WAVE OPTICS

Huygens - Fresnel Principle:

Huygens wave theory of light explains about the light propagation. Following are the
postulates of Huygens theory:
1. Light propagates in space in the form of wave front. Wave front spread out equally in all
the directions. These are known as primary wave front.

Fig. 1 Light propagation in form of wave front

2. Each point on primary wave front is considered as secondary source of light. These
secondary point sources will generate wave front.
3. The wave front at any later instant is formed by the tangent drawn on these wave fronts.

Fig. 2 Secondary point source and wave front in later instant

4. Fresnel explained the diffraction pattern by postulating that these secondary wavelets
mutually interfere. This combination of Huygens’ construction with the principle of
interference is called Huygens-Fresnel Principle.
 Figure 3: Depiction of Huygens-Fresnel Principle.

Interference
When two waves superpose there will be redistribution of intensity on the screen (termed as
interference pattern) and the phenomenon is known as Interference.

Interference pattern cannot be observed by using two independent wave sources because
the two interfering waves should have zero or constant phase difference (phase locked).
Therefore, two interfering waves are obtained from single wave source to maintain the phase
relationship. This can be obtained by two different methods:

1. Division of wavefront: The wave front of a beam is allowed to pass through two very
small openings (holes or slits) as shown in Figure 4(a). Two small parts of same
wavefront are passed through the openings and interfere; this method is called
division of wavefront.

Figure 4: (a) Division of wave-front and (b) Division of amplitude

2. Division of amplitude: A beam is divided in two parts by reflection and refraction as

shown in Figure 4(b). In the process of reflection and refraction some percent of
original beam is reflected and remaining is refracted, so the intensity or the amplitude
is divided; therefore this method is known as division of amplitude.
Interference of light waves (Young’s double slit experiment)

Fig. 5 Young’s double slit experiment

The very first experiment on interference of light was devised by Thomas Young by the trick
of dividing the wave-front by passing it from two closely spaced slits. The interference pattern
observed on screen can be easily explained / understood by Huygens’ wave theory of light.
The light emitted by two light sources will always have the inevitable abrupt phase changes
in times of the order of 10-10sec which results the unstable phase relationship. Hence two
light sources can never be coherent.

Thomas Young used very simple method to lock the phase relation between light emanating
from S1 and S2. He made two closely spaced pinholes S1 and S2 on an opaque sheet which
were illuminated by another pin hole S lit by a bright source. Light wave-front spread out from
S fall on S1 and S2 which divide the wave front in two small sections. S1 and S2 will behave
like two coherent sources as these are derived from same original source and any abrupt
phase change in S will manifest in exactly similar phase changes in light coming out of S1 and
S2.

Thus spherical wave coming out from S1 and S2 will produce interference fringes on the screen. The
conditions for maxima and minima can be calculated by calculating the resultant of waves from S1 and
S2 at point P of observation.
 Fig. 6 Young’s double slit experiment and pattern

Let us consider that wave two waves from S1 and S2 reaching at P are Y1 and Y2 given by

𝑌1 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

And
𝑌2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

Where δ is the phase difference between Y1 and Y2 because of the path difference (S2P – S1P).

The resultant is given by Y=Y1+Y2

𝑌 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

𝑌 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿

𝑌 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ∙ 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿

Let us consider (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿) = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ and 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛Θ

So, the resultant will be

𝑌 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ∙ 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛Θ

𝑌 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + Θ) in which R is the resultant amplitude at point P on the screen, its value can be
obtained by squaring and adding both the above equations

𝑅 2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿)2 + (𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿)2

𝑅 2 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜹 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜹

𝑅 2 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿

So the resultant intensity 𝐼 = 𝑅 2 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿

The condition for maximum intensity or the constructive interference will be

 cos 𝛿 = +1
⇒ 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …..)

∴ 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2

Therefore, the resultant maximum intensity is greater than the sum of two separate intensities 𝑎1 2 +
𝑎2 2 , and it is same for all maxima.

And the condition of minimum intensity or the destructive interference will be

cos 𝛿 = −1

⇒ 𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….)

So the minimum intensity

∴ 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 − 2𝑎1 𝑎2

Therefore, the resultant minimum intensity is smaller than the sum of two separate intensities 𝑎1 2 +
𝑎2 2 .

INTERFERENCE DUE TO THIN PARALLEL TRANSPARENT FILM

Let us consider a thin parallel transparent film of thickness t and refractive index µ. A beam is incident
on the top surface of thin film with an angle of incidence i. This incident rays is partially reflected (Ray
1) and refracted (Ray 2).

