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Weld Analysis Research Paper Variomat 34272
Weld Analysis Research Paper Variomat 34272
Fundamentals
of Accelerated
Stress Testing Fundamentals
of Accelerated
Stress Testing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Step-Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Temperature Cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Thermal Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Electrical Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Combined Environments . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1
INTRODUCTION THE CHANGES
Accelerated Stress Testing can be simply stand the failures and their relationship
defined as: applying high levels of stress to the applied stresses.
for a short period of time to a device under
test assuming it will exhibit the same The main purpose of AST is to insure
failure mechanisms as it would in a longer product reliability and accelerate the
amount of time at lower stress levels. In reliability growth for a given product.
contrast to many types of testing – AST is The intent is to attain product reliability
“testing to fail” versus that of “testing to maturity early in the design phase
pass” a product. The key here is to under- (see Fig. 1 & 2).
Fig. 1
➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟
Time
Fig. 2
➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟➟
Time
3
DEFECT PRECIPITATION
4
ACCELERATED STRESS TESTING–
SIMULATION OR STIMULATION?
A great deal of confusion in the area point in the product’s life the failure would
of AST testing can be eliminated if the occur. We want to understand the product’s
simple question is asked: Am I trying to performance under the conditions that
simulate the product’s life or am I trying customers would expect the product to
to stimulate any failure that might occur operate.12 This can be very simple for some
during the product’s life? Although this types of products and very complex for
may sound like the same thing, it is not. other types of products.
In product life simulation tests, you are
trying to simulate a lifetime of actual For example, a keyboard could expect to
stresses the product will be exposed to. be used for 5 years. Assuming an operator
In product stimulation you apply stresses could type 80 WPM (350 characters per
to the product that are typically more minute), 7 hours a day, 280 days a year,
substantial than what the product would and the highest usage keys were vowels,
see in its use environment in an effort to and the vowels were each used an average
induce fatigue, which precipitates failures of once every five letters typed, then
and reveals product weakness. Both 41.16 million strokes would occur on the
techniques have uses in a well-planned highest usage keys. So by striking a key
product development program, and when 41.16 million times we would simulate
used improperly, both techniques lead to 5 years of operation. This could be done
false conclusions and can have costly using an X-Y Cartesian robot (so you could
implications. strike off center as well), with a set of
solenoids that could strike 900 strokes/
It is worth noting that a test oriented minute to simulate 5 years of life in
towards evaluating long term effects 31.7 days. This is an example of time
(fatigue or durability) will almost always compression using actual simulated life
take more time than a test oriented conditions. This can also be done with
towards evaluating short term (limit load the dynamic and climactic conditions a
or step-stress) effects. This does not mean product would see. This type of accelerated
that one is better than the other; finding life testing is very easy to correlate to the
one type of problem often requires an actual life of the product.
approach that is not suited to finding
another type of problem. More importantly, Unfortunately, not all product simulations
it does not mean that substituting a shorter are quite this simple. The steps to a
type of test for a longer test will produce product life simulation are as follows:
equivalent results, regardless of what the
test is called. The cheaper test may not
always be the right test3. 1. Determine what life your customer
expects from the product.
SIMULATION TESTING The most important thing to know for
The intent of product life simulation tests any life test, or any test for that matter,
is to identify relevant failure mechanisms is what your customer expects from your
that would occur, and correlate these with the product. Each market segment has its own
5
expectation level for what is acceptable. The final set of environments are those
The expectation level varies based on the the product will encounter during its
product’s type and price. If the product primary use (all the situations where a
does not meet the expectation level of its customer may use the product). After all
market segment, it will most probably be these conditions are identified, you will
a failure. have determined the standard and extreme
environments the product will see during
An example of this is comparing a Rolex™ its life.
watch with a watch that that you get free
when you fill your gas tank. The market 3. Determine the frequency and duration
segment that the Rolex™ was designed of operation the product will experience.
for expects precision, and lifetime opera-
tion. If it does not last the customers’ life- Identifying how often the product will
time, then it will not meet the customers be used and the duration of its uses
expectation level, and the customer will requires an understanding of statistics
be dissatisfied. On the other hand, if the and probability, as not all users will use
giveaway watch keeps reasonable time for the product the same number of times
two years, the customer will most likely or for the same length of time.11 It is best
be very satisfied. It is obvious that the to assume worst case use of the product
cost to manufacture a product such as the for life test purposes.
