Module 4: LASERS

Einstein’s theory of matter radiation interaction and A and B coefficients, Amplification of

light by population inversion, Different types of lasers: Gas laser (He-Ne, CO2), Solid-State
lasers (Ruby, Neodymium) Properties of laser beams: mono-chromaticity, coherence,
directionality and brightness, laser speckles, applications of lasers in science, engineering
and medicine.
Introduction to Optical Fiber, Acceptance angle and cone, Numerical aperture, V-number,
attenuation

LASER an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser

light possesses the following unique characteristics not found in the light from ordinary
sources:
Highly Monochromatic
Highly Coherent
Highly Directional
High Intensity
In this part, we will try to understand how all these extraordinary characteristics are
achieved.
Any light source works on the principle of excitation – de-excitation of atoms i.e. atoms first
absorbs some energy to go to the excitation level and then spontaneously de-excited by
losing the gained energy in the form of radiation. A normal light source emits light in all the
directions, it is not necessarily monochromatic

Figure 1: Normal light sources around us

.
RADIATION AND ATOMS INTERACTION

Figure 2: Processes of radiation and atomic system interaction

Absorption
Let us consider an atomic system with two energy states ground state E1 and excited state E2.
At ordinary temperatures most of the atoms are in ground state. When any excitation
radiation of energy 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 interact with a two levels atomic system, some of the atoms
absorb the energy and hence make transition from ground state to excited state as shown in
fig.2(a). This absorption of radiation of by the atomic system is called stimulated absorption
or just absorption.

Spontaneous Emission: There is an atom in excited state and no external radiation is

applied. An atom in excited state is not stable, it will come to the lower energy state on its
own and emit a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 . Such process, shown in fig.2(b), of emission
of photon without applying any external energy is called spontaneous emission.

Stimulated Emission: If there is large number of atoms in the excited state E2, and photon
of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 is apllied, this photon can stimulate the atom in excited state to jump
back to lower energy state and emit a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 along with the stimulating photon.
This process in which the emission is triggered by the external photon, shown in fig.2(c) is
called stimulated emission.
In this process, the two photons of same energy, same direction are emitted at the same
moment, hence these are in same phase and therefore coherent. Here we see that for the input
of 1ℎ𝜈 the output is 2ℎ𝜈; therefore the process of stimulated emission amplifies the intensity
of the radiation.

Radiative and Non-radiative transitions:

Transition between any two energy levels
occurs with absorption or emission of radiation
is called radiative transition. If transition
occurs without absorption or emission of
radiation is called non-radiative transition.
Both the processes can be seen in fig.3. In non-
radiative transitions, the energy of excited
atoms is transferred to the surroundings that
result the lattice vibrations which means the
medium will be heated.
Figure 3: Radiative and non-radiative transitions

We have seen that in the process of stimulated emission two coherent photons are emitted.
Such process can occur several times and hence the large number of coherent photons is
emitted and therefore a large amplification of radiation takes place by stimulated emission.
Lasers work of this principle of light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈) 𝐵21

𝑅1 = = = 𝜌(𝜈)
𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2 𝐴21 𝐴21

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈)

𝑅2 = =
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌(𝜈)