Fig. 7 Interference in thin parallel film

The refracted ray now partially reflected and refracted from the bottom surface. The reflected part of
Ray 2 further exhibit refraction and reflection from the top surface. The refracted part of Ray 2 and
Ray 1 interfere with each other and form the interference pattern, which can be easily observed with
an optical microscope. The hence produced interference pattern consist of several minima and
maxima.
To find out where the maximum or minimum is formed, the optical path difference between the Ray
1 and Ray 2 need to be determined. In the figure the interfering rays are shown with red lines. The
path difference between Ray-1 and Ray-2 is given by θr
 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝜇 − 𝐴𝐷 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟

So, the path difference is = 𝜇(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) − 𝐴𝐷

As the ΔABN and ΔBCN are congruent, AB=BC, path difference will be

= 2𝜇𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴𝐷 …. …. …. (i)

In ΔABN,
𝑡 𝒕
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑟 = ⇒ 𝐀𝐁 = …. …. …. (ii)
𝐴𝐵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜃𝑟

In ΔADC,
𝐴𝐷
sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝐀𝐃 = 𝐀𝐂 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜃𝑖 …. …. …. (iii)
As the ΔABN and ΔBCN are congruent, AN=NC

AD = 2AN . sin 𝜃𝑖 …. …. …. (iv)

In ΔANB,
𝐴𝑁
tan 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑡
⇒ 𝐀𝐍 = 𝐭 . 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜃𝑟 …. …. …. (v)

So now value of AD is

𝐀𝐃 = 𝟐𝐭. 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜃𝑟 sin 𝜃𝑖 …. …. …. (vi)

Now, substitute the values of AB and AD from eq. (i) and eq. (ii) in eq. (i), we get

2𝜇𝑡
Path difference = − 2𝑡. tan 𝜃𝑟 sin 𝜃𝑖
cos 𝜃𝑟

Using the Snell’s law, sin 𝑖 = 𝜇 sin 𝑟, path difference becomes

2𝜇𝑡
= − 2𝑡. tan 𝑟 𝜇 sin 𝑟
cos 𝑟
2𝜇𝑡 sin 𝑟
= − 2𝑡. 𝜇 sin 𝑟
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
2𝜇𝑡
= (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟)
cos 𝑟

Path difference = 2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 As the Ray-1 is reflected from a denser surface, which results in complete
phase reversal due to the strong interatomic bonding in the denser material. So, a correction of λ/2
corresponding to the phase reversal should be added to obtain the exact path difference.
𝝀
So, the 𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐜𝐭 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝟐𝝁𝒕𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 + 𝟐

Therefore, following that the path difference should be EVEN multiple of lamda-by-two, the condition
for maxima will be
𝝀 𝝀
𝟐𝝁𝒕𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 + = 𝟐𝒏 .
𝟐 𝟐

And, following that the path difference should be ODD multiple of lamda-by-two, the condition for
minima will be
 𝝀 𝝀
𝟐𝝁𝒕𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 + = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) .
𝟐 𝟐

NEWTON’S RING EXPERIMENT

In this experimental set up, a plano-convex lens of large focal length is placed on a parallel plane glass
plate. Between these two glasses, a thin wedge shaped film of air is formed, its thickness is zero at the
point of contact and the thickness increases on moving outward directions.

Figure 8: Assembly of plano-convex lens and glass plate for Newton’s Ring Experiment

When a monochromatic light is incident from top side, the light ray is first partially reflected from the
top surface of air film (ray 1) and the partially transmitted light (ray 2) is reflected from bottom surface
of air film. Ray 1 and Ray 2, created by division of amplitude as some intensity of light is reflected and
remaining is transmitted/refracted, both will interfere and create a very beautiful Newton’s ring
interference pattern. The interference pattern consists of concentric alternate circular rings around
the point of contact which appeared as dark circle.

Theory of Newton’s ring experiment:

The formation of interference pattern of alternate bright and dark rings was explained Thomas Young.
He explained that ray 1 and ray 2 interfere with each other and results in constructive and destructive
interference fringes.

In this set-up, we have the wedge shaped film, so, we can use the expression for effective path
𝜆
difference of the same which is 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑟 + 𝜃) + 2 .

For normal incidence, the angle of incidence θi = 0, so angle of refraction θr = 0.