Rolex™is much greater than the cost of
the giveaway watch. If we tried to make a
watch for the giveaway market with too Once the number of uses and the duration
is determined, we can look for ways to
high a cost, it would also be a failure.
compress the time. This is done by cycling
the product on and off the total number
By first determining what the customer times the product would see during its life.
expects from your product, you can As for duration of use, it is applicable for
intelligently put together a life test that some products but not others. For example,
helps you meet or exceed the customer for most electronic equipment duration
expectations. applies to the amount of time it takes to
bring the product to temperature. After
2. Determine what operating and that point, the stress incurred is minimal.
non-operating environment(s) the product However, for some mechanical devices,
will experience. the length of operation does apply and
must be taken into consideration.
The first environments to consider are
those the product will experience 4. Determine the frequency the product
during transportation (all the modes of will see particular use environments.
transportation used as well the regions
the product will be shipped to). The next A. Determine the extreme stress levels
consideration is storage environments. and how many times the product will
experience these.
6
We now need to consider the extremes 5. Put together the life test.
that were decided earlier to determine how
many times the product will see these in Now that we know the stress conditions,
its life, assuming the worst case (again, the frequency of use and exposure, and
this will vary from user to user). Once the maximum transitions, we can create a
the frequency of cycles is determined, we profile that represents a particular product’s
can look at compressing the time period. life. One of the easiest ways to formulate
We do need to differentiate the number this test is to break the product’s life down
of cycles and extremes the product will into two sections.
see during transportation, storage, and
operation. It has been shown that once the
The first section represents the product
product reaches a temperature condition,
transportation and storage environments,
the majority of the fatigue has been incurred.
This means that typically once the product and the second section represents the
product use environment. During the
reaches a targeted temperature a dwell
transportation and storage section, because
period is not required and we can continue
to the next target temperature condition. the product experiences vibration extremes
before it experiences climactic extremes,
Humidity extremes are affected by duration
we apply the vibration conditions first.
due to breakdowns that can occur in coat-
ings and seals as well as corrosion growth. That is, the greater stresses will be applied
first. A good reference for the transporta-
In vibration testing, how often a product
tion vibration profiles is MIL-STD-810 or
experiences extreme vibration levels
directly relates to the total amount of SAE J-1211. These specifications detail
environmental profiles for different modes
stress that the product is subjected to,
of transportation. After the vibration
and needs to be addressed.
extremes are tested, the climactic extremes
with transition rates are applied. Finally
B. Determine transitions and how the use environment tests are applied;
many times the product will see these. we have already determined the extremes
and frequency of variation.
Chances are, there will be cases in a
product’s life where an extreme change While applying the environmental and
in temperature will occur. Even office dynamic stress conditions, remember
equipment that typically resides in to exercise and continually monitor the
air-conditioned comfort will most product. It is extremely important to
likely experience extreme changes in document failures and at what condition
temperature, humidity, and vibration they occur. This information is critical
levels during transportation. We need to identify the failure mechanisms so the
to identify the maximum transitions and proper corrective action can be taken.
incorporate the worst case number into
our accelerated life test.11
7
STIMULATION TESTING Where n1, n2...nk represent
The intent of environmental stimulation the number of cycles at specific
is to induce product fatigue by applying overstress levels, and N1, N2...Nk
higher levels of stress than the product represent the life (in cycles) at
would experience in normal use. This type these overstress levels, as taken
of testing is based on the concept that from the appropriate S-N curve.
higher stresses applied to a product
accelerate the rate at which relevant A point to be taken into consideration is
failures would become evident in the that once a product is fatigued, a portion
product’s life. The key is that the failures of its life is consumed, and this damage
caused during stimulation must be relevant is irreversible. We need to temper this
to failures that the product would experi- fatigue accumulation equation with the
ence sometime during its expected life. fact that all products are unique. This
Predicting the life of parts stressed above statement was proved very conclusively
the endurance limit is at best a rough by showing the order in which vibration
procedure4. For many mechanical and and temperature cycling is applied does
electronic parts subjected to randomly affect time to failure5. To calculate a
varying stress cycle intensity, the prediction particular material’s accumulated fatigue
of fatigue life is further complicated. The damage in relationship to the stress cycles
procedure referenced here for addressing at various stress levels, we find a form of
this situation was proposed by Palmgren the Miner’s rule using idealized S-N curves
of Sweden in 1924 and, independently, Crandell and Mark10 suggested. The
by Miner of the United States in 1945. relationship can be stated as:
The procedure is often called the linear
cumulative-damage rule. Palmgren and AFD = nσ β
Miner very logically proposed the simple
concept that if a part cyclically loaded at
AFD is the accumulated fatigue
a stress level causing failure in 105 cycles,
damage; n is the number of stress
then each cycle of this loading consumes
cycles; σ is the mechanical stress;
one part in 105 of the life of the part.