𝑁2
𝐴𝑠 𝐵21 = 𝐵12 𝑠𝑜 𝑅2 =
𝑁1

𝑵𝟐 ≫ 𝑵𝟏

In the presence of radiation of appropriate energy, all the three processes – absorption,
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission will occur simultaneously. The rate of
absorption will be proportional to radiation density and number of atoms in lower state. That
is
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 𝑢(𝜈)𝑁1 (1)
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵12 𝑢(𝜈)𝑁1 (2)
where 𝐵12is the constant of proportionality called Einstein coefficient of absorption.
The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to only the number of atoms N2 in upper
level.
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 𝑁2 (3)
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 (4)
where the proportionality constant 𝐴21 is called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
The stimulated emission will depend on radiation density and number of atoms N2 in upper
level.
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜈)𝑁2 (5)
where the proportionality constant 𝐵21is called Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.
In equilibrium condition the rate of absorption from level 1 to level 2 will be equal to
emissions from level 2 to level 1.
𝐵12 𝑢(𝜈)𝑁1 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜈)𝑁2 (6)
Rearrange the equation to get the value of radiation density, we get
𝐴21
𝑢(𝜈) = 𝐵12𝑁1 (7)
𝐵21 ( −1)
𝐵21𝑁2
By the Boltzman distribution, we have
𝐸1
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 (8)
𝐸
− 2
𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (9)
𝐸2 −𝐸1 ℎ𝜐
𝑁1
=𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (10)
𝑁2
𝑁
Substitute the value of 𝑁1 in above equation, we have
2
𝐴21
𝑢(𝜈) = ℎ𝜐 (11)
𝐵12
𝐵21 ( 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1)
𝐵21

We can compare this equation with the equation for Planck’s radiation law
 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝑢(𝜈) = ℎ𝜐 (12)
𝑐3
(𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1)

We get the values of Einstein’s coefficients, as follows

𝐵12 = 𝐵21 = 𝐵 (13)
𝐴 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
= 𝑐3 (14)
𝐵
These two equations are known as Einstein’s relations.
From eq. 11, we have
ℎ𝜐
𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴
= 𝐵𝑢(𝜈) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 (15)
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ℎ𝜐
If ℎ𝜐 ≫ 𝑘𝑇, 𝑒 − 1 will be very large, so the rate of spontaneous emission will be more than
𝑘𝑇

rate of stimulated emission. At ordinary temperature, this happens in visible region.

Stimulated emission becomes important when ℎ𝜐 ≅ 𝑘𝑇, and may dominate when ℎ𝜐 ≪ 𝑘𝑇,
which happens in microwave region. Hence, Townes tried the microwave amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation, MASER first.
POPULATION INVERSION
Under the normal condition, most of the atoms will be in the lower energy level and a few in
higher, 𝑁1 > 𝑁2. This is also obtained by Boltzman distribution function and comparing the
rate of absorption and stimulated emission.
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵𝑁1 𝑢(𝜈) (16)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵𝑁2 𝑢(𝜈) (17)
In these two equations, we see that the rate of stimulated emission will exceed the absorption
rate only if 𝑁2 ≫ 𝑁1 i.e. number of atoms in upper level is less than those in lower level. As
it is reverse of normal situation, it is termed as population inversion.
So, for having the laser action* the condition of population inversion is essential so that rate
of stimulated emission dominates the rate of absorption.
*laser action means emission of laser light
When the two level system is pumped by radiation of required energy, the population of
higher energy level increases until 𝑁2 = 𝑁1 . Further increase is not possible as according to
equation (16) & (17), the rate of absorption is equal to rate of stimulated emission. So, the
necessary condition of population inversion is not possible in two-level system; therefore
there should be at least three levels.

THREE LEVEL SYSTEM

In three energy level system, initially most of

atoms are at ground level E1. When pumped
by suitable energy, atoms get excited to
excited state E3 where the lifetime of these
atoms is too less (10-8sec). So, the excited
atoms quickly jump to relatively stable
energy level, the metastable level E2, where
their lifetime is 10-3sec. From metastable
state atoms drop to ground state on its own
and emit spontaneous emission. Once the
population inversion is achieved between E1
and E2, the spontaneous emission photon
Figure 4: Three level laser system
triggers the transition of atoms from E2 to E1
emitting the stimulated emission.
The drawback with the three level system is that when threshold population inversion is
achieved, the dominant stimulated emission would again populate the ground level while de-
populate the metastable level, thence disturbs the condition of population inversion which
results in switching off the stimulated emission i.e. no laser light. As the pumping is
continuous, after a while the population inversion develops again and emits the laser light. In
three-level system the laser light emission is non-continuous. This shortcoming of three level
laser is overcome by four-level laser system.
FOUR LEVEL SYSTEM
A sustained laser light can be achieved by
using an atomic system that have two
relatively stable energy levels between
ground state and excited state. While laser
light emission, instead of dropping directly
to the ground state, atoms stop at another
metastable state well above the ground state
and quickly depopulated by non-radiative
transitions to the ground state. From ground
state the atoms are again pumped to upper
laser level. Thus four level system maintains
the condition of population inversion and Figure 5: Four level laser system
therefore emit continuous laser light.

