KBP3063 : CHILDREN WITH SPECIFIC

LEARNING DISABILITIES

ASSIGNMENT ONE :
ESEI ILMIAH

Title :
Teaching Dyslexic Student Using Multiple
Intervention

Student’s Name :
2. Nurul Fazira Farhana

Matric Number :
D20201093597

Lecture’s Name :
PROFESOR MADYA DR. NOOR AINI BINTI
AHMAD

SEMESTER A201
2020/2021
List of contents

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………….. 1
2.0 Dyslexia……………………………………………………… 1-4
3.0 Reading Skills……………………………………………….. 5-6
4.0 Intervention…………………………………………………... 7 - 10
5.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………… 11
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the specific learning disabilities is Dyslexia. Dyslexia is known as a common
learning disabilities that can cause problems with reading, writing and spelling. Symptoms of
Dyslexia usually can be detected when a child starts going to school and begin to focus more
on writing and reading at the school. There are different types of Dyslexia which is
Phonological Dyslexia, Surface Dyslexia, Visual Dyslexia, Primary Dyslexia,
Secondary/Developmental Dyslexia and Trauma Dyslexia also referred to as Acquired
Dyslexia. Dyslexia are related to reading skills because people who are affected by dyslexia
will having a problems with reading in writing. Parents should be more responsible to help
their child to overcome their learning disabilities. Early diagnostic should be performed since
they knew their children having this learning disabilities problem. At school, dyslexic student
should accept appropriate help from their teachers. Remedial plan or intervention should be
design by teacher to help dyslexic student. Intervention such as Rhytmic Reading Training
(RRT), mobile game based learning and using eye tracking during reading will be the
effective ways to help students with Dyslexia.

2.0 DYSLEXIA
Dyslexia is a disorder of neurological origin which affects the learning of those who
suffer from it, mainly children, and causes difficulty in reading and writing. When
undiagnosed, dyslexia leads to intimidation and frustration of the affected children and also
of their family circles. In case no early intervention is given, children may reach high school
with serious achievement gaps. Early detection and intervention services for dyslexic students
are highly important and recommended in order to support children in developing a positive
self-esteem and reaching their maximum academic capacities. The proposed system has
demonstrated that the recognition of dyslexic children is feasible using deep learning and
functional magnetic resonance Imaging when performing phonological and orthographic
reading tasks. Dyslexia is a genetic life long issue which tends to run through family
members, and may lead to the social exclusion of the affected person if it is not addressed
properly. It is necessary to assert that dyslexia does not have to do with intelligence. Children
with dyslexia are just as smart as other children with functional reading and writing abilities.
(Zahia, Zapirain, Saralegui, & Ruanova, 2020). Literacy acquisition is impaired in children
with developmental dyslexia resulting in lifelong struggle to read and spell. Proper diagnosis
is usually late and commonly achieved after structured schooling started, which causes
delayed interventions. Lega screen set out to develop a preclinical screening to identify
children at risk of developmental dyslexia. Reading and spelling was assessed after two years
of structured literacy instruction. Multifactorial regression analyses considering demographic
information, genotypes, and auditory brainstem encoding, predicted children’s literacy skills
to varying degrees. These predictions were improved by adding the standard psychometrics
with a slightly higher impact on spelling compared to reading comprehension. (Liebig,
Friederici, & Neef, 2020).
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Learning disabilities are associated with mental health, behavioural and social
difficulties. Developmental dyslexia is a particularly salient example of a learning disability
that is associated with social and emotional consequences that are not considered primary
features of the disorder. Although the literature on dyslexia is extensive, the role of emotion
in the outcomes of developmental dyslexia has not been clarified. Understanding the role of
emotion in the relationship between dyslexia and negative life outcomes will provide one
avenue for prevention of such outcomes. (Livingston, Siegel & Ribary, 2018). Developmental
dyslexia is consistently associated with difficulties in processing phonology (linguistic sound
structure) across languages. One view is that dyslexia is characterised by a cognitive
impairmentin the ‘‘phonological representation” of word forms, which arises long before the
child presents with areading problem. Here we investigate a possible neural basis for
developmental phonological impair-ments. When children with dyslexia show impairments
compared tobothage-matched peers and to younger children matched for readingachievement,
this suggests a causal role, as impairments occurdespite matching for both developmental
level and reading level.Intervention studies can then be used to investigate the causal status of
identified factors. Accordingly, inclusion of an RL-matched control group may help to
determine whether the observed differ-ences in neural activity in recent auditory studies are a
cause ofdyslexia or a consequence of the atypical (severely reduced) read-ing experience that
accompanies having dyslexia. (Power, Colling, Mead, Barnes, & Goswami, 2016). Dyslexia
is characterized by poor reading skills, yet often also difficulties in second-language learning.
The differences between native- and second-language speech processing and the
establishment of new brain re-presentations for spoken second language in dyslexia are
not,however,wellunderstood. The current data suggest that dyslexia is associated with a
deficit in representing second-language word forms, which may hamper language learning.
This interpretation is supported by correlations observed between second-language word
processing and literacy and naming scores. Since word learning tasks can be conducted at
younger age than reading tasks, the results showing that reading skills are more closely linked
with second-language word learning than native-language processing may also have
applicability to early diagnostics of dyslexia. (Ylinen, Laasonen, Iverson, Ahonen & Kujala,
2019).

Dyslexia is a difficulty in learning to decode (read aloud) and to spell.

Neurodevelopmental disorders are heritable, life-long conditionswith early onset. For many
years, research on dyslexia proceeded onthe basis that it was a specific learning difficulty –
specific meaningthat the difficulty could not be explained in terms of obvious causessuch as
sensory problems or general learning difficulties (low IQ).However, the failure to find
qualitative differences in reading, andphonological skills, between children with dyslexia and
children with more general learning problems led this kind of ‘discrepancy’ definition to fall
from favour. The term dyslexia can be properly used to describe children who experience
problems learning to read and write; often when a basic level of reading and spelling ability is
established, there are persisting problems with reading fluency. Dyslexia is a dimensional
disorder, however, with no clear cut-off from poor reading. This does not mean it is not a
handicap. If difficulties in learning and in developing fluency persist, then we would argue
the term should be used, not least to signal the need for intervention. In addition, it should be
recognised that assessment is needed to identify co-occurring problems; if present, these may
require separate management, but they do not define dyslexia. The need to intervene is clear:
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children with poor reading are at elevated risk for a range of emotional and behavioural
difficulties. (Snowling, M Hulme, & Nation, 2020). In children with dyslexia, deficits in
working memory have not been well‐specified. We assessed second‐grade children with
dyslexia, with and without concomitant specific language impairment, and children with
typical development. Immediate serial recall of lists of phonological (non‐word), lexical
(digit), spatial (location) and visual (shape) items were included. Non‐ word repetition tests
indicated a phonological memory deficit in children with dyslexia alone compared with those
with typical development, but this difference vanished when these groups were matched for
non‐verbal intelligence and language. Children with dyslexia with versus without language
impairment, when matched on non‐verbal intelligence, had comparable serial order memory,
but differed in phonology. Because serial orderings of verbal and spatial elements occur in
reading, the careful examination of order memory may allow a deeper understanding of
dyslexia and its relation to language impairment. (Cowan, Hogan, Alt, Green, Cabbage,
Brinkley, & Gray , 2017).
Automated detection system to identify the present of dyslexia symptoms in primary
school children based. The proposed automated detection system is developed by using
pattern recognition technique. Based on their handwriting images, the pattern recognition
system will detect and extract the features of the written characters using Optical Character
Recognition (OCR). The first objective which to develop an automated handwriting
recognition system by using image processing technique and pattern recognition has been
achieved. The pattern recognition by using optical recognition method is one way to
recognize the characters. An automated handwriting recognition system by using image
processing technique and pattern recognition had shown significant results. The OCR method
is good method to use for recognizing the solid characters for instances the words at the
signboard etc. For further works, handwritten recognition by using OCR can be used but need
additional method such as cursive method, skew method etc. for the program to run more
efficient. This is because of it is not stable to detect and recognize the handwritten
recognition due to the shape of the handwriting. For the second objective is to classify the
levels of dyslexic symptoms based on its accuracy is also achieved. Based on the result, the
performance of the classification accuracy is immediate. This is because of the ANN need a
lot of samples to get the high accuracy and need to do more features of the characters. (Isa,
Rahimi, Ramlan & Sulaiman, 2019). Learning to read changes the brain language system.
Phonological processing is the language domain most crucial for reading, but it is still
unknown how reading acquisition modifies the neural phonological network in children who
either develop dyslexia or are at risk of dyslexia. Typical readers without risk for dyslexia
activate structures responsible for phonological processing already at the beginning of
literacy. Typical readers without risk for dyslexia activate structures responsible for
phonological processing already at the beginning of literacy. This group shows reduced brain
activation over time during phonological processing, perhaps due to automatization of
phonological skills. Children who develop reading impairment present a delay in the
development of phonological structures such as the bilateral superior temporal gyri, left
middle temporal gyrus, right insula and right frontal cortex, where we observed time and
group interaction. Finally, typical readers with familial risk of dyslexia also present an
atypical development of the neural phonological structures, visible both at the beginning of
reading instruction and 2 years later. These children used a presumably efficient neural
mechanism of phonological processing, based on the activation of the precentral and
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postcentral gyri, and achieved a typical level of phonological awareness. (Łuniewska, Chyl,
Debska, Banaszkiewicz, Zelechowska, Marchewka, Grabowska, & Jednoróg, 2019 ).
Dyslexia is one of the most common neurobehavioral disorders. Children with dyslexia
usually suffer from negative, behavior personality problems, and impacted life quality.
Children with dyslexia have poor academic performance, and they suffer from low self-
esteem, anxiety, and emotional instability due to long-term experience of learning frustration,
which further affects their learning motivation and emotional state. On the other hand,
children’s personality traits will also cause difficulties in language learning. Negative
personality characteristics can make symptoms of dyslexia becoming more severe. Dyslexia
and personality traits interact and influence each other in learning. For children with dyslexia,
attention should be paid to behavioral and psychological intervention, to correct for extreme
personality and guide them to the healthy development. (Huang , Meirong, Li, Lin, Zhang, &
Kusheng, 2020).
Thus, we know that dyslexia is a learning disabilities that effect reading
comprehension and writing skills. Early intervention for individu that suffers Dyslexia are so
important. Without no early detection, it will become harder for them to be succeed in their
study. Dyslexia also causes effect to mental problems and social difficulties. To overcome
this problems, family members and teachers have to show their responsibilities by helping
dyslexic student in every aspects.
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3.0 READING SKILLS