As the curvature of lens is very small, so that the angle formed between the top and bottom surface
of air film is negligibly small; therefore, the value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑟 + 𝜃) = 1

𝜆
So, the effective path difference will become 2𝜇𝑡 + 2. At point of contact between plano-convex lens
𝜆 𝜆
and glass plate, t = 0, the path difference = 2
which is odd multiple of 2, satisfying the condition of
destructive interference. That is why, the centre is dark in the circular ring fringe pattern.

The condition of minima or maxima formation depends on the thickness t of air film. Suppose, at air
film thickness t1, the condition of maximum is satisfied. Same thickness of air film is also available at
all other points equidistant from the centre. So, the condition of maximum formation is satisfied for
all such points, which results in circular bright ring formation. And same is the situation with dark
fringe formation. Therefore, one can write that the locus of all the points corresponding to same
thickness satisfying the condition of minima or maxima is circular; hence the Newton’s ring
interference pattern is circular.

Wavelength of monochromatic light source by Newton’s Ring Experiment:

Let us consider that the plano-convex lens is the

sectional part of a big sphere of radius R with
centre at O. The radius of nth dark ring is rn
formed for thickness t.
With the help is the diagram, and Pythagoras
theorem, we can write 𝑂𝐿2 = 𝑂𝑀2 + 𝑀𝐿2 or
𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛 2
Or
𝑅 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡𝑅 + 𝑟𝑛 2
As 𝑡 ≪ 𝑅, 𝑡 2 is negligibly small, so we can write
2𝑡𝑅 = 𝑟𝑛 2
𝑛𝑟 2
Or 𝑡 = 2𝑅
For dark ring formation, we had the condition Fig. 9 Newton’s Ring to determine wavelength
of light
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 + = (2𝑛 + 1) or 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
2 2
𝑟𝑛 2
Put the above value of t in this equation, we get 2𝜇 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝑅
𝑛𝜆𝑅
So, 𝑟𝑛 = √ 𝜇
where n = 0, 1, 2, …..
𝑛𝜆𝑅
The diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√
𝜇
𝑛𝜆𝑅 (𝑛+𝑝)𝜆𝑅 𝜆𝑅
Or 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4 similarly 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 = 4 and 𝐷𝑛+1 2 − 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4 (𝑛 + 𝑝 − 𝑛)
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
So, rearranging the above equation for λ, we get
𝑫𝒏+𝒑 𝟐 − 𝑫𝒏 𝟐
𝝀=𝝁
𝟒𝑷𝑹
In experimental set-up the refractive index is for air film which is 1, so, the expression will be
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 − 𝐷𝑛 2 1
𝜆= ∙
𝑃 𝑅
2 −𝐷 2
𝐷
In the above equation the value of 𝑛+𝑝𝑃 𝑛
is determined by calculating the slope of the
line obtained by plotting 𝐷𝑛 2 vs n.

Fig. 10 Graph to find the slope of the line

obtained by plotting 𝐷𝑛 2 vs n.

MICHELSON – MORLEY INTERFEROMETER

This is an optical instrument based on the interference of light by division of amplitude. It can be used
to measure the length or change of length with accuracy.

Principle: An extended light source is made to have plane wave-front; it is then divided into two
coherent beams by partial reflection (ray 1) and refraction (ray 2) at glass plate G1 which is slightly
polished at the back surface. Both rays are made to reunite at same plate after travelling different
optical paths with the help of mirrors M1 and M2 which reflect back the ray 1 and ray 2 respectively
to glass plate G1. Both the rays interfere and observed in telescope. The beam reflected from G1 (ray
1) passes through glass plate G1 two times, whereas the other beam does not pass through G1. Hence,
to make the optical paths of two beams equal, a compensating glass plate G2 is placed in the path of
transmitted beam ray 2. Mirrors M1 and M2 are placed exactly perpendicular to each other.

Figure 11: Schematic of

Michelson – Morley
Interferometer.

Working: A monochromatic light beam is made to incident on semi-

silvered glass plate G1 inclined at 45°. The beam gets partially
reflected as ray 1 and partially refracted as ray 2. Reflected beam ray
1 is directed perpendicularly towards mirror M1 and refracted beam
ray 2 towards mirror M2. After reflection from M1 and M2, the rays
retrace their paths and ray 1 is transmitted and ray 2 is reflected
towards telescope. These two rays produce interference pattern in
the field of view of telescope.
In Michelson’s Interferometer, as the fringe is viewed from the
telescope in the upward direction as shown in the given figure. The
ray 1 (image of S i.e. S1 in M1) and ray 2 (image in M2 is S2) appear to
come from top and bottom surface of thin parallel film formed
between M1 and M2’ (M2’ is the virtual image of M2). Depending on
the position of mirrors, the image M2’ may be in front or or exactly
coincident with or behind mirror M1. So, the equation of interference Figure 12: Virtual M’2 in
due to thin film can be utilised to obtain the condition for minima and Michelson’s Interferometer
maxima.
If we look obliquely at the interferometer at an angle θ with the axis,
the path difference between the ray 1 and ray 2 is given by
𝜆
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜇𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +
2
Where d is the distance between M1 and M2’ and µ is the refractive index of medium, here it is air,
so it is taken as 1.