RUBY LASER

Ruby laser is a solid-state laser in which the active medium is Alumina (Al2O3) doped with
0.05% chromium atoms i.e. some of the aluminium atoms are replaced by chromium. It is
three-level laser system. When doped in alumina, Cr3+ ions replace Al3+ ions. The Cr3+ ions
act as active centres in alumina as active medium.

Figure 6: Schematic of Ruby laser.

Construction
The ruby crystal rod is placed inside a xenon flash lamp as shown in Fig. 6. Optical resonator
is obtained by one end of the ruby rod completely polished while the other is partially
transmitting. In power supply the flash lamp is connected to a capacitor which discharges a
few thousand joules of energy in a few milliseconds. This results in power output of a few
megawatts from the flash lamp. Due to the non-radiative transitions from excited state to
metastable state, the energy is absorbed by the lattice resulting in lattice vibration i.e.
phonons or heated material. A cooling system is therefore required and it is done by the use
of liquid nitrogen (temperature 77 K) to cool the ruby rod.
Excitation Mechanism or Lasing action
When light from xenon flash lamp is emitted out, a part of this energy is absorbed by the
chromium ions in ground state and results in excitation to energy level inside the energy
bands E3 and E4. The chromium atoms make a very fast non-radiative transition from excited
state (E3 & E4) to metastable state E2 and since the state has a longer lifetime, the number of
atoms in this state keeps on increasing. This eventually leads to a state of population
inversion between metastable state and ground state E1.

Figure 7: Energy levels of chromium ions in the ruby crystal.

Once the threshold value of population inversion is achieved between E1 and E2, stimulated
emission would dominate over the spontaneous emission and hence light amplification by
stimulated emission is achieved for the wavelength 694.3 nm. During the lasing action, the
E2 level depopulates and goes below threshold population inversion, the lasing action stops.
As the pumping is going on, the atoms again accumulate in metastable state and build the
required population inversion and again LASE. So, due to the disturbance in the condition of
population inversion during lasing, Ruby laser generates discontinuous lasing beam.

Nd:YAG LASER

Nd: YAG laser is a solid-state laser in which the active medium is Yttrium-Aluminum-
Garnet [Y3Al5O12] doped with 0.05% Nd atoms i.e. some of the Yttrium atoms are replaced
by Nd3+ ions. It is four-level laser system. The Nd3+ ions act as active centres in alumina as
active medium.

Figure 8: Schematic of Nd:YAG Laser

Construction
Nd:YAG crystal rod is mounted in an elliptical chamber at one of the foci and a flash lamp at
the other end. This setup in elliptical chamber efficiently couples the light to the laser rod as
all the light rays emitted in any direction will incident on laser rod after reflection from inner
surface of the chamber. External mirrors are provided at both ends of the resonant cavity.
One mirror is fully reflecting and the other is partially reflecting and partially transmitting
providing optical feedback.
Excitation Mechanism

Figure 9: Four level energy system of Nd:YAG Laser

When light from the Xenon flash lamp couples with the Nd:YAG rod, the Nd3+ ions get
excited from ground state to the excited states E3 and E4. The lifetime of these excited states
is very short, therefore, Nd3+ ions decay to E2 which is metastable state. This is a non-
radiative decay and the energy is released to the crystal lattice which results in lattice
vibrations or phonons of hot crystal rod. The population inversion is achieved between E1
and E2. The initial spontaneous emissions between these states when reflected back in the
active medium, stimulated emissions start dominating and hence laser beam of 1.06µm
wavelength is obtained which lies is IR range. As this is four level laser system, it can
operate in continuous wave mode.