Children with dyslexia face persistent difculties in acquiring reading skills, often
making guessing errors characterized by the replacement of a word by an orthographic
neighbour. These reading errors could be related to inhibition problems within the reading
task. Our results demonstrated that dyslexic children performed equally compared to the two
control groups in the cognitive inhibition task, whilst they read the sentences less accurately
than the two control groups in the reading inhibition task, and they were slower than children
of the same age. Our results clearly demonstrate that dyslexic children have an inhibition
defcit specifc to the reading task. The consequences of these reading difculties are signifcant
for children’s social, societal, and academic development. Learning and assessments are
mainly done through reading and writing at school, even from an early age. It is important to
provide a better understanding of children’s difculties inherent in reading tasks. This could
help to better structure the treatment that can be offered to them. (Reybroeck, & Rom, 2019).
Prematurity is a serious risk factor for learning difculties. Within the academic skills reading
has the greatest impact on the prospects of the students; therefore, studying the reading skills
in the risk populations is very important. Premature birth (before the 37 week of gestation) is
the most common perinatal risk; therefore, the heightened research interest in the
development of preterm children is not surprising. In spite of the ever-growing bulk of
research evidence, the picture is far from being clear. Reading has two fundamental
components: decoding (single-word reading) and reading comprehension, i.e., to derive
meanings from and form interpretations of written words and sentences. To acquire reading,
first one should learn the code for representing speech as a series of visual symbols. It is a
process of matching visual symbols (in many languages letters) to units of sound. Decoding
stems from primary linguistic skills such as phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge.
Efficient reading also requires the recognition of the orthographic patterns of whole words
not only accurately but also fuently, that is, automatically. The acquisition of this skill which
is a basis of comprehension is a further step in learning to read. (Gráf, Kalmár, Harnos,
Boross, & Nagy, 2019).
Reading comprehension is one of the most important reading skills and is important to
achieve the main objectives of the whole reading process. Reading comprehension has
become a major characteristic of good readers who can be a significant contributor to the
development of society. It is an activity requiring accuracy, autonomy while reading, deep
understanding, comprehension speed, enjoying reading, the variation in reading purposes,
being involved with the different events, giving opinions, being critical, and creative. It can
be noticed, then, that comprehension is the basic component of reading. Without
comprehension, reading cannot be described as a mental process. Reading comprehension is
not an innate ability as it is not an easy facilitated skill ending when the reader can recognize
the written symbols and say them. Indeed, it is a complex process falling in variant levels,
requires mental abilities and potentials, needs practice and drill, and the use of different
thinking, explanation, analysis, critique, and contrasting skills. (Khasawneh & Al-Rub,
2020). The ability to read relies upon not just decoding, but also comprehending text. Being a
good comprehender requires strategic reading and implies the use of comprehension
strategies. Research indicates that readers who are taught several reading comprehension
strategies have better reading skills than those only taught a single strategy. One multiple
strategy reading comprehension intervention was evaluated using a mixed-model quasi-
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experimental design. Intervention and control conditions groups were assessed at pre- and
post-test points with standardised reading comprehension abilities, measured as the primary
outcome measure. Statistically significant scores were also evident in the secondary outcome
measures of decoding of target word skills, children’s self-reports of their reading strategy
use and recreational reading frequency. Implementation tools indicated that the intervention
was acceptable and feasible to implement. Implications of introducing this multiple strategy
reading comprehension programme and of the evaluation of implementation are discussed.
(Moira, Boyleb, & Woolfsonc, 2020).
Reading comprehension is a complex task that depends on multiple cognitive and
linguistic processes. In adults with dyslexia, better fluency was associated with greater
activation of bilateral inferior parietal regions, better comprehension was associated with
greater activation in some prefrontal clusters and lower in others, and better decoding skills
were associated with lesser activation of bilateral prefrontal and posterior parietal regions.
Extending the behavioral findings of skill-level differences in the relative contribution of the
three components to reading comprehension, the relative contributions of the neural
correlates to reading comprehension differed based on dyslexia status. Individuals with
dyslexia recruit cognitive and linguistic systems to support word decoding, thereby diverting
resources from, and potentially impeding, comprehension processes. These findings reveal
the underlying mechanisms of reading comprehension deficits of adults with dyslexia.
(Ozernov-Palchik,Centanni, Beach, May, Hogan, & Gabrieli, 2020). Poor neural speech
discrimination has been connected to dyslexia, and may represent phonological processing
deficits that are hypothesized to be the main cause for reading impairments. Thus far, neural
speech discrimination impairments have rarely been investigated in adult dyslexics, and even
less by examining sources of neuromagnetic responses. We compared neuromagnetic speech
discrimination in dyslexic and typical readers with mismatch fields (MMF) and determined
the associations between MMFs and reading-related skills. We expected weak and atypically
lateralized MMFs in dyslexic readers, and positive associations between readingrelated skills
and MMF strength. MMN is linked with language and reading skills, which makes it a
promising neural marker for dyslexia.We found that larger MMF source amplitudes in the left
hemisphere were associated with better working memory skills across both groups. Post-hoc
analyses showed that the association was mainly driven by the MMF to the duration deviant
and the verbal component of working memory. We found correlations between the MMFs to
speech-sound changes and reading-related skills, highlighting the connection of neural low-
level speech processing and reading in adults, and promoting the use of MMFs in
investigating reading-related brain processes. (Thiede, Parkkonen, Virtala, Laasonen, Mäkelä,
& Kujala, 2020).
Thus, reading skills should be learn slowly by dyslexic students. Dyslexic students
can learn from decoding simple words, reading sight words and navigating unfamiliar words.
Teacher should find more decodable books. Reading material that is full of familiar single
and closed syllable words will make decoding easier. It’s also helpful for texts to include
frequently used sight words and a few harder words. These kinds of books apply just the right
amount of load to the dyslexic brain. With the effective learning with teacher, dyslexic
student can slowly learn about read and writer properly.
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4.0 INTERVENTION
Adding audio to written text may cause redundancy effects, but could be beneficial
for students with dyslexia for whom it supports their reading. Studying both learning process
and learning outcomes in students with and without dyslexia can shed light on this issue and
helps to find out whether there are constraints to the redundancy effect as proposed in the
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Regarding process measures, students had longer
study times, with more focus on pictures, and more transitions between text and pictures in
the text-audio-picture condition. When relating learning processes to learning outcomes,
longer study time predicted higher transfer knowledge in both groups in the text-audio-
picture condition, whereas in the text-picture condition, more study time predicted lower
transfer knowledge in typically developing students only. Reading ability does not impact the
universality of the redundancy effect, but students with dyslexia should only use audio
support when aiming to learn factual knowledge and should be aware that it increases study
time. (Carolien, Campe, Segers, & Verhoeven, 2020).
Developmental dyslexia is a very common learning disorder causing an impairment in
reading ability. Although the core deficit underlying dyslexia is still under debate, significant
agreement is reached in the literature that dyslexia is related to a specific deficit in the
phonological representation of speech sounds. Many studies also reported an association
between reading skills and music. These findings suggest that interventions aimed at
enhancing basic auditory skills of children with DD may impact reading abilities. Music
education alone failed to produce improvements in reading skills comparable to those
resulting from traditional intervention methods for DD. A computer-assisted intervention
method, called Rhythmic Reading Training (RRT), which combines sublexical reading
exercises with rhythm processing, was implemented. The purpose of the present study was to
compare the effectiveness of RRT and that of an intervention resulting from the combination
of two yet validated treatments for dyslexia, namely, Bakker’s Visual Hemisphere-Specifific
Stimulation (VHSS) and the Action Video Game Training (AVG). RRT appears to be an
effffective alternative to other intervention methods for DD. In particular, RRT seems to be
especially useful for improving reading speed, whereas VHSS-AVG produces larger effects
on accuracy. Based on the correlations found between improvement and initial profiles (to be
confirmed with larger samples), it could further be suggested that RRT is most likely to be
effective when phonological awareness needs to be stimulated, but auditory analysis is of
sufficiently developed, whereas VHSS-AVG seems to be of greater advantage to children
with initial impairments in rapid naming. In comparison with traditional treatments, RRT is a
very easy-to-use and adaptable training method, which does not require a specifific
administration setting or demanding training for its application. It does not exclude children
with scarce musical aptitude or interest, as a specifific music training could do. Finally, the
use of rhythm and music provides an enjoyable and pleasant environment for children who
participate in reading training, which contributes to improving their involvement and
motivation. The children who took part in the present study generally expressed positive
feedbacks about both types of trainings and kept a high level of engagement and motivation
throughout the whole duration of the programs, in spite of their intensive schedule. This
allowed to reach effects comparable to more traditional intervention schedules (typically,
two sessions per week for 10–15 weeks) in a much shorter period and with less time devoted
 8

to the training for both the children pand the therapists. (Cancer, Bonacina, Antonietti,
Salandi, Molteni, & Lorusso, 2020).
Developmental dyslexia is a specific learning disorder of neurobiological origin that
causes a reading impairment. Since music and language share common mechanisms and the
core deficit underlying dyslexia has been identified in difficulties in dynamic and rapidly
changing auditory information processing, it has been argued that enhancing basic musical
rhythm perception skills in chil‐ dren with dyslexia may have a positive effect on reading
abilities. Active engagement with music provides an enjoyable environment that may
improve motivation of children and thus enhance the efficacy of the intervention.
Previous research suggested that musical abilities play a role in reading and that musical
training might improve reading skills. However, the musical intervention programs which
have been tested so far included a variety of music activities (such as listening, singing,
tapping, playing an instrument, etc.) which involved solely auditory and timing processing
(e.g., pitch discrimination, reproduction of rhythmic patterns, etc.). The intervention approach
that we are presenting, instead, combines a specific reading training, aimed at enhancing
grapheme-phoneme connections, and music intervention, providing a simultaneous
stimulation of the shared mechanisms between music and language. For implementing that,
IT appeared to be the best choice: it provides multimodal (visual and auditory) stimulation as
well as the perfect synchronisation of the concurrent presentation of sounds and visual stimuli
and allows the trainer to have control over timing and difficulty of the stimulus presentation.
The potentiality of music for boosting motivation and provide an enjoyable rehabilitation
setting is well known and it is exploited in the training. Results suggest that a combination of
reading and rhythmic training could be an effective treatment for dyslexia and that the
characteristic of the intervention can easily be adapted to different settings (i.e., scholastic
and clinical settings). The combination of music and reading training allowed by the
computerized version of RRT seems to be a promising rehabilitation strategy for improving
reading skills in students with DD. The effect on reading, this innovative treatment approach
involves also an active engagement with music, which provides an enjoyable and pleasant
experience for subjects with DD. The use of IT allows the training to be easily implemented
also in home settings in a standardized and reliable way. (Cancer, Bonacina, Lorusso, Lanzi,
Antonietti, 2016). In a world with different readers with varying needs, the idea that readers
might be given the option of text formatting their own text in advance seems very appealing.
The respondents read paragraphs and identified illogical words contained therein, while
reading two comparable blocks of self-set and pre-set texts. The differences in the number of
paragraphs read and the mistakes made in a limited timeframe were compared using a web
test that was based on the Tinker's test. The results showed that the respondents encounter
different difficulties while reading digital text. We statistically proved that people with
dyslexia chose larger type sizes more frequently than people without dyslexia, whereas no
such statistically significant trend was observed for all other variables (typeface, tracking, and
leading). We did not observe any significant differences between the reading speed
associated with pre-set and self-set texts; however, the reading speed was higher in the group
of people without dyslexia. A significant difference was observed in reading comprehension,
because reading comprehension was better in the case of self-set text used. (Krivec, Babuder,
Godec, Weinger, & Elesini, 2019).
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Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental reading disability estimated to affect 5–10% of the