For a given d value, θ is constant, the fringes appears in the form of concentric circles around the axis.
These are fringes of equal inclination are formed.

The following figure shows how the path difference of 2𝜇𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 come into picture.

Figure 13: Determination of optical path difference between ray 1 (S1) and ray 2 (S2).

𝑆𝑀1 = 𝑀1 𝑆1

𝑆𝑀2′ = 𝑀2′ 𝑆2

Subtracting both equations

𝑆𝑀2′ − 𝑆𝑀1 = 𝑀2′ 𝑆2 − 𝑀1 𝑆1

𝑑 = 𝑀2′ 𝑆1 + 𝑆1 𝑆2 − 𝑀1 𝑀2′ − 𝑀2′ 𝑆1

𝑑 = 𝑆2 𝑆1 − 𝑑

⇒ 𝑆2 𝑆1 = 2𝑑

So, the path difference between ray 1 and ray 2 will be 2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. And because of one additional
𝜆
reflection by ray 2 at the denser surface, there will be phase reversal, hence we need to add 2 in optical
𝜆
path difference. Therefore, the net path difference is 2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2.

Figure 14: Display of fringes of equal inclination of θ angle.

APPLICATION OF MICHELSON – MORLEY INTERFEROMETER

Before discussing the applications of Michelson’s Interferometer it is important to understand the

effect of moving mirror M1 to reduce the d-spacing between the mirrors on fringe pattern observed
in telescope.

In Michelson’s interferometer, if the beam splitter is just a simple glass plate, the condition for
destructive interference will be

2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑛𝜆
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
2𝑑

If 𝜆 = 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 0.3𝑚𝑚

𝑛6 × 10−5
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
2 × 0.03
𝑛
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
1000

n= 1000 999 998 997 996 995

θ= 0 2.56 3.62 4.44 5.13 5.73
Gap btw fringes = 2.56 1.06 0.82 0.69 0.60
So, the central dark ring is 1000th fringe appears at θ=0° (as it is at centre)

NOW, if we move the mirror to reduce d to 0.15 cm, then

𝑛6 × 10−5
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
2 × 0.015
𝑛
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
500

n= 500 499 498 497 496 495

θ= 0 3.62 5.13 6.28 7.25 8.11
Gap btw fringes = 3.62 1.51 1.15 0.97 0.86
So, the 500th fringe is appearing at centre that means we observe only 500 fringes in complete field
of view of telescope. So, the gap between the fringes is seen to increase.

In this case, the central dark ring is 500th fringe, so as d is reduced, fringe will tends to collapse
towards centre and fringes become less closely spaced.
Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light source

The monochromatic light whose wavelength is to be determined is used in the Michelson

interferometer. Mirrors M1 and M2 and made exactly perpendicular so that the circular fringes are
observed. With M2 fixed, the position of M1 is adjusted to obtain the nth bright fringe at the centre of
the fringe pattern.
𝜆
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑑 + = 𝑛𝜆
2

Adding λ on both sides, we get

𝜆
2𝑑 + + 𝜆 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆
2

OR
𝜆 𝜆
2(𝑑 + ) + = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆
2 2

From the above equation it can be easily seen by comparing it with previous equation that when d-
𝜆
spacing is increased to 𝑑 + 2 then nth fringe at centre is replaced by (n+1)th fringe, So, we can develop
the relation in the following way

𝜆
When mirror M1 is displaced by distance ⇒ 1 fringe displaced out in field of view in telescope
2

1 2
When mirror M1 is displaced by distance 1 ⇒𝜆 = 𝜆 number of fringes displaced
⁄2

2
When mirror M1 is displaced by distance x ⇒𝜆 ∙ 𝑥 number of fringes displaced

Therefore, while moving mirror M1 by distance x, number of fringes displaced can be counted,
suppose it is N,
2 2𝑥
So 𝑁 = ∙ 𝑥 or 𝜆 =
𝜆 𝑁

Hence, just by counting the number of fringes (N) displaced while moving mirror M1 by distance
x, one can easily determine the wavelength of monochromatic light.
Mach – Zehnder interferometer

The Mach – Zehnder interferometer is simple device for demonstrating interference by

division of amplitude. A light beam is first split into two parts by a beam splitter and then
recombined by a second beam splitter. Depending on the relative phase acquired by the beam
along the two paths the second beam splitter will reflect the beam with efficiency between 0
and 100 percent.