He-Ne LASER

Helium – Neon laser is first gas laser in which the active medium is He-Ne gas mixture at
pressure of 0.1 torr in ratio 10:1. It is also four-level laser system. The He atoms are first
excited and collide with heavier Neon atoms. Neon atoms goes to excited state where, being
heavier gaseous atom, their lifetime is higher, so it is their metastable state.

Figure 10: Schematic of Helium – Neon Laser

Construction
It consists of narrow glass tube nearly 1 m long and 1 cm dia, which is filled with He at
pressure of 1 torr and Ne at pressure of 0.1 torr in ratio of 10:1. The gas system is enclosed
between a pair of plane mirrors which are precisely adjusted and made exactly parallel, thus
a resonance cavity is formed. A high voltage is supplied by means of sealed electrodes. As
the gas atoms contain sharp energy levels compared to solids, optical pumping would be
very inefficient. So, for gaseous active medium, electrical discharge method is used for
producing population inversion.

Excitation Mechanism

Figure 11: Energy level diagram of lower energy levels of Helium and Neon
When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture, electrons are accelerated through
the tube. These accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to higher
energy levels E2 and E3 of Helium atom. He atoms excited to these states stay in these levels
for a sufficiently long time before losing energy through collision. Through these collisions,
the Ne atoms are excited to its E4 and E6 states, respectively. In this way these two energy
levels E4 and E6 are highly populated. The population in these energy levels becomes much
more than those in lower levels E3 and E5. Thus a state of population inversion is achieved
and any spontaneously emitted photon can trigger laser action in any of the three transitions
shown in fig. 11. The Ne atoms then drop down from the lower laser levels to the level E 2
through spontaneous emission. From E2, the Ne atoms drop back to the ground state through
collision with the walls. The transition E6⇒E5, E4⇒E3 and E6⇒E3 result in the emission of
radiations having wavelengths 3.39µm, 1.15µm and 632.8 nm respectively. Among
these emissions the wavelength 632.8 nm falls is visible region well know red light of
He-Ne laser. By proper adjustment of resonator, laser action in Ne is obtained at a large
number of transitions in visible region. The level E2 is metastable, electrons colliding
with atoms in E2 may excite them to level E3, thus decreasing population inversion. The
tube containing the gaseous mixture is also made narrow so that Ne atoms in level E 2
can get de-excited by collisions with the walls of the tube.
The gas lasers are found to emit light which are more directional and more
monochromatic. Gas lasers are capable of operating continuously without need for
cooling.
Carbon Dioxide Laser
The carbon dioxide laser is one of the most powerful and efficient lasers available. The first
laser of this type was discovered by an Indian scientist C K N Patel.
In a molecule, in addition to the electronic motions, atoms may vibrate in different modes or
rotate about various axes. Following in figure 13, various vibrational modes of carbon
dioxide molecule are depicted along with their frequency. When CO2 molecule is excited by
absorbing suitable amount of energy, it vibrates in the mode corresponding to the
energy/frequency it acquires.

Figure 12: Schematic of carbon dioxide laser with Brewster windows and external mirrors

Figure 13: Vibrational modes of carbon dioxide molecule.

Construction

The schematic of CO2 laser is shown in Fig. 12. It consists of a discharge tube 2.5 cm in
diameter and 5 m long. Alkali halide Brewster windows are used at the ends. Confocal
silicon mirrors coated with aluminium form the resonant cavity. The active medium consists
of a mixture of CO2, N2 and He gases with pressure ratio 0.33: 1.2:7. It must be noted that
the partial pressure of gases depends directly on the diameter of the discharge tube. Keeping
the optimum partial pressure, there is a continuous flow of gases. Discharge is produced by
DC voltage excitation.