population. While there is yet no full understanding of the cause of dyslexia, or agreement on
its precise definition, it is certain that many individuals suffer persistent problems in learning
to read for no apparent reason. Although it is generally agreed that early intervention is the
best form of support for children with dyslexia, there is still a lack of efficient and objective
means to help identify those at risk during the early years of school. Here we show that it is
possible to identify 9–10 year old individuals at risk of persistent reading difficulties by using
eye tracking during reading to probe the processes that underlie reading ability. Fast,
systematic and automated screening methods based on objective measurements of reading
may help identify individuals at risk of dyslexia during the early school years. Current
methods, however, are limited in that they only measure individual cognitive skills that
natural reading depends upon, but say little about their interplay and function in actual
reading. Invariably, these tests require the subject to produce some explicit response,
typically under time pressure, such as marking the word boundaries in sequences of words
without interword spaces, matching target words to corresponding pictures, or reading aloud
pronounceable nonsense words of increasing difficulty. The outcome measure the proportion
of correct responses–gives an estimate of performance on a particular task related to reading,
but does not reflect the actual process of reading as it naturally occurs. The accuracy of
screening tests increases as children begin school and receive formal reading instruction. In
second and third grade, the accuracy typically ranges between 80–90%. However, it appears
that in order to obtain balanced levels of sensitivity and specificity, multiple tests must be
administered that collectively measure a combination of different cognitive skills related to
reading. But if several different tests must be administered, and each test manually assessed,
the possibility to implement an efficient screening process with large numbers of school
children is seriously compromised. This is potentially one of the barriers that prevent many
schools from implementing routine screening for dyslexia today.( Benfatto, Seimyr, Ygge,
Pansel, Rydberg, & Jacobson, 2016).
Children with dyslexia are one of the learners in special education that need an
intervention tool such as a game-based learning system to enhance learning. This type of
learner has different learner characteristics that need to consider in designing and developing
an effective game-based learning system for them. Because of their disability support from
the families and teachers is needed in the learning process. Developing and designing
additional materials or learning tools for dyslexic children is one of the ways to help them to
manage their learning disabilities. A game-based learning system is one of the tools used to
enhance the learning performance of dyslexic children. But this type of learner has different
learner characteristics that need to consider in designing and developing an effective game-
based learning system to avoid psychological stress to the learners. Game elements are one of
the aspects of game design that should be taken into consideration when designing game-
based learning applications for dyslexic children. This is one of the factors in increasing the
user's motivation to use the game-based learning application. Game elements that were
integrated into the application were identified in this study from the response of the
respondents of this study on the question "what do you think your child likes in the game
application he or she played?”. Story, points and rewards, clear game goals and objectives,
level, feedback, and achievement system are the game elements integrated into the LaroLexia
application that are suitable to the children with dyslexia. LaroLexia is a mobile game-based
learning system for Filipino children with dyslexia on the Android platform which helps them
 10

read. The LaroLexia learning material is written in Filipino. This application shall be also
considered as one of the interventions for dyslexic children to manage their reading disability.
For further study, evaluation of dyslexic users in the system in terms of usability, playability,
and learnability must be conducted to be able to enhance more the application features and
much effective as an intervention tool for reading disability of the dyslexic users. (Bigueras,
Arispe, Torio, & Maligat, 2020). A single-subject alternating treatment design was used to
investigate the extent to which a specialized dyslexia font, OpenDyslexic, impacted reading
rate or accuracy compared to two commonly used fonts when used with elementary students
identified as having dyslexia. OpenDyslexic was compared to Arial and Times New Roman
in three reading tasks: (a) letter naming, (b) word reading, and (c) nonsense word reading.
Data were analyzed through visual analysis and improvement rate difference, a
nonparametric measure of nonoverlap for comparing treatments. Results from this alternating
treatment experiment show no improvement in reading rate or accuracy for individual
students with dyslexia, as well as the group as a whole. While some students commented that
the font was Bnew^ or Bdifferent^, none of the participants reported preferring to read
material presented in that font. These results indicate there may be no benefit for translating
print materials to this font. (Wery & Diliberto, 2017)
Thus, early intervention can help students and adults with dyslexia to overcome their
problems. There are several intervention that works with dyslexic students and adults with
dyslexia. Music and game become the effective way to help dyslexic students. Teacher can
create a game that content method which relate to reading and writing skills. When student
played that game they will be more interested to learn about reading and writing skills.
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5.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, early intervention is very important because in many instances
effective instruction can prevent dyslexia. Dyslexic student should be lexical readers so that
they recognize the whole word based on the statistical properties of the letter .
Early intervention services are highly effective and can support children in closing the
achievement gap, developing a positive self-concept, enjoying reading and school, and
reaching their maximum academic potential. Therefore, parents should concern if their
children face any problems that can lead to dyslexia. Parents should be more aware and show
that they are supporting their children in every situation so they will not feel alone and
abandoned. Teacher can use a lot of intervention to help student with Dyslexia such as
Rhytmic Reading Training (RRT), mobile game based and using eye tracking during reading.
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References

Benfatto, M. N., Seimyr, G. O., Ygge, J., Pansel, T., Rydberg, A. & Jacobson, C. (2016). Screening for
Dyslexia Using Eye Tracking during Reading. PLOS ONE.

Bigueras, R. T., Arispe, M. C. A., Torio, J. O. & Maligat, D. E. (2020). Mobile Game-Based Learning to
Enhance the Reading Performance of Dyslexic Children. International Journal of Advanced
Trends in Computer Science and Engineering.

Cancer, A., Bonacina, S., Antonietti, A., Salandi, A., Molteni., M. & Lorusso, L.L. (2020). The
Effectiveness of Interventions for Developmental Dyslexia: Rhythmic Reading Training
Compared With Hemisphere-Specifific Stimulation and Action Video Games. Clinical trial
published: 03 June 2020.

Cancer, A., Bonacina, S., Lorusso, M. L., Lanzi, P. L., Antonietti, A. (2016). A Computer-Assisted
Intervention Program for Dyslexia. Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016.

Carolien A.N., Campe, K.V., Segers, E. & Verhoeven, L. (2020). Effects of audio support on
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Ar References English Text
ticl
e
No.
1 Zahia, S., Zapirain, B. - Dyslexia is a disorder of
G., Saralegui, I. & neurological origin which
Ruanova, B. F. (2020). affects the learning of
Dyslexia detection those who suffer from it,
using 3D convolutional mainly children, and
neural networks and causes difficulty in
functional magnetic reading and writing.
resonance imaging. When undiagnosed,
Computer Methods dyslexia leads to
and Programs in intimidation and
Biomedicine 197 frustration of the affected
(2020) 105726. children and also of their
family circles. In case no
early intervention is
given, children may reach
high school with serious
achievement gaps. Early
detection and
intervention services for
dyslexic students are
highly important and
recommended in order to
support children in
developing a positive self-
esteem and reaching
their max- imum
academic capacities.
- The proposed system
has demonstrated that
the recognition of
dyslexic children is
feasible using deep
learning and functional
magnetic resonance
Imaging when performing
phonological and
orthographic reading
tasks.
- Dyslexia is a genetic life
long issue which tends to
run through family mem-
bers, and may lead to the
social exclusion of the
affected person if it is
not addressed properly. It
is necessary to assert that
dyslexia does not have to
14
Assignment
Dyslexia is a disorder of neurological
origin which affects the learning of those
who suffer from it, mainly children, and
causes difficulty in reading and writing.
When undiagnosed, dyslexia leads to
intimidation and frustration of the
affected children and also of their family
circles. In case no early intervention is
given, children may reach high school
with serious achievement gaps. Early
detection and intervention services for
dyslexic students are highly important
and recommended in order to support
children in developing a positive self-
esteem and reaching their max- imum
academic capacities. The proposed
system has demonstrated that the
recognition of dyslexic children is
feasible using deep learning and
functional magnetic resonance Imaging
when performing phonological and
orthographic reading tasks. Dyslexia is a
genetic life long issue which tends to run
through family members, and may lead
to the social exclusion of the affected
person if it is not addressed properly. It
is necessary to assert that dyslexia does
not have to do with intelligence.
Children with dyslexia are just as smart
as other children with functional reading
and writing abilities. (Zahia, Zapirain,
Saralegui, & Ruanova, 2020).