The basic interferometer is shown in figure. In this, a beam is emitted from the photon source
which is splitted by the beam splitter B1 in upper and lower path. Let us consider the phase of
the photon of each of the two paths. Initially we shall assume that there is no phase shift on
reflection or transmission.

Figure 15: A simple Mach Zehnder interferometer, ignoring the thickness of beam splitters

The phase on reaching the second beam splitter B2 is simply the path length multiplied by 2π
by wavelength. On recombination at the beam splitter, if the two paths are of equal length,
then the phases are equal. So which path shows constructive interference, the path towards
A or B? The answer is unresolved. In fact, the entire situation is symmetrical with respect to
the two detectors and should one path allow constructive interference, so will the other.
Similarly if one path suffers destructive interference, so does the other. This violates
conservation of energy.
Phase shift on reflection
Clearly there is a false assumption and the obvious place to look is the phase shift on
reflection. As per the standard physics concepts on transmission a wave picks up no phase
shift, but on reflection it picks up a phase shift of π. So now let’s investigate the problem with
that in mind. We shall break the problem into two parts: first the path from the source to the
second beam splitter B2, and then the final stretch from the second beam splitter B2 to the
detectors A and B.
 Figure 16: More sophisticated version of Mach Zehnder interferometer, the thickness of beam
splitters and the reflecting surfaces are indicated

On the lower path, the beam undergoes one transmission and one reflection before the
second beam splitter—a total phase shift of π. On the upper path there are two reflections—
a total phase shift of 2π. Now if we continue on to detector A, the lower path makes one more
reflection and the upper path one transmission. So now each path has a phase shift of 2π and
they will interfere constructively. All well and good? Until we look at the path to detector B.
Now the lower path makes one more transmission, picking up a total phase shift of π. The
upper path makes a further reflection, so its total phase shift is 3π. The difference is 2π and
again we expect constructive interference. So that is the problem—the Mach–Zehnder
interferometer as presented does not work. The devil in this case is in the detail of the phase
shifts on reflection—the story is not as simple as we commonly make out.

Resolution of the problem

How is a beam splitter actually made? Usually it is a piece of glass with a dielectric or metal
coating on the front surface. Light striking it from the front has a 50% (or any other value,
depending on the coating) chance of being reflected, and a 50% chance of being transmitted.
In the case of a dielectric (non-conducting and non-magnetic) a reflection does indeed induce
a phase shift of _, whereas a transmitted photon picks up no phase shift. However, the key to
the problem lies in what happens to a photon approaching the beam splitter from behind.
There it first enters the glass (ignoring the small chance of reflection off the air–glass
interface) and has a 50% chance of reflecting off the dielectric coating whilst within the glass.
Here is the crux of the matter—that reflection does not induce a phase change. Given that,
let us once again examine the phase shifts on the two paths.
Refer to second figure and notice that the second beam splitter is arranged so that the
dielectric is on the right-hand surface. This is purely to simplify the overall analysis—it makes
no difference to the underlying physics. We shall use the following definitions: l1 and l2 are
the total path lengths for the light travelling from the source to the detector for the upper
and lower paths respectively. When the light passes through the glass of the beam splitters it
picks up an extra phase shift which we shall call 2πt/λ. This simplifies the maths a little, but
note that t is not the thickness of the beam splitters by this definition. Infact t is the optical
path length through the beam splitter, which takes account of the actual distance travelled
(the beam passes through at an angle) and the refractive indices of the glass and the coatings.
The upper path picks up the following phase shifts on the way to detector A: π at the first
reflection, π at the second (100%) reflection, nothing at the transmission, 2πl1/λ for the
distance travelled, and 2πt/ λ for the extra phase picked up in traversing the glass substrates
where the wavelength is reduced. This gives a total of

The lower path, also on its way to A, picks up a phase shift of π off the 100% reflector, π at
the second beam splitter, a phase shift of 2πl2/λ for the distance travelled, and an extra phase
shift of 2πt/λ from passing through the glass substrate at the first beam splitter. The phase
difference between the two paths is

where δ is the phase shift due to the difference in the path lengths. Similarly, we can calculate
the phase difference between the two paths on their way to detector B. We obtain