and β is the exponential drive from
If other stress cycles are interposed
the SN Diagram for the material
corresponding to a life of 104 cycles, each
this is typically between 6 and 25.
of these consumes one part in 104 the life,
and so on. When, on this basis, 100
percent of the life is consumed, fatigue This illustrates that by increasing the
failure is predicted4. Miner’s equation for amount of stress, you can reduce the
damage at failure is: number of cycles. This principle applies
for a single type of material and does not
n1 n2 nk work blindly on products that contain
——— + ——— + . . . + ——— = 1 many different types of materials and the
Nf1 Nf2 Nfk interactions that occur when various
stresses are applied.
8
It has been proven that relevant latent ACCELERATED SCREEN
(hidden) defects can be precipitated by TESTING IS NOT ENVIRONMENTAL
exaggerated stress levels utilizing a smaller STRESS SCREENING (ESS)
number of cycles. The reasons for stimula- There is sometimes confusion between
tion testing are quite simple. First, it allows AST and ESS. This is because both tech-
you to quickly gauge the overall ruggedness nologies use stimulation as a means of pre-
of a product early in the design phase by cipitating latent defects. AST, however, is
identifying operation failure limits. Next, a test applied to a sample of the produc-
it produces failures which can be judged as tion, while ESS is a process applied to
relevant or irrelevant by the design team, every unit that is produced. AST is
and the corresponding corrective measures typically used in the product develop-
can be implemented quickly with minimal ment phase to identify design weaknesses,
rework. Finally, it provides invaluable while ESS is used primarily to identify
information regarding how the system weaknesses in materials and processes.
reacts to various stress environments and
operating conditions, and this information
can help close the design feedback loop.
9
IMPLEMENTATION OF AST
The most important thing to recognize The next consideration is the proper
when implementing AST is that your levels of stress to apply. This can be
product determines the test. The first determined by applying a step stress
consideration when implementing AST procedure to determine the destruct and
is the type of stresses to apply. This can operational limits of a product. Stress level
be determined by reviewing typical field determination is very product dependent.
failure data on related products (if possible) While applying the stresses, it is important
to gauge expected early failure mechanisms. to apply TAAF (Test, Analyze And Fix)
The concept is to apply stresses that techniques to identify product weakness
precipitate all the latent flaws that and implement any required corrective
would occur during a product’s lifetime.14 actions. To do this requires that the
There are many sources to familiarize product be exercised and monitored.
yourself with the various screens and the This cannot be overstated.
types of defects that they precipitate. See
Table 2 (on pages 20 and 21) for examples. The final major consideration is stress
If you have no past related field data, a duration. This is determined by the nature
Step Stress or a HALT test needs to be of the AST test and the time required to
performed to identify a product’s potential be properly electrically or mechanically
weaknesses. Ideally, when considering operated and tested.
what types of stresses to apply to the
product, you should use as many relevant
stressing environments as possible.
By incorporating multiple stressing
environments, a synergistic stress
effect is produced.
10
WHERE DO WE IMPLEMENT AST?
11
STEP-STRESSING
Step-stressing has been used since the early mine when to terminate the step stress
days of the space program. It is basically a test, continue the step-stressing until the
process of starting at a known stress level, following occurs5:
then increasing the “stress” levels in
controlled “steps”. The stress applied can ■ Stress levels well above those expected
be temperature, vibration, electrical, or in service are reached,
other stresses, and the stresses can be
applied separately or in various
■ All samples fail, or
combinations (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3
➟
TECHNOLOGY LIMIT
Applied Stress
OPERATIONAL LIMIT
➟
Time
12
HALT TESTING
Another type of stress stimulation HALT testing does not correlate the
testing is known as HALT testing. HALT failures to the point in time in the
is an acronym for Highly Accelerated Life product’s life that the failure would actually
Testing. It was coined by Dr. Greg Hobbs8. occur. Although HALT testing does stress
HALT is really a package of testing and fatigue products, the actual amount of
techniques, such as aggressive temperature time compression is unknown. For this
and vibration step-stressing. In the strictest reason, HALT testing should probably be
definition, HALT testing also implements categorized as highly accelerated fatigue
repetitive multiple axis vibration, also testing instead of inferring that it actually
known as quasi-random, omni-axial, or accelerates the lifetime of a product
six-degree-of-freedom vibration. This was by any measurable amount of time.
developed in the 1970’s by Hughes aircraft
as a ruggedization tool.