do with intelligence.
Children with dyslexia are
just as smart as other
children with functional
reading and writing
abilities.
2 Liebig, J., Friederici, A. - Literacy acquisition is
D. & Neef, N. E. impaired in children with
(2020). Auditory developmental dyslexia
brainstem measures resulting in lifelong
and genotyping boost struggle to read and spell.
the prediction of Proper diagnosis is
literacy: A longitudinal usually late and
study on early markers commonly achieved after
of dyslexia. structured schooling
Developmental started, which causes
Cognitive delayed interventions.
Neuroscience 46 Lega screen set out to
(2020) 100869. develop a preclinical
screening to identify
children at risk of
developmental dyslexia.
Reading and spelling was
assessed after two years
of structured literacy
instruction. Multifactorial
regression analyses
considering demographic
information, genotypes,
and auditory brainstem
encoding, predicted
children’s literacy skills to
varying degrees. These
predictions were
improved by adding the
standard psychometrics
with a slightly higher
impact on spelling
compared to reading
comprehension.
3 Livingston, E. M., - Learning disabilities are
Siegel, L. S. & Ribary, associated with mental
U. (2018). health, behavioural and
Developmental social difficulties.
dyslexia: emotional Developmental dyslexia is
impact and a particularly salient
consequences. example of a learning
Australian Journal of disability that is
Learning Difficulties, associated with social and
23:2, 107-135, emotional consequences
that are not considered
15
Literacy acquisition is impaired in
children with developmental dyslexia
resulting in lifelong struggle to read and
spell. Proper diagnosis is usually late and
commonly achieved after structured
schooling started, which causes delayed
interventions. Lega screen set out to
develop a preclinical screening to
identify children at risk of
developmental dyslexia. Reading and
spelling was assessed after two years of
structured literacy instruction.
Multifactorial regression analyses
considering demographic information,
genotypes, and auditory brainstem
encoding, predicted children’s literacy
skills to varying degrees. These
predictions were improved by adding
the standard psychometrics with a
slightly higher impact on spelling
compared to reading comprehension.
(Liebig, Friederici, & Neef, 2020).
Learning disabilities are associated with
mental health, behavioural and social
difficulties. Developmental dyslexia is a
particularly salient example of a learning
disability that is associated with social
and emotional consequences that are
not considered primary features of the
disorder. Although the literature on
dyslexia is extensive, the role of emotion
in the outcomes of developmental
dyslexia has not been clarified.
 16

primary features of the Understanding the role of emotion in

disorder. Although the the relationship between dyslexia and
literature on dyslexia is negative life outcomes will provide one
extensive, the role of avenue for prevention of such
emotion in the outcomes outcomes. (Livingston, Siegel & Ribary,
of developmental 2018 ).
dyslexia has not been
clarified. Understanding
the role of emotion in the
relationship between
dyslexia and negative life
outcomes will provide
one avenue for
prevention of such
outcomes.

4 Power, A. J., Colling, L. - Developmental dyslexia Developmental dyslexia is consistently

J., Mead, N., Barnes, is consistently associated associated with difficulties in processing
L. & Goswami, U. with difficulties in phonology (linguistic sound structure)
(2016). processing phonology across languages. One view is that
Neural encoding of the (linguistic sound dyslexia is characterised by a cognitive
speech envelope by structure) across impairmentin the ‘‘phonological
children with languages. One view is representation” of word forms, which
developmental that dyslexia is arises long before the child presents
dyslexia. characterised by a with areading problem. Here we
Brain & Language 160 cognitive impairmentin investigate a possible neural basis for
(2016) 1-10. the ‘‘phonological developmental phonological impair-
representation” of word ments. When children with dyslexia
forms, which arises long show impairments compared to both
before the child presents age-matched peers and to younger
with areading problem. children matched for reading
Here we investigate a achievement, this suggests a causal role,
possible neural basis for as impairments occurdespite matching
developmental for both developmental level and
phonological impair- reading level.Intervention studies can
ments. then be used to investigate the causal
- When children with status of identified factors. Accordingly,
dyslexia show inclusion of an RL-matched control
impairments compared group may help to determine whether
tobothage-matched peers the observed differ-ences in neural
and to younger children activity in recent auditory studies are a
matched for cause ofdyslexia or a consequence of the
readingachievement, this atypical (severely reduced) read-ing
suggests a causal role, as experience that accompanies having
impairments dyslexia. (Power, Colling, Mead, Barnes,
occurdespite matching & Goswami, 2016).
for both developmental
level and reading
level.Intervention studies
can then be used to
investigate the causal
 17

status of identified
factors. Accordingly,
inclusion of an RL-
matched control group
may help to determine
whether the observed
differ-ences in neural
activity in recent auditory
studies are a cause
ofdyslexia or a
consequence of the
atypical (severely
reduced) read-ing
experience that
accompanies having
dyslexia.
5 Ylinen, S., Junttila, K., - Dyslexia is characterized - Dyslexia is characterized by poor
Laasonen, M., Iverson, by poor reading skills, yet reading skills, yet often also difficulties in
P., Ahonen, L. & Kujala often also difficulties in second-language learning. The
T. (2019). Diminished second-language differences between native- and second-
brain responses to learning. The differences language speech processing and the
second-language between native- and establishment of new brain re-
words are linked second-language speech presentations for spoken second
withnative-language processing and the language in dyslexia are
literacy skills in establishment of new not,however,well understood. The
dyslexia. brain re-presentations for current data suggest that dyslexia is
Neuropsychologia 122 spoken second language associated with a deficit in representing
(2019) 105-115. in dyslexia are second-language word forms, which may
not,however,well hamper language learning. This
understood. interpretation is supported by
- The current data correlations observed between second-
suggest that dyslexia is language word processing and literacy
associated with a deficit and naming scores. Since word learning
in representing second- tasks can be conducted at younger age
language word forms, than reading tasks, the results showing
which may hamper that reading skills are more closely
language learning. This linked with second-language word
interpretation is learning than native-language processing
supported by correlations may also have applicability to early
observed between diagnostics of dyslexia. (Ylinen,
second-language word Laasonen, Iverson, Ahonen & Kujala,
processing and literacy 2019).
and naming scores. Since
word learning tasks can
be conducted at younger
age than reading tasks,
the results showing that
reading skills are more
closely linked with
second-language word
learning than native-

language processing may
also have applicability to
early diagnostics of
dyslexia.
6 Snowling, M. J., - Dyslexia is a difficulty in
Hulme, C. & Nation, K. learning to decode (read
(2020). Defining and aloud) and to spell.
understanding Neurodevelopmental
dyslexia: past, present disorders are heritable,
and future. Oxford life-long conditions
Review of Education, with early onset. For
46:4, 501-513. many years, research on
dyslexia proceeded on
the basis that it was a
specific learning difficulty
– specific meaning
that the difficulty could
not be explained in terms
of obvious causes
such as sensory problems
or general learning
difficulties (low IQ).
However, the failure to
find qualitative
differences in reading,
and
phonological skills,
between children with
dyslexia and children with
more general learning
problems led this kind of
‘discrepancy’ definition to
fall from favour.
- The term dyslexia can be
properly used to describe
children who experience
problems learning to read
and write; often when a
basic level of reading and
spelling ability is
established, there are
persisting problems with
reading fluency. Dyslexia
is a dimensional disorder,
however, with no clear
cut-off from poor
reading. This does not
mean it is not a handicap.
If difficulties in learning
and in developing fluency
persist, then we would
18
Dyslexia is a difficulty in learning to
decode (read aloud) and to spell.
Neurodevelopmental disorders are
heritable, life-long conditions
with early onset. For many years,
research on dyslexia proceeded on
the basis that it was a specific learning
difficulty – specific meaning
that the difficulty could not be explained
in terms of obvious causes
such as sensory problems or general
learning difficulties (low IQ).
However, the failure to find qualitative
differences in reading, and
phonological skills, between children
with dyslexia and children with
more general learning problems led this
kind of ‘discrepancy’ definition to fall
from favour. The term dyslexia can be
properly used to describe children who
experience problems learning to read
and write; often when a basic level of
reading and spelling ability is
established, there are persisting
problems with reading fluency. Dyslexia
is a dimensional disorder, however, with
no clear cut-off from poor reading. This
does not mean it is not a handicap. If
difficulties in learning and in developing
fluency persist, then we would argue the
term should be used, not least to signal
the need for intervention. In addition, it
should be recognised that assessment is
needed to identify co-occurring
problems; if present, these may require
separate management, but they do not
define dyslexia. The need to intervene is
clear: children with poor reading are at
elevated risk for a range of emotional
and behavioural difficulties. (Snowling,
M Hulme, & Nation, 2020).
 19

argue the term should be

used, not least to signal
the need for intervention.
In addition, it should be
recognised that
assessment is needed to
identify co-occurring
problems; if present,
these may require
separate management,
but they do not define
dyslexia. The need to
intervene is clear:
children with poor
reading are at elevated
risk for a range of
emotional and
behavioural difficulties.
7 Cowan, N., Hogan, T. - In children with dyslexia, In children with dyslexia, deficits in
P., Alt. M., Green. S., deficits in working working memory have not been well‐
Cabbage, K.L., memory have not been specified. We assessed second‐grade
Brinkley, S. & Shelley well‐specified. We children with dyslexia, with and without
Gray, S. (2017). Short‐ assessed second‐grade concomitant specific language
term Memory in children with dyslexia, impairment, and children with typical
Childhood Dyslexia: with and without development. Immediate serial recall of
Deficient Serial Order concomitant specific lists of phonological (non‐word), lexical
in Multiple Modalities language impairment, (digit), spatial (location) and visual
(wileyonlinelibrary.co and children with typical (shape) items were included. Non‐ word
m). development. Immediate repetition tests indicated a phonological
serial recall of lists of memory deficit in children with dyslexia
phonological (non‐word), alone compared with those with typical
lexical (digit), spatial development, but this difference
(location) and visual vanished when these groups were
(shape) items were matched for non‐verbal intelligence and
included. Non‐ word language. Children with dyslexia
repetition tests indicated with versus without language
a phonological memory impairment, when matched on non‐
deficit in children with verbal intelligence, had
dyslexia alone compared comparable serial order memory, but
with those with typical differed in phonology. Because serial
development, but this orderings of verbal and spatial elements
difference vanished when occur in reading, the careful examination
these groups were of order memory may allow a deeper
matched for non‐verbal understanding of dyslexia and its
intelligence and language. relation to language impairment.
Children with dyslexia (Cowan, Hogan, Alt, Green, Cabbage,
with versus without Brinkley, & Gray , 2017).
language impairment,
when matched on non‐
verbal intelligence, had
comparable serial order
 20