Now it is clear that when δ=0 there is constructive interference on the path to A and
destructive on the path to B. By varying δ, this condition can be changed so as to vary the
probability of arrival at either detector from 0 to 1. All of the physics is contained in this
analysis. In practice, the beam splitters may be of different thicknesses but this will simply
add a fixed phase difference, as will placing the second beam splitter the other way around.
DIFFRACTION
Fraunhofer Diffraction from Single Slit

Figure 17: Ray diagram of Fraunhofer diffraction from single slit

To calculate the resultant field produced by these n sources at any arbitrary point P on screen,
let us divide the complete slit in n number of secondary sources as A 1, A2, A3 …. An with δ
spacing between consecutive sources. If number n is very large number, then the slit width d
= (n-1)δ or nδ.

If the field at point P due to A1 is 𝐸1 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

Then due to A2 at point P is 𝐸2 = acos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Where 𝜑 is the phase difference between the field A1 and field A2 at point P which is
introduced due to the path difference A2A’2== 𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
2𝜋
So, the phase difference 𝜑 = 𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆

The field due to A3 at point P is 𝐸3 = acos(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜑) and so on

The resultant field at point P will be 𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛

𝐸 = 𝑎[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + cos(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜑) + … + cos(𝜔𝑡 + (𝑛 − 1)𝜑)]

𝑛𝜑
⁄2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑
𝐸=𝑎 𝜑 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1) ⁄2]
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁄2

As the number of secondary sources is every large, so, we can assume

𝜑 𝜑
𝑛→∞ 𝛿→0 so the 𝜑 → 0 therefore we may use lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 =
𝜑→0 2
So, the above equation becomes
𝑛𝜑
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁄2 𝜑
𝐸=𝑎 𝜑 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1) ⁄2]
⁄2

Let us simplify the above terms by imposing the condition that 𝑛 → ∞, nδ=d

𝜑 𝜋𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
2 𝜆
𝑛𝜑 𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
2 𝜆
Substituting these two values in above equation

𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸=𝑎 𝜆 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − )]
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜆
𝜆𝑛
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸 = 𝑛𝑎 𝜆 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − )]
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜆
𝜆
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Let us put =𝛽
𝜆

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸 = 𝑛𝑎 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)]
𝛽

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸 = 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)]
𝛽

Where 𝐴0 = 𝑛𝑎 the maximum resultant amplitude

So, from above equation, it is very clear that the intensity distribution is given by

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝐼 = 𝐼0
𝛽2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Where 𝐼0 represents the maximum intensity at θ=0 as when β=0 =1
𝛽

Minima appear where 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 0, 𝛽 = 𝑛𝜋 with 𝑛 ≠ 0 as for this value principle maximum
has appeared.
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Put the value of β, = 𝑛𝜋 ⇒ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 … n=±1, ±2, ±3….
𝜆

𝑛𝜆
OR 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = … n=±1, ±2, ±3 ….
𝑑

𝜆
For circular aperture 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1.22 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
As we found one central maximum and minima at n=±1, ±2, ±3…., so there must exist
one maximum in between two consecutive minima.

In order to determine positions for these maxima we use the method that at maximum of
any plot the rate of change of that parameter is constant at that point. So, we differentiate
the intensity I w.r.t. β and equate it to zero

We will get 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽(𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽) = 0

The condition 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 0 corresponds to minima, so we reject this solution

Then 𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

So, the solution to this interesting equation would give the positions of higher order
maxima. Plot Y = β and Y = tanβ, intersection points of these two curves gives the solution
to the above equation.

Figure 18: In blue is the plot of y = tanβ and in red is a plot of y = β

Intersection occurs at β = 4.49, 7.73, 10.9, so on

Now, let us check by putting these values of β in equation for intensity

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 4.49 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 7.73 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 10.9
𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 × 0.047 𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 × 0.016 𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 × 0.008
4.492 7.732 10.92
So, in diffraction pattern due to single slit the central maximum has the largest intensity,
the next maxima are of 5% of Imax and 1.6% of Imax and 0.8% of Imax.
Fraunhofer Diffraction from Double slits

Here the diffraction pattern is produced by two slits parallel to each other. Let us consider two parallel
slits AB and CD. The width of each slit is say 𝑎 and width of the opaque portion is 𝑏, figure 16. Light
rays are collected by the converging lens L and interference pattern is observed on the screen. We
know that in Fraunhofer diffraction a plane wave front is incident on the surface XY.