13
TYPES OF STRESSES
USED IN AST
Fig. 4
Corrosive
Environments
Thermal
Humidity Shock
Dust
Temperature
Cycling
Vibration Power
Cycling
Voltage Margining
Clock
Variation
14
TEMPERATURE CYCLING
15
VIBRATION
Vibration involves stimulating a product Repetitive Shock Vibration (RS Vibration)
with a pre-determined force over a is generated using one or more pneumatic
frequency spectrum. There are several impact hammer(s) that strike a plate on
types of machines used for vibration which the product is attached. Commonly,
testing, but in AST, typically two types of Repetitive Shock Machines provide
vibration are used: Electrodynamic and vibration in three distinct axes and three
Repetitive Shock vibration. rotational axes simultaneously. The
frequency in which most of the energy
The typical Electrodynamic vibration is generated is in the 2 to 5000 hertz
system frequency range is 5-2000 Hertz. bandwidth. Repetitive shock vibration
The most common type of vibration stress machines cannot simulate real world
used is broadband random. This is created vibration conditions, so their use is limited
through simultaneous excitation of all the to stimulation testing only.
resident frequencies within a profile range.
Random vibration is transferred to the Fixturing for either type of vibration
product by fixturing attached to the machine needs to be designed to ensure
moving element of the Electrodynamic that the stress is transmitted to the product
shaker. The Electrodynamic shaker is and that the process can be repeatable
controlled by a closed loop vibration with reasonable accuracy. Currently
control system which is repeatable and will there are varying opinions as to which
accurately reproduce real world vibration. provides a more stressful environment
It can be used for simulation testing as over a particular frequency range. Table 1
well as stimulation testing. Products may provides a comparison.
be vibrated on a single axis or multiple
axis concurrently or consecutively.
Several categories of vibration can be
run on Electrodynamic vibration systems
such as sine, random, resonance search
and dwell, shock, sine on random, random
on random, and several others. These
stress environments may or may not be
applicable depending on the product
application.
16
COMPARISON OF ELECTRODYNAMIC AND REPETITIVE SHOCK
(RS) VIBRATION SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
TABLE 1
17
THERMAL SHOCK HUMIDITY
Thermal shock testing involves exposing Humidity testing is typically performed
products to severe temperature extremes in in a chamber that can precisely control
a rapid fashion. For example, the product is wet and dry bulb temperatures. Exposing
transferred either mechanically or manually products to humidity stress precipitates
from an extremely hot environment to an corrosion and contamination defects in
extremely cold environment. This process products. Humidity can penetrate porous
is repeated several times. Thermal shock materials, cause leakage between electrical
is generally considered a cost-effective conductors, and is also an important stress
way to screen defects at the component when evaluating coatings and seals.
level; particularly in integrated circuits Because oxygen is required for oxidation,
which require a high degree of stress to it limits the use of nitrogen-cooled
experience the rates of change required chambers, which create an inert environ-
to force latent defects into failure. ment that inhibits corrosion. Typically,
humidity tests are of long duration, and
There are two types of Thermal shock test certain types of corrosion require minimal
mediums: Air-to-Air and Liquid-to-Liquid. airflow, which is not typical of most
Air-to-Air Thermal shock systems expose chambers.
the product to preconditioned hot and
cold air. Liquid-to-Liquid Thermal shocks Another type of humidity testing, known
immerse a product in high and low as HAST (Highly Accelerated Stress
temperature inert fluids. These tests can Testing), is done in a pressurized vessel.
be performed on a variety of Thermal This type of system is analogous to a
shock machines. pressure cooker or autoclave. The HAST
system aggressively forces moisture into
When using Thermal shock for AST potential failure sites.
testing, consider the following: If the
product is manually transferred, the risk
of accidental product damage increases.