memory, but differed in

phonology. Because serial
orderings of
verbal and spatial
elements occur in
reading, the careful
examination of order
memory
may allow a deeper
understanding of dyslexia
and its relation to
language impairment.
8 Isa, I. S., Rahimi, W. N. - Automated detection Automated detection system to identify
S., Ramlan, S. A. & system to identify the the present of dyslexia symptoms in
Sulaiman, S.N. (2019). present of dyslexia primary school children based. The
Automated Detection symptoms in primary proposed automated detection system is
of Dyslexia Symptom school children based. developed by using pattern recognition
Based on Handwriting The proposed automated technique. Based on their handwriting
Image for Primary detection system is images, the pattern recognition system
School Children. developed by using will detect and extract the features of
Procedia Computer pattern recognition the written characters using Optical
Science 163 (2019) technique. Based on their Character Recognition (OCR). The first
440–449. handwriting images, the objective which to develop an
pattern recognition automated handwriting recognition
system will detect and system by using image processing
extract the features of technique and pattern recognition has
the written characters been achieved. The pattern recognition
using Optical Character by using optical recognition method is
Recognition (OCR). one way to recognize the characters. An
- The first objective automated handwriting recognition
which to develop an system by using image processing
automated handwriting technique and pattern recognition had
recognition system by shown significant results. The OCR
using image processing method is good method to use for
technique and pattern recognizing the solid characters for
recognition has been instances the words at the signboard
achieved. The pattern etc. For further works, handwritten
recognition by using recognition by using OCR can be used
optical recognition but need additional method such as
method is one way to cursive method, skew method etc. for
recognize the characters. the program to run more efficient. This is
An automated because of it is not stable to detect and
handwriting recognition recognize the handwritten recognition
system by using image due to the shape of the handwriting. For
processing technique and the second objective is to classify the
pattern recognition had levels of dyslexic symptoms based on its
shown significant results. accuracy is also achieved. Based on the
The OCR method is good result, the performance of the
method to use for classification accuracy is immediate. This
recognizing the solid is because of the ANN need a lot of
characters for instances samples to get the high accuracy and
 21

the words at the need to do more features of the

signboard etc. For further characters. (Isa, Rahimi, Ramlan &
works, handwritten Sulaiman, 2019).
recognition by using OCR
can be used but need
additional method such
as cursive method, skew
method etc. for the
program to run more
efficient. This is because
of it is not stable to
detect and recognize the
handwritten recognition
due to the shape of the
handwriting.
- For the second
objective is to classify the
levels of dyslexic
symptoms based on its
accuracy is also achieved.
Based on the result, the
performance of the
classification accuracy is
immediate. This is
because of the ANN need
a lot of samples to get the
high accuracy and need
to do more features of
the characters.
9 Łuniewska, M., Chyl, - Learning to read Learning to read changes the brain
K., Debska, A. D., changes the brain language system. Phonological
Banaszkiewicz, A., language system. processing is the language domain most
Zelechowska, A., Phonological processing is crucial for reading, but it is still unknown
Marchewka, A., the language domain how reading acquisition modifies the
Grabowska., A., & most crucial for reading, neural phonological network in children
Jednoróg, K. (2019). but it is still unknown who either develop dyslexia or are at
Children With Dyslexia how reading acquisition risk of dyslexia. Typical readers without
and Familial Risk for modifies the neural risk for dyslexia activate structures
Dyslexia Present phonological network in responsible for phonological processing
Atypical children who either already at the beginning of literacy.
Developmental of the develop dyslexia or are at Typical readers without risk for dyslexia
Neuronal Phonological risk of dyslexia. Typical activate structures responsible for
Network. readers without risk for phonological processing already at the
Frontiers in dyslexia activate beginning of literacy. This group shows
Neuroscience | structures responsible for reduced brain activation over time
www.frontiersin.org. phonological processing during phonological processing, perhaps
already at the beginning due to automatization of phonological
of literacy. Typical skills. Children who develop reading
readers without risk for impairment present a delay in the
dyslexia activate development of phonological structures
structures responsible for such as the bilateral superior temporal

phonological processing
already at the beginning
of literacy. This group
shows reduced brain
activation over time
during phonological
processing, perhaps due
to automatization of
phonological skills.
Children who develop
reading impairment
present a delay in the
development of
phonological structures
such as the bilateral
superior temporal gyri,
left middle temporal
gyrus, right insula and
right frontal cortex,
where we observed time
and group interaction.
Finally, typical readers
with familial risk of
dyslexia also present an
atypical development of
the neural phonological
structures, visible both at
the beginning of reading
instruction and 2 years
later. These children used
a presumably efficient
neural mechanism of
phonological processing,
based on the activation of
the precentral and
postcentral gyri, and
achieved a typical level of
phonological awareness.
10 Huang , Y., Meirong - Dyslexia is one of the
M., Li, A., Lin, Y., most common
Zhang , X., & Kusheng, neurobehavioral
W. (2020). Personality, disorders. Children with
Behavior dyslexia usually suffer
Characteristics, and from negative, behavior
Life Quality Impact of personality problems,
Children with Dyslexia. and impacted life quality.
Int. J. Environ. Res. - Children with dyslexia
Public Health 2020, have poor academic
17, 1415. performance, and they
suffer from low self-
esteem, anxiety, and
22
gyri, left middle temporal gyrus, right
insula and right frontal cortex, where we
observed time and group interaction.
Finally, typical readers with familial risk
of dyslexia also present an atypical
development of the neural phonological
structures, visible both at the beginning
of reading instruction and 2 years later.
These children used a presumably
efficient neural mechanism of
phonological processing, based on the
activation of the precentral and
postcentral gyri, and achieved a typical
level of phonological awareness.
(Łuniewska, Chyl, Debska,
Banaszkiewicz, Zelechowska,
Marchewka, Grabowska, & Jednoróg,
2019).
Dyslexia is one of the most common
neurobehavioral disorders. Children with
dyslexia usually suffer from negative,
behavior personality problems, and
impacted life quality. Children with
dyslexia have poor academic
performance, and they suffer from low
self-esteem, anxiety, and emotional
instability due to long-term experience
of learning frustration, which further
affects their learning motivation and
emotional state. On the other hand,
children’s personality traits will also

emotional instability due
to long-term experience
of learning frustration,
which further affects
their learning motivation
and emotional state. On
the other hand, children’s
personality traits will also
cause difficulties in
language learning.
Negative personality
characteristics can make
symptoms of dyslexia
becoming more severe.
Dyslexia and personality
traits interact and
influence each other in
learning. For children
with dyslexia, attention
should be paid to
behavioral and
psychological
intervention, to correct
for extreme personality
and guide them to the
healthy development.
Reading Skills
1 Reybroeck, M. V. & - Children with dyslexia
Rom, M. D. (2019). face persistent difficulties
Children with dyslexia in acquiring reading skills,
show an inhibition often making guessing
domain-specifc deficit errors characterized by
in reading. Reading the replacement of a
and Writing (2020) word by an orthographic
33:907–933. neighbour. These reading
errors could be related to
inhibition problems
within the reading task.
- Our results
demonstrated that
dyslexic children
performed equally
compared to the two
control groups in the
cognitive inhibition task,
whilst they read the
sentences less accurately
than the two control
groups in the reading
inhibition task, and they
were slower than
23
cause difficulties in language learning.
Negative personality characteristics can
make symptoms of dyslexia becoming
more severe. Dyslexia and personality
traits interact and influence each other
in learning. For children with dyslexia,
attention should be paid to behavioral
and psychological intervention, to
correct for extreme personality and
guide them to the healthy development.
(Huang , Meirong, Li, Lin, Zhang, &
Kusheng, 2020).
- Children with dyslexia face persistent
difculties in acquiring reading skills,
often making guessing errors
characterized by the replacement of a
word by an orthographic neighbour.
These reading errors could be related to
inhibition problems within the reading
task. Our results demonstrated that
dyslexic children performed equally
compared to the two control groups in
the cognitive inhibition task, whilst they
read the sentences less accurately than
the two control groups in the reading
inhibition task, and they were slower
than children of the same age. Our
results clearly demonstrate that dyslexic
children have an inhibition defcit specifc
to the reading task. The consequences of
these reading difculties are signifcant for
children’s social, societal, and academic
development. Learning and assessments
are mainly done through reading and
writing at school, even from an early
age. It is important to provide a better

children of the same age.
Our results clearly
demonstrate that dyslexic
children have an
inhibition defcit specifc to
the reading task.
- The consequences of
these reading difculties
are signifcant for
children’s social, societal,
and academic
development. Learning
and assessments are
mainly done through
reading and writing at
school, even from an
early age. It is important
to provide a better
understanding of
children’s difculties
inherent in reading tasks.
This could help to better
structure the treatment
that can be offered to
them.
2 Gráf, R.,· Kalmár, M., - Prematurity is a serious
Harnos, A., Boross, G. risk factor for learning
& Nagy, A. (2019). difficulties. Within the
Reading and spelling academic skills reading
skills of prematurely has the greatest impact
born children in light on the prospects of the
of the underlying students; therefore,
cognitive factors. studying the reading skills
Cognitive Processing in the risk populations is
https://doi.org/10.100 very important.
7/s10339-020-01001-6 - Premature birth (before
the 37 week of gestation)
is the most common
perinatal risk; therefore,
the heightened research
interest in the
development of preterm
children is not surprising.
In spite of the ever-
growing bulk of research
evidence, the picture is
far from being clear.
- Reading has two
fundamental
components: decoding
(single-word reading) and
24
understanding of children’s difculties
inherent in reading tasks. This could help
to better structure the treatment that
can be offered to them. (Reybroeck, &
Rom, 2019).
Prematurity is a serious risk factor for
learning difculties. Within the academic
skills reading has the greatest impact on
the prospects of the students; therefore,
studying the reading skills in the risk
populations is very important.
Premature birth (before the 37 week of
gestation) is the most common perinatal
risk; therefore, the heightened research
interest in the development of preterm
children is not surprising. In spite of the
ever-growing bulk of research evidence,
the picture is far from being clear.
Reading has two fundamental
components: decoding (single-word
reading) and reading comprehension,
i.e., to derive meanings from and form
interpretations of written words and
sentences. To acquire reading, first one
should learn the code for representing
speech as a series of visual symbols. It is
a process of matching visual symbols (in
many languages letters) to units of
sound. Decoding stems from primary
linguistic skills such as phonological
awareness and alphabet knowledge.
 25

reading comprehension, Efcient reading also requires the

i.e., to derive meanings recognition of the orthographic patterns
from and form of whole words not only accurately but
interpretations of written also fuently, that is, automatically. The
words and sentences. To acquisition of this skill which is a basis of
acquire reading, first one comprehension is a further step in
should learn the code for learning to read. (Gráf, Kalmár, Harnos,
representing speech as a Boross, & Nagy, 2019).
series of visual symbols. It
is a process of matching
visual symbols (in many
languages letters) to units
of sound. Decoding stems
from primary linguistic
skills such as phonological
awareness and alphabet
knowledge. Efcient
reading also requires the
recognition of the
orthographic patterns of
whole words not only
accurately but also
fuently, that is,
automatically. The
acquisition of this skill
which is a basis of
comprehension is a
further step in learning to
read.