Figure 19: Depiction of diffraction from double slits

To calculate the intensity in diffraction pattern, we will use similar method as in single slit. Here we
have two “single slits” each consists of large number of equally spaced secondary point sources A1,
A2, A3 …. An with δ spacing between consecutive sources. If diffraction angle is θ, then the
path difference between waves reaching point P from two consecutive points in a slit is 𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
And the resultant wave formed by first slit at P will be
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸1 = 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)] where 𝛽 =
𝛽 𝜆

Similarly, second slit produce the resultant wave

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸2 = 𝐴0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝜙1 ) at P
𝛽

2𝜋
where 𝜙1 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 represents phase difference between waves from slits AB and
𝜆
CD.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Resultant field will be 𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 ⇒ 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽) + (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝜙1 )]
𝛽

A+B A−B
Applying the mathematical formula for cos 𝐴 + cos 𝐵 = 2cos ∙ cos
2 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝜙1 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽 + 𝜙1
⇒ 𝐴0 2 cos cos
𝛽 2 2
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝜙1 𝜙1
⇒ 2𝐴0 cos cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − )
𝛽 2 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝜙
2 1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos
𝛽2 2

Here first term represents intensity due to diffraction by each single slit and second term is
due to interference of waves coming from both the slits.

Condition for maxima

We know that maximum will occur only when the result of interference is maximum. So,
condition for maximum is
𝜙1 𝜙1
cos =1 ⇒ = pπ
2 2

𝜋
Or 𝜆 (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑝𝜋 ⇒ (𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒑𝝀

Condition for minima

In diffraction pattern, minimum will occur when result of either interference or diffraction is
minimum. So, condition for minima will be

Diffraction minima Interference minima

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 0 𝜙1
cos =0
𝛽 = 𝑛𝜋 2
𝜋 𝜙1 π
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜋 = (2n + 1)
𝜆 2 2
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 𝜋 π
(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = (2n + 1)
𝜆 𝜆 2
sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆
𝑎 (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = (2n + 1)
2

Figure 20: Formation of diffraction pattern from double slits

So, we can see that diffraction pattern formed by double slits consists of diffraction by each slit and
interference of both the slits. This is shown in figure 16, (a) is interference pattern, (b) is diffraction
pattern and (c) is combination of both (a) and (b).

https://dharmapaudelphy.files.wordpress.com/2017/02/csit-notes.pdf

Fraunhofer Diffraction from Diffraction Grating

A set of large number of equidistant slits is known as diffraction grating. A large number
i.e. 30, 000 slits per inch makes diffraction grating. This is prepared by ruling grooves
with sharp diamond point on an optically transparent material. The grooves act as
opaque spaces and the transparent space between the grooves act as slits. The width of
slits should be of the order of wavelength of light. Several diffraction gratings can be
prepared by taking the cast of an actual grating on transparent film like cellulose acetate.
A solution of cellulose acetate of appropriate strength is poured on the ruled surface and
allowed to dry to form a strong thin film, detachable from the parent grating. These
impressions of grating are preserved by sandwiching the film between two glass sheets.

Figure 21: N parallel slits

Figure 16 shows N equidistant and equally wide slits. Let us consider that the slit width
is ‘a’ and width of opaque space equal to ‘b’; so the distance between two consecutive slits
is d=a+b. The distance between two consecutive slits is also known as grating element
which is repeated 30,000 times to form complete diffraction grating. To observe the
diffraction pattern, the grating is illuminated by a monochromatic light source of
wavelength λ. To determine the intensity of light on an arbitrary point P at diffraction
angle θ on screen, the path difference between the light from two consecutive slits need
to be considered, which is

𝛿 = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2𝜋
The corresponding phase difference would be 𝜙1 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆

As we already derived the resultant disturbance from single slit is

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸1 = 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)]
𝛽

So, the disturbance from second slit will be

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸2 = 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 𝜙1 )]
𝛽

From third slit is

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸3 = 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 2𝜙1 )]
𝛽

And from nth slit is

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐴0 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + (𝑛 − 1)𝜙1 )]
𝛽

Then the resultant disturbance is given by

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑌 = 𝐴0 [cos(ωt − 𝛽) + cos(wt − 𝛽 + 𝜙1 )
𝛽
+ cos(wt − 𝛽 + 2𝜙1 ) + cos(wt − 𝛽 + 3𝜙1 ) + ⋯ + cos(wt − 𝛽 + (𝑁 − 1)𝜙1 )]

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 𝜙1
𝑌 = 𝐴0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [wt − 𝛽 + (𝑁 − 1) ]
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾
So, the amplitude is 𝐴0 and hence the intensity is
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛾
𝐼 = 𝐼0
𝛽2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛾
Here the factor 𝐼0 2 is the intensity due to single slit i.e. diffraction part while is
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾
due to the interference of all N slits.