Additionally, it is difficult, or sometimes
impractical, to apply product power and
monitor the product’s operation while the
Thermal shock stress environment is being
applied. This severely limits opportunities
for collecting data for product failure
analysis.
18
ELECTRICAL STRESS COMBINED ENVIRONMENTS
Electrical Stress is used to test a product Depending on product complexity,
near or at its electrical limits. Exercising cost, and other reliability specifications,
circuitry and/or simulating junction multiple environmental screens may
temperatures on semi-conductors are both be used simultaneously. For example,
good examples of electrical stress tests. Thermal Cycling and Vibration are often
There are two basic types of electrical combined in an Accelerated Stress Test
stress tests: Power Cycling and Voltage program. Many other combinations of
Margining. stresses can be combined to precipitate
latent defects. Keep in mind that each
Power Cycling consists of turning product specific stress precipitates specific failure
power on and off at specified levels. mechanisms, and when used in conjunc-
Voltage Margining involves varying input tion with each other, some synergistic
power above and below nominal product effects may be realized.
power requirements. A subset of Voltage
Margining is frequency margining. The primary consideration should be
whether the additional stress, applied
Typically, electrical stress by itself does not simultaneously or consecutively, would
expose the number of defects commonly expose a significant number of additional
found through thermal cycling and vibra- defects. With all Accelerated Stress
tion stress. However, because it is typically Testing programs, the most effective
necessary to supply power to products profile is product and application
in order to find the soft or intermittent dependent. In general, the proper
failures, it can be relatively inexpensive to combination of stresses will produce
implement electrical stress with the other the greatest number of failures in the
stress environments to increase the overall shortest amount of time.
Accelerated Stress Test effectiveness.
19
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES, EFFECTS AND POTENTIAL
RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
TABLE 2
Low Temperature Plastics and rubbers lose flexibility and become Thermal Insulation, cold
brittle; electrical constants vary; ice formation withstanding materials,
occurs when moisture is present; lubricants and cooling systems.
gels increase viscosity; finishes may crack;
structures may be overloaded due to physical
contraction.
Thermal Cycling and Shock Materials may be instantaneously over stressed Combination of techniques
causing cracks and mechanical failures; electrical for high and low temperature
properties may be permanently altered. Crazing
delamination, ruptured seals can arise.
Vibration Mechanical strength may deteriorate due to fatigue Stiffening control of resonance.
or over stress; electrical signals may be erroneously
modulated; materials and structure may be cracked,
displaced, or shaken loose from mounts;
mechanical functions may be impaired.
CALCE Electronic Packaging Research Center, University of Maryland, May 15, 1995
20
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES, EFFECTS AND POTENTIAL
RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
TABLE 2 (CONTINUED)
Contaminated Atmosphere Many contaminants combined with water provide Non-metal product covers, reduce
Spray good conductor which can lower insulation use of dissimilar metals in contact,
resistance; cause galvanic corrosion of metals of dissimilar metals in contact,
and accelerates chemical corrosion. heretic sealing, dehumidifiers
Electromagnetic Radiation Causes spurious and erroneous signals from Shielding, radiation hardening
electrical and electronic equipment and
components; may cause complete disruption of
normal electrical and electronic equipment such
as communication and measuring systems.
Nuclear/Cosmic Radiation Causes heating and thermal aging; can alter Shielding, radiation hardening
chemical, physical and electrical properties of
materials; can produce gases and secondary
radiation; can cause oxidation and discoloration
of surfaces; damages electrical and electronic
components, especially semi-conductors.
Sand and Dust Finely finished surfaces are scratched and abraded; Air-filtering, wear-proof materials,
friction between surfaces may be increased; sealing
lubricants can be contaminated; clogging of
orifices; materials may be worn, cracked, or
chipped; abrasion, contaminates insulation,
corona paths.
Low Pressure (High Altitude) Structures such as containers and tanks, are over Increased mechanical strength
stressed and can be exploded or fractured; seals of containers, pressurization,
may leak; air bubbles in materials may increase alternate liquids (low volatility),
due to lack of cooling medium; insulation may improved insulation, improved
suffer arcing breakdown; ozone may be formed; heat transfer methods.
outgassing is more likely.