3 Khasawneh, M. A. S. & - Reading comprehension Reading comprehension is one of the

Al-Rub, M. O. (2020). is one of the most
Development of important reading skills
Reading and is important to
Comprehension Skills achieve the main
among the Students of objectives of the whole
Learning Disabilities. reading process. Reading
Universal Journal of comprehension has
Educational Research become a major
8(11): 5335-5341, characteristic of good
2020. readers who can be a
significant contributor to
the development of
society. It is an activity
requiring accuracy,
autonomy while reading,
deep understanding,
comprehension speed,
enjoying reading, the
variation in reading
purposes, being involved
most important reading skills and is
important to achieve the main objectives
of the whole reading process. Reading
comprehension has become a major
characteristic of good readers who can
be a significant contributor to the
development of society. It is an activity
requiring accuracy, autonomy while
reading, deep understanding,
comprehension speed, enjoying reading,
the variation in reading purposes, being
involved with the different events, giving
opinions, being critical, and creative. It
can be noticed, then, that
comprehension is the basic component
of reading. Without comprehension,
reading cannot be described as a mental
process. Reading comprehension is not
an innate ability as it is not an easy
facilitated skill ending when the reader

with the different events,
giving opinions, being
critical, and creative.
- It can be noticed, then,
that comprehension is
the basic component of
reading. Without
comprehension, reading
cannot be described as a
mental process. Reading
comprehension is not an
innate ability as it is not
an easy facilitated skill
ending when the reader
can recognize the written
symbols and say them.
Indeed, it is a complex
process falling in variant
levels, requires mental
abilities and potentials,
needs practice and drill,
and the use of different
thinking, explanation,
analysis, critique, and
contrasting skills.
4 Moira, T., Boyleb, J. & - The ability to read relies
Woolfsonc, L. M. upon not just decoding,
(2020). Developing but also comprehending
higher-order reading text. Being a good
skills in mainstream comprehender requires
primary schools: A strategic reading and
metacognitive and implies the use of
self-regulatory comprehension
approach. British strategies. Research
Educational Research indicates that readers
Journal. who are taught several
reading comprehension
strategies have better
reading skills than those
only taught a single
strategy. One multiple
strategy reading
comprehension
intervention was
evaluated using a mixed-
model quasi-
experimental design.
Intervention and control
conditions groups were
assessed at pre- and post-
test points with
26
can recognize the written symbols and
say them. Indeed, it is a complex process
falling in variant levels, requires mental
abilities and potentials, needs practice
and drill, and the use of different
thinking, explanation, analysis, critique,
and contrasting skills. (Khasawneh & Al-
Rub, 2020).
The ability to read relies upon not just
decoding, but also comprehending text.
Being a good comprehender requires
strategic reading and implies the use of
comprehension strategies. Research
indicates that readers who are taught
several reading comprehension
strategies have better reading skills than
those only taught a single strategy. One
multiple strategy reading
comprehension intervention was
evaluated using a mixed-model quasi-
experimental design. Intervention and
control conditions groups were assessed
at pre- and post-test points with
standardised reading comprehension
abilities, measured as the primary
outcome measure. Statistically
significant scores were also evident in
the secondary outcome measures of
decoding of target word skills, children’s
self-reports of their reading strategy use
and recreational reading frequency.
Implementation tools indicated that the
intervention was acceptable and feasible
to implement. Implications of
 27

standardised reading introducing this multiple strategy

comprehension abilities, reading comprehension programme and
measured as the primary of the evaluation of implementation are
outcome measure. discussed. (Moira, Boyleb, & Woolfsonc,
Statistically significant 2020).
scores were also evident
in the secondary outcome
measures of decoding of
target word skills,
children’s self-reports of
their reading strategy use
and recreational reading
frequency.
Implementation tools
indicated that the
intervention was
acceptable and feasible
to implement.
Implications of
introducing this multiple
strategy reading
comprehension
programme and of the
evaluation of
implementation are
discussed.
5 Ozernov-Palchik, O., - Reading comprehension Reading comprehension is a complex
Centanni , T., Beach, S. is a complex task that task that depends on multiple cognitive
May, S., Hogan, T. & depends on multiple and linguistic processes. In adults with
Gabrieli, J. (2020). cognitive and linguistic dyslexia, better fluency was associated
Distinct neural processes. In adults with with greater activation of bilateral
substrates of dyslexia, better fluency inferior parietal regions, better
individual differences was associated with comprehension was associated with
in components of greater activation of greater activation in some prefrontal
reading bilateral inferior parietal clusters and lower in others, and better
comprehension in regions, better decoding skills were associated with
adults with or without comprehension was lesser activation of bilateral prefrontal
dyslexia. Neuroimage associated with greater and posterior parietal regions. Extending
S1053-8119(20)31055- activation in some the behavioral findings of skill-level
7. prefrontal clusters and differences in the relative contribution
lower in others, and of the three components to reading
better decoding skills comprehension, the relative
were associated with contributions of the neural correlates to
lesser activation of reading comprehension differed based
bilateral prefrontal and on dyslexia status. Individuals with
posterior parietal regions. dyslexia recruit cognitive and linguistic
Extending the behavioral systems to support word decoding,
findings of skill-level thereby diverting resources from, and
differences in the relative potentially impeding, comprehension
contribution of the three processes. These findings reveal the
components to reading underlying mechanisms of reading

comprehension, the
relative contributions of
the neural correlates to
reading comprehension
differed based on dyslexia
status.
- Individuals with dyslexia
recruit cognitive and
linguistic systems to
support word decoding,
thereby diverting
resources from, and
potentially impeding,
comprehension
processes. These findings
reveal the underlying
mechanisms of reading
comprehension deficits of
adults with dyslexia.
6 Thiede, A., Parkkonen, - Poor neural speech
L., Virtala, P., discrimination has been
Laasonen, M., Mäkelä, connected to dyslexia,
J. P., & Kujala, T. and may represent
(2020). phonological processing
Neuromagnetic deficits that are
speech discrimination hypothesized to be the
responses are main cause for reading
associated with impairments. Thus far,
reading-related skills neural speech
in dyslexic and typical discrimination
readers. Heliyon 6 impairments have rarely
(2020) been investigated in adult
e40619https://doi.org dyslexics, and even less
/10.1016/j.heliyon.202 by examining sources of
0.e04619. neuromagnetic
responses. We compared
neuromagnetic speech
discrimination in dyslexic
and typical readers with
mismatch fields (MMF)
and determined the
associations between
MMFs and reading-
related skills. We
expected weak and
atypically lateralized
MMFs in dyslexic readers,
and positive associations
between readingrelated
skills and MMF strength.
- MMN is linked with
28
comprehension deficits of adults with
dyslexia. (Ozernov-Palchik, Centanni ,
Beach, May, Hogan, & Gabrieli, 2020).
Poor neural speech discrimination has
been connected to dyslexia, and may
represent phonological processing
deficits that are hypothesized to be the
main cause for reading impairments.
Thus far, neural speech discrimination
impairments have rarely been
investigated in adult dyslexics, and even
less by examining sources of
neuromagnetic responses. We
compared neuromagnetic speech
discrimination in dyslexic and typical
readers with mismatch fields (MMF) and
determined the associations between
MMFs and reading-related skills. We
expected weak and atypically lateralized
MMFs in dyslexic readers, and positive
associations between readingrelated
skills and MMF strength.
MMN is linked with language and
reading skills, which makes it a
promising neural marker for dyslexia.
We found that larger MMF source
amplitudes in the left hemisphere were
associated with better working memory
skills across both groups. Post-hoc
analyses showed that the association
was mainly driven by the MMF to the
duration deviant and the verbal
component of working memory. We
found correlations between the MMFs
to speech-sound changes and reading-
 29

language and reading related skills, highlighting the connection

skills, which makes it a of neural low-level speech processing
promising neural marker and reading in adults, and promoting the
for dyslexia. use of MMFs in investigating reading-
- We found that larger related brain processes. (Thiede,
MMF source amplitudes Parkkonen, Virtala, Laasonen, Mäkelä, &
in the left hemisphere Kujala, 2020).
were associated with
better working memory
skills across both groups.
Post-hoc analyses
showed that the
association was mainly
driven by the MMF to the
duration deviant and the
verbal component of
working memory. We
found correlations
between the MMFs to
speech-sound changes
and reading-related skills,
highlighting the
connection of neural low-
level speech processing
and reading in adults, and
promoting the use of
MMFs in investigating
reading-related brain
processes.

Intervention for Dyslexia

1 Carolien A.N., Campe, - Adding audio to written Adding audio to written text may cause
K.V., Segers, E. & text may cause redundancy effects, but could be
Verhoeven, L. (2020). redundancy effects, but beneficial for students with dyslexia for
Effects of audio could be beneficial for whom it supports their reading. Studying
support on multimedia students with dyslexia for both learning process and learning
learning processes and whom it supports their outcomes in students with and without
outcomes in students reading. Studying both dyslexia can shed light on this issue and
with dyslexia. learning process and helps to find out whether there are
Computers & learning outcomes in constraints to the redundancy effect as
Education 150 (2020) students with and proposed in the Cognitive Theory of
103858 without dyslexia can shed Multimedia Learning. Regarding process
light on this issue and measures, students had longer study
helps to find out whether times, with more focus on pictures, and
there are constraints to more transitions between text and
the redundancy effect as pictures in the text-audio-picture
proposed in the Cognitive condition. When relating learning
Theory of Multimedia processes to learning outcomes, longer
Learning. Regarding study time predicted higher transfer
process measures, knowledge in both groups in the text-
students had longer study audio-picture condition, whereas in the

times, with more focus on
pictures, and more
transitions between text
and pictures in the text-
audio-picture condition.
- When relating learning
processes to learning
outcomes, longer study
time predicted higher
transfer knowledge in
both groups in the text-
audio-picture condition,
whereas in the text-
picture condition, more
study time predicted
lower transfer knowledge
in typically developing
students only. TReading
ability does not impact
the universality of the
redundancy effect, but
students with dyslexia
should only use audio
support when aiming to
learn factual knowledge
and should be aware that
it increases study time.
2 Cancer, A., Bonacina, - Developmental dyslexia
S., Antonietti, A., is a very common
Salandi, A., Molteni., learning disorder causing
M. & Lorusso, L.L. an impairment in reading
(2020). The ability. Although the core
Effectiveness of defificit underlying
Interventions for dyslexia is still under
Developmental debate, significant
Dyslexia: Rhythmic agreement is reached in
Reading Training the literature that
Compared With dyslexia is related to a
Hemisphere-Specifific specific deficit in the
Stimulation and phonological
Action Video Games. representation of speech
Clinical trial sounds. Many studies
published: 03 June also reported an
2020 doi: association between
10.3389/fpsyg.2020.0 reading skills and music.
1158. These findings suggest
that interventions aimed
at enhancing basic
auditory skills of children
with DD may impact
30
text-picture condition, more study time
predicted lower transfer knowledge in
typically developing students only.
TReading ability does not impact the
universality of the redundancy effect,
but students with dyslexia should only
use audio support when aiming to learn
factual knowledge and should be aware
that it increases study time. (Carolien,
Campe, Segers, & Verhoeven, 2020).
Developmental dyslexia is a very
common learning disorder causing an
impairment in reading ability. Although
the core defificit underlying dyslexia is
still under debate, significant agreement
is reached in the literature that dyslexia
is related to a specific deficit in the
phonological representation of speech
sounds. Many studies also reported an
association between reading skills and
music. These findings suggest that
interventions aimed at enhancing basic
auditory skills of children with DD may
impact reading abilities. Music education
alone failed to produce improvements in
reading skills comparable to those
resulting from traditional intervention
methods for DD. A computer-assisted
intervention method, called Rhythmic
Reading Training (RRT), which combines
sublexical reading exercises with rhythm
processing, was implemented. The
purpose of the present study was to

