on the mass spectrum show you the ions formed and
number of isotopes of the element. The height of peaks depends on
the relative abundance of isotopes present in the molecule.

Mass spectrum of chlorine

Chlorine isotopes Chlorine molecules

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 12

 Practical task µ
Bromine has two stable isotopes 79Br and 81Br. What peaks you expect to
observe in a mass spectrum of elemental bromine (Br2)?

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 13

 Mass Spectra µf cµmpµunds
The mass spectrometry can also be used to measure the relative molecular
mass of a compounds. The peak with the highest mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio
is due to the molecular ion. Molecular ion is formed when a sample
molecule loses just one electron and is not fragmented.

Fragmentation pattern

Molecular ion

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 14

 Practical task µ
Predict the number of molecular ion peaks in a mass spectrum of

methylene chloride (CH2Cl2). Assume that carbon and hydrogen

have 1 isotope and chlorine has two isotopes (35Cl and 37Cl).

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 15

 Finding the A r
The sample of iron was analyzed in a mass spectrometer. And the following results
were obtained. Find the relative atomic mass of this sample of iron.

Iron - 54 Iron - 56 Iron - 57 Iron - 58

Relative
abundance (%)
5,84 91,68 2,17 0,31

The relative abundance of isotopes in a sample of iron.

Ar (Fe) = (54 × 5.84 + 56 × 91.68 + 57 × 2.17 + 58 × 0.31) ÷ 100

Ar (Fe) = 55.91
For most calculations we can assume the relative atomic mass of iron to be 56,
which is the mass of the most common isotope of iron.

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 16

 Practical task
Work out the relative atomic mass of element X and guess what element it is.
µ
46X 47X 48X 49X 50X

Relative
abundance (%)
8,0 7,3 73,8 5,5 5,4

Ar (X) = (46 × 0.08 + 47 × 0.073 + 48

× 0.738 + 49 × 0.055 + 50 × 0.054)

Answer Ar(X) = 47.9

Answer X = Ti
Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 17
 The applicatiµn µf MS

Identifying
Radioactive dating molecules
(carbon-14)

Illegal drugs
detection

Space research
(identifying molecules
in probes)
Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 18
 Radiµcarbµn dating

Alex Chagarovskiy. International Advanced Level Chemistry 2017. Unit 1 19