Excitation Mechanism & Working

When a high DC voltage is applied to the mixture, electron collisions excite the molecules to
higher electronic and vibrational-rotational levels. The nitrogen molecules are excited to the
upper vibrational level N2 with energy matching with the vibrational energy level C5 of
upper vibrational-rotational level of CO2. Thus there is a very efficient energy transfer
between the nitrogen molecules and carbon dioxide, resulting in excited CO2 molecule. This
kind of energy transfer is called resonant energy transfer. This upper level C5 of CO2 is also
metastable energy level. With suitable configuration of resonant cavity, the population
inversion can be created between the levels C5 and C4 and between C5 and C3. The transition
from C5 to C4 produces a radiation of wavelength 10.6µm and from C5 to C3 produces a
radiation of 9.6µm. Both of these wavelengths lie in the IR region. The other transitions
from C3 to C2 and from C2 to C1 are accomplished through inelastic collisions with helium
atoms. The helium atoms help to deplete the lower lasing levels. Due to high thermal
conductivity of He, the heat is also conducted away from the laser cavity.

Figure 14: Energy level diagram of CO2 laser.

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS

Industrial applications are laser cutting, welding, surface treatment, laser cleaning, laser
assisted material synthesis.
Medical applications are eye surgery for retinal attachment, brain and spinal surgery and
removal of cancerous cells, breaking kidney stones.
Defence applications: Laser range finder, underwater transmission, laser guided anti-tank
missile, laser radar, and communications.
Miscellaneous applications: Laser printing, seismography, High speed photography,
scientific research, environmental studies, nuclear fusion, fire detection, intrusion alarm, etc
OPTICAL FIBRES
A very thin, flexible cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss materials such as
silica is known as optical fibre. In the centre, it has core through which light propagates. This
core is embedded in an outer cladding of
slightly lower refractive index. Light rays
incident on the core – cladding interface at
angles greater than the critical angle undergo
total internal reflection and are guided
through the core without refraction. Rays of
greater inclination to the fibre axis lose part
of their amplitude into cladding at each
reflection and are not guided through.

As a result of recent technological advances in fabrication, light can be guided through 1 km

of glass fibre with a loss as low as 0.16 dB (3.6%). Optical fibres are replacing copper
coaxial cables as the preferred communication medium for electromagnetic waves, thereby
revolutionising terrestrial communications. Applications range from long distance telephone
and data communications to computer communications in a local area network.
When the core diameter is small, only a single mode is permitted and the fibre is said to be a
single – mode fibre. Fibres with large core diameters are multimode fibres.
Construction
Optical fibre is made by using transparent dielectric materials such as glass or plastic. It
consists of very high refractive index in core and
less in cladding. The core’s diameter is about 40-
50µm and that of cladding its 100 - 200µm with
slightly lower refractive index. A soft plastic
coating is done on the optical fibre to give strength
and protection to the fibre. Followed by this, a
secondary coating is done in order to protect the
fibre from moisture and abrasion.
Principles of Optical Fibre
Optical signal propagate through optical fibre if the angle of incidence at core – cladding
interface is greater than the critical angle. The angle of incidence at core from air must be so,
it makes critical angle at core – cladding interface; this angle of incidence is termed as
Acceptance angle. With such acceptance angle, signal makes an angle with axis of the core,
this angle between the signal and axis of core is called angle of propagation.
In the following Fig.15, a ray diagram is depicted to obtain the expression for acceptance
angle and angle of propagation.
 Figure 15: Ray diagram to determine numerical aperture
The ray AO incident on core axis with O as point of entry, apply Snell’s law at this air – core
interface, we have
𝑛0 sin 𝛼 = 𝑛1 sin 𝑟 ( r = angle of refraction) … (18)
At point B on core – cladding interface, the angle of incidence is 𝜃𝑐
From Δ𝑂𝐵𝐶, we have r + 𝜃𝑐 + 90 = 180 ⇒ 𝜃𝑐 = 90 − 𝑟
Now, applying Snell’s law at the interface of core and cladding, we get
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 … (19)
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
As𝜃𝑐 = 90 − 𝑟 and 𝜃𝑟 = 90, therefore above equation becomes
𝑛1 sin(90 − r) = 𝑛2 sin 90 … (20)
𝑛1 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛2 or
𝑛
cos 𝑟 = 𝑛2 … (21)
1
Rewriting equation (18), we have
𝑛
sin 𝛼 = 𝑛1 sin 𝑟 … (22)
0
As sin 𝑟 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟
Equation (22) will become
𝑛
sin 𝛼 = 𝑛1 √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟 …(23)
0
𝑛1 𝑛 2
sin 𝛼 = 𝑛 √1 − (𝑛2 ) … (24)
0 1