reading abilities. Music
education alone failed to
produce improvements in
reading skills comparable
to those resulting from
traditional intervention
methods for DD. A
computer-assisted
intervention method,
called Rhythmic Reading
Training (RRT), which
combines sublexical
reading exercises with
rhythm processing, was
implemented. The
purpose of the present
study was to compare the
effectiveness of RRT and
that of an intervention
resulting from the
combination of two yet
validated treatments for
dyslexia, namely, Bakker’s
Visual Hemisphere-
Specifific Stimulation
(VHSS) and the Action
Video Game Training
(AVG).
- RRT appears to be an
effffective alternative to
other intervention
methods for DD. In
particular, RRT seems
to be especially useful for
improving reading speed,
whereas
VHSS-AVG produces
larger effects on
accuracy. Based on the
correlations found
between improvement
and initial profiles (to
be confirmed with larger
samples), it could further
be suggested
that RRT is most likely to
be effective when
phonological
awareness needs to be
stimulated, but auditory
analysis is
31
compare the effectiveness of RRT and
that of an intervention resulting from
the combination of two yet validated
treatments for dyslexia, namely,
Bakker’s Visual Hemisphere-Specifific
Stimulation (VHSS) and the Action Video
Game Training (AVG). RRT appears to be
an effffective alternative to other
intervention methods for DD. In
particular, RRT seems to be especially
useful for improving reading speed,
whereas VHSS-AVG produces larger
effects on accuracy. Based on the
correlations found between
improvement and initial profiles (to be
confirmed with larger samples), it could
further be suggested that RRT is most
likely to be effective when phonological
awareness needs to be stimulated, but
auditory analysis is of sufficiently
developed, whereas VHSS-AVG seems to
be of greater advantage to children with
initial impairments in rapid naming. In
comparison with traditional treatments,
RRT is a very easy-to-use and adaptable
training method, which does not require
a specifific administration setting or
demanding training for its application. It
does not exclude children with scarce
musical aptitude or interest, as a
specifific music training could do.
Finally, the use of rhythm and music
provides an enjoyable and pleasant
environment for children who
participate in reading training, which
contributes to improving their
involvement and motivation. The
children who took part in the present
study generally expressed positive
feedbacks about both types of trainings
and kept a high level of engagement and
motivation throughout the whole
duration of the programs, in spite of
their intensive schedule. This allowed to
reach effects comparable to more
traditional intervention schedules
(typically, two sessions per week for 10–
15 weeks) in a much shorter period
and with less time devoted to the
training for both the children
and the therapists. (Cancer, Bonacina,
 32

of sufficiently developed, Antonietti, Salandi, Molteni, & Lorusso,

whereas VHSS-AVG 2020).
seems to be of
greater advantage to
children with initial
impairments in rapid
naming. In comparison
with traditional
treatments, RRT is a very
easy-to-use and adaptable
training method, which
does not require a
specifific administration
setting or demanding
training for its
application. It does not
exclude children with
scarce musical aptitude
or interest, as a specifific
music training could do.
Finally, the use of rhythm
and music provides an
enjoyable and pleasant
environment for children
who participate in
reading training, which
contributes to improving
their involvement and
motivation. The children
who took part in the
present study generally
expressed positive
feedbacks about
both types of trainings
and kept a high level of
engagement and
motivation throughout
the whole duration of the
programs, in spite of their
intensive schedule. This
allowed to reach effects
comparable to more
traditional intervention
schedules (typically,
two sessions per week for
10–15 weeks) in a much
shorter period
and with less time
devoted to the training
for both the children
and the therapists.
3 Cancer, A., Bonacina, - Developmental dyslexia Developmental dyslexia is a specific

S., Lorusso, M. L., is a specific learning
Lanzi, P. L., Antonietti, disorder of
A. (2016). A neurobiological origin
Computer-Assisted that causes a reading
Intervention Program impairment. Since music
for Dyslexia. and language share
Springer International common mechanisms
Publishing Switzerland and the core deficit
2016. DOI: underlying dyslexia has
10.1007/978-3-319- been identified in
32270-4_25. difficulties in dynamic and
rapidly changing auditory
information processing, it
has been argued that
enhancing basic musical
rhythm perception skills
in chil‐ dren with dyslexia
may have a positive effect
on reading abilities.
Active engagement with
music provides an
enjoyable environment
that may improve
motivation of children
and thus enhance the
efficacy of the
intervention.
-Previous research
suggested that musical
abilities play a role in
reading and that musical
training might improve
reading skills. However,
the musical intervention
programs which have
been tested so far
included a variety of
music activities (such as
listening, singing, tapping,
playing an instrument,
etc.) which involved
solely auditory and timing
processing (e.g., pitch
discrimination,
reproduction of rhythmic
patterns, etc.). The
intervention approach
that we are presenting,
instead, combines a
specific reading training,
33
learning disorder of neurobiological
origin that causes a reading impairment.
Since music and language share common
mechanisms and the core deficit
underlying dyslexia has been identified
in difficulties in dynamic and rapidly
changing auditory information
processing, it has been argued that
enhancing basic musical rhythm
perception skills in children with dyslexia
may have a positive effect on reading
abilities. Active engagement with music
provides an enjoyable environment that
may improve motivation of children and
thus enhance the efficacy of the
intervention.
Previous research suggested that
musical abilities play a role in reading
and that musical training might improve
reading skills. However, the musical
intervention programs which have been
tested so far included a variety of music
activities (such as listening, singing,
tapping, playing an instrument, etc.)
which involved solely auditory and
timing processing (e.g., pitch
discrimination, reproduction of rhythmic
patterns, etc.). The intervention
approach that we are presenting,
instead, combines a specific reading
training, aimed at enhancing grapheme-
phoneme connections, and music inter‐
vention, providing a simultaneous
stimulation of the shared mechanisms
between music and language. For
implementing that, IT appeared to be
the best choice: it provides multimodal
(visual and auditory) stimulation as well
as the perfect synchronisation of the
concurrent presentation of sounds and
visual stimuli and allows the trainer to
have control over timing and difficulty of
the stimulus presentation. The poten‐
tiality of music for boosting motivation
and provide an enjoyable rehabilitation
setting is well known and it is exploited
in the training. Results suggest that a
combination of reading and rhythmic
training could be an effective treatment
for dyslexia and that the characteristic of
the intervention can easily be adapted to
 34

aimed at enhancing different settings (i.e., scholastic and

grapheme-phoneme clinical settings). The combination of
connections, and music music and reading training allowed by
inter‐ vention, providing a the computerized version of RRT seems
simultaneous stimulation to be a promising rehabilitation strategy
of the shared for improving reading skills in students
mechanisms between with DD. The effect on reading, this
music and language. For innovative treat‐ ment approach
implementing that, IT involves also an active engagement with
appeared to be the best music, which provides an enjoyable and
choice: it provides pleasant experience for subjects with
multimodal (visual and DD. The use of IT allows the training to
auditory) stimulation as be easily implemented also in home
well as the perfect settings in a standardized and reliable
synchronisation of the way. (Cancer, Bonacina, Lorusso, Lanzi,
concurrent presentation Antonietti, 2016).
of sounds and visual
stimuli and allows the
trainer to have control
over timing and difficulty
of the stimulus
presentation. The poten‐
tiality of music for
boosting motivation and
provide an enjoyable
rehabilitation setting is
well known and it is
exploited in the training.
-Results suggest that a
combination of reading
and rhythmic training
could be an effective
treatment for dyslexia
and that the
characteristic of the
intervention can easily be
adapted to different
settings (i.e., scholastic
and clinical settings).
-The combination of
music and reading
training allowed by the
computerized version of
RRT seems to be a
promising rehabilitation
strategy for improving
reading skills in students
with DD. The effect on
reading, this innovative
treat‐ ment approach
involves also an active

engagement with music,
which provides an
enjoyable and pleasant
experience for subjects
with DD. The use of IT
allows the training to be
easily implemented also
in home settings in a
standardized and reliable
way.
4 Krivec, T., Babuder, - In a world with different
M.K., Godec, P., readers with varying
Weinger, P. & Elesini, needs, the idea that
U.S. (2019). Impact of readers might be given
digital text variables the option of text
on legibility for formatting their own text
persons with dyslexia. in advance seems very
wileyonlinelibrary.com appealing. The
/journal/dys. DOI: respondents read
10.1002/dys.1646 paragraphs and identified
illogical words contained
therein, while reading
two comparable blocks of
self-set and pre-set texts.
The differences in the
number of paragraphs
read and the mistakes
made in a limited
timeframe were
compared using a
web test that was based
on the Tinker's test. The
results showed that the
respondents encounter
different difficulties while
reading digital text. We
statistically proved that
people with dyslexia
chose larger type sizes
more frequently than
people without dyslexia,
whereas no such
statistically significant
trend was observed for all
other variables (typeface,
tracking, and leading).
We did not observe any
significant differences
between the reading
speed associated with
pre-set and self-set texts;
35
In a world with different readers with
varying needs, the idea that readers
might be given the option of text
formatting their own text in advance
seems very appealing. The respondents
read paragraphs and identified illogical
words contained therein, while reading
two comparable blocks of self-set and
pre-set texts. The differences in the
number of paragraphs read and the
mistakes made in a limited timeframe
were compared using a web test that
was based on the Tinker's test. The
results showed that the respondents
encounter different difficulties while
reading digital text. We statistically
proved that people with dyslexia chose
larger type sizes more frequently than
people without dyslexia, whereas no
such statistically significant trend was
observed for all other variables
(typeface, tracking, and leading). We did
not observe any significant differences
between the reading speed associated
with pre-set and self-set texts; however,
the reading speed was higher in the
group of people without dyslexia. A
significant difference was observed in
reading comprehension, because
reading comprehension was better in
the case of self-set text used. (Krivec,
Babuder, Godec, Weinger, & Elesini,
2019).