CALCE Electronic Packaging Research Center, University of Maryland, May 15, 1995
21
FAILURE IDENTIFICATION
There are two distinct areas in AST After a failure is identified, Failure Mode
that need to be understood: precipitating Analysis (FMA) is then performed. This
defects (which we have just discussed), and requires knowledge of what failed, why
detecting failures. These topics are equally it failed, when it failed, where it failed,
important. Most people involved in testing and how it failed. After a complete FMA
have a good idea of how to induce failures. is done, you can apply what you have
Failure detection, on the other hand, learned to implement the corrective
usually causes confusion. The most action.
important thing to remember about AST
is that if you precipitate failures without The corresponding corrective action is
detecting them you have accomplished nothing. the key to closing the loop for a properly
designed AST program. This is where
Due to the cost and complexity involved, the product improvement is obtained. Product
many companies do not implement improvement is gained by first precipitat-
operational Failure Detection Systems ing the hidden flaw(s), identifying the
(FDS) while testing their products. flaw(s), and correcting the flaw(s). None
This can be extremely dangerous and/or of the three can stand without the others.
counter productive. Remember, whenever
you apply any stress you start using up
the products fatigue life. A number of
published cases have shown that a high
percentage of the total failures are soft
failures. A soft failure means that a failure
occurs at some condition(s) and then
normal operation resumes as the condi-
tion(s) change. These are the most difficult
failures to catch, and they will not be
identified unless the product is continuous-
ly monitored. Failure detection must also
be correlated to the stress levels applied.
This also requires continuous monitoring
of the product under test.
22
TOOLS FOR CONTINUOUS MONITORING
23
RELIABILITY
GROWTH MONITORING SUMMARY
One of the most overlooked areas of This booklet is just a quick overview of the
product testing is the area of reliability area of AST. We have covered what AST
monitoring. Reliability monitoring means is, how it compares to life testing, types of
keeping a record of successes and failures AST, stress environments, and the types of
and creating a database of lessons learned.17 defects that are precipitated. We have also
Reliability monitoring allows you to build looked at the importance of continuously
on past experiences, which improves monitoring the product under test. These
overall reliability and helps companies are just a few topics a person looking to
avoid costly mistakes time and time implement AST should understand. There
again. This database becomes a reference are several articles listed in the additional
tool for design engineers to expedite reference area that the reader should find
proper design and provides an excellent helpful.
knowledge-sharing tool.
24
DEFINITIONS
25
DDT (Device Defect Tracking) – A data EMI – Electro-magnetic Interference
base which tracks a product’s defects from
their discoveries; examines root causes, Environmental Testing – A process in
documents corrective actions, and details which a sample of products is subjected to
methodologies to prevent reoccurrence environmental simulation or stimulation.
in the future. Companies can apply this Testing is used in variety of ways. A
knowledge to products that are being prototype can be tested using extreme
currently developed, so that the same stresses to confirm the range in which it
mistakes do not reoccur. was designed to operate. A randomly
selected product can be tested at an
Defect Precipitation – Changing a latent extreme temperature range to confirm
defect to a patent defect; or simply making continuing design and production process
an undetected failure, detectable. compliance. A product can be tested to
determine MTBF (Mean Time Between
Design Limits – The operational limit of Failures). Testing can be used to simulate
a product beyond which point the product the environments in which the products
will not operate correctly and is considered will encounter in transportation and
defective. operation. In AST, environmental testing
typically applies to the accelerated stresses
applied to the product to accelerate
Design Ruggedization – The process
potential failure mechanisms.
of finding weak links in the design and
fixing them so that the design becomes
more robust. Stresses used in Design ESS (Environmental Stress Screening) –
Ruggedization are much greater than field Unlike Accelerated Stress Testing, ESS is
environments. a process in which 100% of the products
are subjected to one or more stresses with
the intent of forcing latent defects to
Destruct Limits (Refer to Design Limits)
precipitate failures. ESS may involve any
or all of the following:
DT (Destructive Test) – A test or
physical analysis which destroys the ■ Thermal Cycling
product after analysis completion. ■ Vibration
■ High Temperature Burn-In
DUT – Device Under Test
■ Electrical Stress
■ Thermal Shock
■ Humidity
■ Low Temperature
■ Altitude
26
Failures – The most common types Mechanical Failures – A mechanical
of failure are: malfunction caused by cracking, dis-
placement, misalignment, loosening of
Critical Failure – A case where the nuts
product is unable to operate under the and bolts, etc.