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
sin 𝛼 = …(25)
𝑛0

sin 𝛼 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ∵ 𝑛0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝛼 = sin−1 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 …(26)
This is expression for acceptance angle. The signal if introduced with angle of incidence less
than the acceptance angle, it will propagate through the optical fibre. The solid angle formed
with α angle around the axis is known as acceptance cone.
The sine of the acceptance angle of the fibre is known as numerical aperture (NA). It
indicates the light gathering capability of the optical fibre.
𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝛼 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 … (27)
 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) = 2𝑛1 ( )( ) = 2𝑛12 Δ
2 𝑛1
So, the numerical aperture will become
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2Δ
Thus, numerical aperture is a function of refractive indices of core and cladding. The NA is a
measure of the ability of optical fibre for accepting the light signal from light source. If an
optical fibre has large NA, it will have a large semi vertical angle of the acceptance cone.

V-Number
Various number of signal can be introduced in optical fibre within the acceptance cone with
different angle of incidence θ. So, signal would travel different paths, these different paths
are called modes. It is revealed from the expression for NA that if the refractive index
difference between core and cladding decreases then the possible value of θ also decreases.
The number of modes that can be propagated through the fibre may be related to an
important parameter, V-number. It is given by
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑎𝑛1 √2Δ = 𝑎𝑛2 √2Δ
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
The maximum number of modes Nm supported by a step index fibre is given by
𝑉2
𝑁𝑚 =
2
And for a graded index fibre
𝑉2
𝑁𝑚 =
4
If the value of V is less than 2.4045, then only one guided mode, as if there is only one
discrete value of θ, is possible and the fibre is known as single mode fibre. For V>2.4045 the
fibre can support many modes simultaneously and hence called multi-mode fibre. The
wavelength corresponding to the value of V=2.4045 is called cut-off wavelength of fibre.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