however, the reading
speed was higher in the
group of people without
dyslexia. A significant
difference was observed
in reading
comprehension, because
reading comprehension
was better in the case of
self-set text used.
5 Benfatto, M. N., - Dyslexia is a
Seimyr, G. O., Ygge, J., neurodevelopmental
Pansel, T., Rydberg, A. reading disability
& Jacobson, C. (2016). estimated to affect 5–
Screening for Dyslexia 10% of the population.
Using Eye Tracking While there is yet no full
during Reading. PLOS understanding of the
ONE cause of dyslexia, or
DOI:10.1371/journal.p agreement on its precise
one.0165508. definition, it is certain
that many individuals
suffer persistent
problems in learning to
read for no apparent
reason. Although it is
generally agreed that
early intervention is the
best form of support for
children with dyslexia,
there is still a lack of
efficient and objective
means to help identify
those at risk during the
early years of school.
Here we show that it is
possible to identify 9–10
year old individuals at risk
of persistent reading
difficulties by using eye
tracking during reading to
probe the processes that
underlie reading ability.
- Fast, systematic and
automated screening
methods based on
objective measurements
of reading may help
identify individuals at risk
of dyslexia during the
early school years.
Current methods,
36
- Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental
reading disability estimated to affect 5–
10% of the population. While there is yet
no full understanding of the cause of
dyslexia, or agreement on its precise
definition, it is certain that many
individuals suffer persistent problems in
learning to read for no apparent reason.
Although it is generally agreed that early
intervention is the best form of support
for children with dyslexia, there is still a
lack of efficient and objective means to
help identify those at risk during the
early years of school. Here we show that
it is possible to identify 9–10 year old
individuals at risk of persistent reading
difficulties by using eye tracking during
reading to probe the processes that
underlie reading ability.
- Fast, systematic and automated
screening methods based on objective
measurements of reading may help
identify individuals at risk of dyslexia
during the early school years. Current
methods, however, are limited in that
they only measure individual cognitive
skills that natural reading depends upon,
but say little about their interplay and
function in actual reading. Invariably,
these tests require the subject to
produce some explicit response, typically
under time pressure, such as marking
the word boundaries in sequences of
words without interword spaces,
matching target words to corresponding
pictures, or reading aloud
pronounceable nonsense words of
increasing difficulty. The outcome
measure–the proportion of correct
responses–gives an estimate of
performance on a particular task related
 37

however, are limited in to reading, but does not reflect the

that they only measure actual process of reading as it naturally
individual cognitive skills occurs.
that natural reading - The accuracy of screening tests
depends upon, but say increases as children begin school and
little about their interplay receive formal reading instruction. In
and function in actual second and third grade, the accuracy
reading. Invariably, these typically ranges between 80–90%.
tests require the subject However, it appears that in order to
to produce some explicit obtain balanced levels of sensitivity and
response, typically under specificity, multiple tests must be
time pressure, such as administered that collectively measure a
marking the word combination of different cognitive skills
boundaries in sequences related to reading. But if several
of words without different tests must be administered,
interword spaces, and each test manually assessed, the
matching target words to possibility to implement an efficient
corresponding pictures, screening process with large numbers of
or reading aloud school children is seriously
pronounceable nonsense compromised. This is potentially one of
words of increasing the barriers that prevent many schools
difficulty. The outcome from implementing routine screening for
measure–the proportion dyslexia today.( Benfatto, Seimyr, Ygge,
of correct responses– Pansel, Rydberg, & Jacobson, 2016).
gives an estimate of
performance on a
particular task related to
reading, but does not
reflect the actual process
of reading as it naturally
occurs.
- The accuracy of
screening tests increases
as children begin school
and receive formal
reading instruction. In
second and third grade,
the accuracy typically
ranges between 80–90%.
However, it appears that
in order to obtain
balanced levels of
sensitivity and specificity,
multiple tests must be
administered that
collectively measure a
combination of different
cognitive skills related to
reading. But if several
different tests must be
administered, and each

test manually assessed,
the possibility to
implement an efficient
screening process with
large numbers of school
children is seriously
compromised. This is
potentially one of the
barriers that prevent
many schools from
implementing routine
screening for dyslexia
today.
6 Bigueras, R. T., Arispe, - Children with dyslexia
M. C. A., Torio, J. O. & are one of the learners in
Maligat, D. E. (2020). special education that
Mobile Game-Based need an intervention tool
Learning to Enhance such as a game-based
the Reading learning system to
Performance of enhance learning. This
Dyslexic Children. type of learner has
International Journal different learner
of Advanced Trends in characteristics that need
Computer Science and to consider in designing
Engineering. and developing an
https://doi.org/10.305 effective game-based
34/ijatcse/2020/5191. learning system for them.
32020. Because of their disability
support from the families
and teachers is needed in
the learning process.
Developing and designing
additional materials or
learning tools for dyslexic
children is one of the
ways to help them to
manage their learning
disabilities. Nowadays, a
game-based learning
system is one of the tools
used to enhance the
learning performance of
dyslexic children. But this
type of learner has
different learner
characteristics that need
to consider in designing
and developing an
effective game-based
learning system to avoid
psychological stress to
38
Children with dyslexia are one of the
learners in special education that need
an intervention tool such as a game-
based learning system to enhance
learning. This type of learner has
different learner characteristics that
need to consider in designing and
developing an effective game-based
learning system for them. Because of
their disability support from the
families and teachers is needed in the
learning process. Developing and
designing additional materials or
learning tools for dyslexic children is
one of the ways to help them to
manage their learning disabilities. A
game-based learning system is one of
the tools used to enhance the learning
performance of dyslexic children. But
this type of learner has different
learner characteristics that need to
consider in designing and developing
an effective game-based learning
system to avoid psychological stress
to the learners. Game elements are
one of the aspects of game design that
should be taken into consideration
when designing game-based learning
applications for dyslexic children.
This is one of the factors in increasing
the user's motivation to use the game-
based learning application. Game
elements that were integrated into the
application were identified in this
study from the response of the
respondents of this study on the
question "what do you think your
 39

the learners. child likes in the game application he

- Game elements are one or she played?”. Story, points and
of the aspects of game rewards, clear game goals and
design that should be objectives, level, feedback, and
taken into consideration achievement system are the game
when designing game- elements integrated into the
based learning LaroLexia application that are
applications for dyslexic suitable to the children with dyslexia.
children. This is one of LaroLexia is a mobile game-based
the factors in increasing learning system for Filipino children
the user's motivation to with dyslexia on the Android
use the game-based platform which helps them read. The
learning application. LaroLexia learning material is written
Game elements that were in Filipino. This application shall be
integrated into the also considered as one of the
application were
interventions for dyslexic children to
identified in this study
manage their reading disability. For
from the response of the
further study, evaluation of dyslexic
respondents of this study
users in the system in terms of
on the question "what do
usability, playability, and learnability
you think your child likes
must be conducted to be able to
in the game application
he or she played?”. Story,
enhance more the application features
points and rewards, clear and much effective as an intervention
game goals and tool for reading disability of the
objectives, level, dyslexic users. (Bigueras, Arispe,
feedback, and Torio, & Maligat, 2020).
achievement system are
the game elements
integrated into the
LaroLexia application that
are suitable to the
children with dyslexia.
- LaroLexia is a mobile
game-based learning
system for Filipino
children with dyslexia on
the Android platform
which helps them read.
The LaroLexia learning
material is written in
Filipino. The approach to
reading used in LaroLexia
is the marungko or
conventional approach of
reading. The native
games of the Filipino
system such as luksong
tinik or basag palayok
have been used in the
game theme of each
 40

mini-games at LaroLexia.
- The LaroLexia has two
major categories. The
first category is the Titik,
which goals to help the
dyslexic children by
incorporating consonants
and vowels in the
familiarization and
reading of the Filipino
alphabet and reading
syllables. The Titik
category starts from the
easiest level of basic
reading which is the
familiarization and
sounds of an individual
letter. In this category,
the researchers mostly
use sight word technique
in teaching basic reading
to dyslexic users. The
second category is
namely Salita, which
aimed to teach word
through reading syllables.
- This application shall be
also considered as one of
the interventions for
dyslexic children to
manage their reading
disability. For further
study, evaluation of
dyslexic users in the
system in terms of
usability, playability, and
learnability must be
conducted to be able to
enhance more the
application features and
much effective as an
intervention tool for
reading disability of the
dyslexic users.
7 Wery, J. J. & Diliberto, - A single-subject A single-subject alternating treatment
J. A. (2017). The effect alternating treatment design was used to investigate the
of a specialized design was used to extent to which a specialized dyslexia
dyslexia font, investigate the extent to font, OpenDyslexic, impacted reading
OpenDyslexic, on which a specialized rate or accuracy compared to two
reading rate and dyslexia font, commonly used fonts when used with
accuracy. Ann. of OpenDyslexic, impacted elementary students identified as having
 41

Dyslexia (2017) reading rate or accuracy dyslexia. OpenDyslexic was compared to

67:114–127 DOI compared to two Arial and Times New Roman in three
10.1007/s11881-016- commonly used fonts reading tasks: (a) letter naming, (b) word
0127-1. when used with reading, and (c) nonsense word reading.
elementary students Data were analyzed through visual
identified as having analysis and improvement rate
dyslexia. OpenDyslexic difference, a nonparametric measure of
was compared to Arial nonoverlap for comparing treatments.
and Times New Roman in Results from this alternating treatment
three reading tasks: (a) experiment show no improvement in
letter naming, (b) word reading rate or accuracy for individual
reading, and (c) nonsense students with dyslexia, as well as the
word reading. Data were group as a whole. While some students
analyzed through visual commented that the font was Bnew^ or
analysis and Bdifferent^, none of the participants
improvement rate reported preferring to read material
difference, a presented in that font. These results
nonparametric measure indicate there may be no benefit for
of nonoverlap for translating print materials to this font.
comparing treatments. (Wery & Diliberto, 2017)
Results from this
alternating treatment
experiment show no
improvement in reading
rate or accuracy for
individual students with
dyslexia, as well as the
group as a whole. While
some students
commented that the font
was Bnew^ or
Bdifferent^, none of the
participants reported
preferring to read
material presented in
that font. These results
indicate there may be no
benefit for translating
print materials to this
font.