conditions it is expected to. Process Failures – Failures caused by
Non-Critical Failure – A failure that the manufacturing process. These fail-
occurs only outside of the normal ures result mainly from mis-loaded com-
operating range of the product. ponents;
damage caused by improper handling; or
Hard Failure – A case where the prod- inadequate assembly procedures.
uct stops and does not resume function-
ing. These are always designated as Failure Mode Analysis – A procedure
Critical Failures. which is used to identify the cause of the
defect and understand the defect so that
Soft Failure – A case where the product it is not repeated.
stops functioning under certain condi-
tions, but then resumes operating under
Failure Mechanism – The mechanical,
others. For example, when a product is
physical, chemical or other process that
powered, various stresses are applied, a
results in failure.
particular stress or a combination of
stresses may be the cause of the product
to stop operating. When the stress is Failure Mode – The manifestation of a
removed, the product may start func- failure mechanism at a failure site. The
tioning again. This type effect by which a failure is observed.
of failure may either be Critical (if the
product fails under the condition in Failure Site – The location of a failure.
which it must operate in the field) or
Non-Critical (if the product fails under Fatigue Life – The amount of time under
conditions which the product will never defined operation conditions that a
be exposed to in the field). product is expected to survive.
Infancy Failure – Failures that occur in
the early stages of the product life. Fixturing – A device or series of devices
Generally, most product failures occur at used to secure a product within a chamber
this stage. or on a vibration system, in preparation to
running screens or tests.
Electrical Failures – An electrical
malfunction caused by electrical
components, connections, switches, or
related devices.
27
Frequency Margining – The use of varying Product Monitoring – While applying
frequencies on product input to determine stress to the product, the product is operated
acceptable operational limits of the and is monitored to insure it is performing
product. its’ intended design functions. This is
required to identify many of the failures
GRMS – This is acceleration due to gravity found during Accelerated Stress Testing.
in the root mean squared, or the average In most cases, it is the only way to catch
intensity of the signal. soft failures.
28
Random Vibration – A form of stress in SRS (Shock Response Spectrum) – SRS
which broad band, multiple frequencies are is a time-domain function sensitive to
present simultaneously at predetermined peaks of excitation. SRS can be a valuable
power levels. The product is attached to a analysis tool when looking at the
shaker and vibrated in one or more axis excitation from RS Vibration Machines
during the stress cycle. (Repetitive Shock).
29
REFERENCES
1
O’Conner, P.D. (1993). Quality and Reliability: 10
Crandell, S.H., & Mark, W.D. (1963). Random
Illusions and Realities. Quality and Reliability Vibration in Mechanical Systems. NY: Academic Press.
Engineering International, 9:163-168.
11
Head, R. (February 15, 1997). Test Methodology
2
Dasgupta, A. (April 1996). Cost-Effective Integrated Interview. Chrysler-Huntsville Electronics.
Product Development. CALCE Accelerated Test
Workshop. 12
Darby, B. (February 15, 1997). Test Methodology
Interview. Chrysler-Huntsville Electronics.
3
Caruso, H. (1996). An Overview of Environmental
Reliability Testing. Proceedings, Reliability and 13
Kececioglu, D. (1993). Reliability and Life Testing
Maintainability Symposium, 107. Handbook, (Vol I & II). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
4
Juvinall, R.C., & Marshek, K.M. (1991).
Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, Upton, J. (May 3, 1997). AST Implementation.
14
5
Dasgupta, A. (April 1996). Physics-of-Failure (PoF) 15
Barsom, J.M., & Rolfe, S.T. (1987). Fracture and
Principles For Accelerated Stress Tests. CALCE Fatigue Control in Structures, (2nd ed.). Englewood
Accelerated Test Workshop. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
6
Chan, H.A. (October 1997). Overview of Accelerated 16
Caruso, H. (1997). Huntsville, AL: TTI Course.
Stress Testing Principle. 3rd IEEE Workshop on
Accelerated Stress Testing. 17
Crowe, D., & Feinberr, A. (1998). Stage-Gating
Accelerated Reliability Growth in an Industrial
7
Diekema, J. (1987). The ESS Handbook. Thermotron Environment. IEST Proceedings, 246-254.
Industries.
8
Hobbs, G. (May 23-24, 1996). Advanced HALT/HASS
Seminar.
9
Tustin, W. (October 1997). Electrodynamic versus
Pneumatic Shakers for Stress Testing. 3rd IEEE
Workshop on Accelerated Stress Testing.
30
RECOMMENDED INFORMATION SOURCES
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