Classification of Optical Fibres based on Materials

Optical fibres can be classified based on the material used for fabrication:
Glass fibres: Glass fibre is made up of silica (SiO2), the refractive index of silica is approx
1.458 at λ=8500Å. By doping pure silica with small quantity of different oxide such as P2O5
or GeO2, refractive index of silica is increased whereas by doping silica with B2O3, its
refractive index decreases. Glass optical fibres have very low losses, these can be used for
long distance communications.
Plastic fibres: In plastic fibres both core and cladding are made up of plastic. For core,
perspex and polystyrene with refractive indices 1.49 and 1.59, respectively are used. As a
cladding material, a silicon resin or a fluorocarbon polymer is used. These fibres are less
expensive but possess the temperature limit of 100 C beyond which it exhibits very high loss.
Therefore, these fibres are used only in low cost applications.
Classification based on Modes of Propagation
Single Mode Fibres: It has only one mode of propagation with very small core diameter and
very large cladding diameter. In this way the optical loss is significantly reduced. As the core
diameter is very small, diode laser has to be used to send the optical signal.
Advantages of single mode optical fibres are:
No dispersion is found
Therefore information can be carried to longer distances.
Disadvantages of single mode optical fibres are:
Laser diode is required to send the optical signal.
Fabrication of very thin core is very difficult, it is very costly.
Multi Mode Fibres: It has multiple modes of propagation with large core diameter compared
to single mode fibre. Multicomponent glass compounds like glass-clad glass, silica-clad
silica, doped silica, etc are components from which multimode fibres are made.
Advantages of multi mode fibres are:
Launching of signal and connecting two similar fibres become easy because of large core
diameter.
It is easy to fabricate multimode fibres and installation cost is also less.
Disadvantages of multi mode fibres are:
It suffers intermodal dispersion.
The information can be carried only to shorter distances.
Classification based on Refractive Index Profile
Step Index Optical Fibre: The profile of refractive index is a curve which represents the
variation refractive index of core and refractive index of cladding with respect to radial
distance from the axis of the fibre. Refractive index profile for step index fibre is shown in
figure . Refractive index profile for step index fibre is given as
𝑛1 , 𝑟 < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
𝑛(𝑟) = {
𝑛2, 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
The refractive index of core to refractive index of cladding is varied in single step at the
interface.
In case the core is very small (5-10µm) as compared to cladding diameter, it will be step
index single mode fibre. If the core is large enough (50 -200µm) it will be the step index
multi mode fibre.
 Figure 16: Refractive index profile and transmission modes in different optical fibres.
Graded – Index Optical Fibre: The refractive index of core is varied gradually to the
refractive index of cladding; it is called graded index optical fibre. It consists of core or
diameter 50 - 200µm. In this fibre, the refractive index of core is maximum at the axis of the
fibre and it gradually decreases towards cladding. The intermodal dispersion is minimised
due to gradual decrease in the refractive index of the core.
Characteristics of graded index multimode fibre are:
1. It is high quality fibre as the refractive index must gradually decrease towards
cladding.
2. It is small numerical aperture.
3. it has low attenuation.
4. It is most expensive among all types of optical fibres.
Advantanges of graded index multimode fibres are
1. Intermodal dispersion is reduced.
2. Since LEDs are used as light source, these are easier to fabricate.
The main disadvantage of graded index multimode fibre is that it is most expensive.
PULSE DISPERSION
The signal rays follow zig zag paths while travelling in optical fibre. Hence, the rays under
different modes will travel different path lengths and emerge at far end at slightly different
times. Due to this the output pulse, which is the summation of all these mode pulses, will be
broadened. So a pulse of light sent into a fibre broadens in time as it propagates into the
fibre. This phenomenon is called pulse dispersion or intermodal dispersion.

Figure 17: Intermodal dispersion in multimode step index optical fibre.

SIGNAL ATTENUATION
As the light signal propagates through an optical fibre the energy at the output end is not the
same as that at the input end, rather it is somewhat less. It means that the light signal
propagating through a fibre gets gradually attenuated.
The ratio of the optical output signal power (Po) to the input power (Pi) is defined as
attenuation, i.e.
𝑃𝑜
𝛼=
𝑃𝑖
As the loss increases with the fibre length, the decibel attenuation is given by

10 𝑃𝑜
𝛼= log ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑖
It is generally expressed in dB per kilometres. In case of an ideal fibre P o=Pi and the
attenuation would be 0 dB/km.
SIGNAL LOSS MECHANISMS
The three major causes of signal losses in optical fibres are as under:
Materials Loss: When signal passes through the material, even a highly pure material
absorbs light in specific wavelength regions i.e. 7 - 12µm. It includes the absorption due to
the light interacting with the molecular structure as well as loss due to impurities. Loss due
to molecular structure is relatively small, the loss due to impurities is quite high.

Figure 18: Signal loss mechanisms in optical fibres.

Hydroxyl ions (OH) and transition metals such as Cu, Ni, Cr, V, Mn have electronic
absorption in near visible part of the spectrum. Their presence causes heavy losses. Such
losses can be minimised by better manufacturing.
Light Scattering: There is possibility of undesired variation in refractive index which
manufacturing. Such structures result in scattering losses. It is known as Rayleigh scattering
loss. It is proportional to 𝜆−4
𝑜 i.e. it becomes significant at lower wavelengths. Thus Rayleigh
scattering sets a lower limit on wavelengths than can be transmitted by a glass fibre at 0.8µm
below which the scattering loss is very high.
Wave Guide and Bend Losses: These are caused due to the imperfections and deformations
of the fibre structure which causes light signal away from fibre. Bends can be of micro scale
which is usually formed which fabrication process. Bends can be of macro scale which is
formed usually due to mishandling while installation.

Figure 19: Micro and macro bending as signal loss causes.

FIBRE OPTICS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Figure 20: Block diagram of fibre optic communication system.