For maxima 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = ±𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, …

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 0
But in this condition = 0 is an indeterminate form. Thus to find its value we have to
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
adopt the differential calculus procedure:
 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝛾
𝑑𝛾
lim = lim = lim =𝑁
𝛾→±𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝛾→±𝑛𝜋 𝑑 𝛾→±𝑛𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
𝑑𝛾

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
So, 𝐼 = 𝑁 2 𝐼0
𝛽2

The intensity at these maxima is highest and that is why it is principal maxima. Therefore
the condition for principal maximum is

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = ±𝑛𝜋
𝜋
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜋
𝜆
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜆

For n=0, we get θ=0, which gives the direction of the zero order principal maximum. The
values n=1, 2, 3, … correspond to the first, second, third, …. order principal maximum.
Here the sign ± shows that the two principal maxima of the order lie on either side of
zero order maximum.

Minima: For sinNγ=0 where sinγ≠0 we get minimum intensity;

Therefore Nγ=±mπ

𝑁𝛾 = ±𝑚𝜋

Putting the value of γ, we get

𝜋
𝑁 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆

𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆

𝑚
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ± 𝜆
𝑁

Thus, for all integral values of m except 0, N, 2N, 3N, …. We get minima; because for m=0, N, 2N,
3N, … the value of sinγ=0 and this will give the position of principal maxima. So, between m=0
and N, between two consecutive principal maxima, the number of minima exist for m=1, 2, 3, 4,
….(N-1). So, (N-1) number of minima exist and hence there will be (N-2) maxima exist in between
these minima which are termed as secondary maxima. The position of these secondary maxima
can be obtained by differentiating I w.r.t. γ and equating with zero,

𝑑𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

=( ) .2 [ ]=0
𝑑𝛾 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾

Or 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 = 0

Or 𝑁𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛾 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑁𝛾
Therefore, the solutions of this equation except for which 𝛾 = ±𝑛𝜋, (position of principal
maxima), correspond to the positions of secondary maxima.

√1 + 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛾
Ntanγ

𝑁𝛾

Figure 22: Triangle to compare the intensity of principal and secondary maxima

If we construct a right angled triangle with its sides as 1, Ntanγ and √1 + 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛾, then we can
get

𝑁𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 =
√1 + 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛾

Therefore, the intensity of secondary maxima may be given as

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑁2

𝐼 ′ = 𝐼0 = 𝐼0
𝛽2 (1 + 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛾)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾 𝛽2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛾 + 𝑁2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾)

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑁2
= 𝐼0
𝛽2 1 + (𝑁2 − 1)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾

𝐼 ′ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1

= =
𝐼 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1 + (𝑁2 − 1)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾

Figure 23: Intensity distribution for a diffraction grating with N=10.

Some extra maxima, known as secondary maxima, also appear between two principal maxima.
RESOLVING POWER

The ability of an optical instrument to form separate images of two objects very close together is called
resolving power.

Figure 24: Pictorial view of resolution of two closely placed objects

Any object is visible because it reflects the light incident on it. That means it is a source of light. In case
the two objects are placed very close to each other. The reflected light from these two sources will
form the diffraction pattern of each. If their diffraction patterns are overlapping on each other, it will
be very difficult to resolve the two objects as separate as shown in left part of above figure. If objects
are placed a little distant apart, their diffraction pattern would show just as in right part of above
figure. In this condition two images adjacent to each other would be observed. The central part of
above figure shows sufficiently apart images when objects are quite far from each other.

RAYLEIGH’S CRITERION

Rayleigh’s criterion states that if two equally bright point sources are placed apart so that the central
maximum of diffraction pattern due to one source coincides with first minimum of diffraction pattern
due to the other and vice – versa then these two bright point sources will be just resolved.

Figure 25: Diffraction patterns satisfying Rayleigh criterion

Using the equation for first minimum for circular aperture

𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1.22
𝑑
𝜆
As 𝑑 is generally small, we can use here the small angle approximation i.e.
 𝜆
∆𝜃~1.22
𝑑
So, the above equation gives the angular separation for the two objects that are just resolved.
The resolution is limited by the aperture diameter d. To get a good resolution or small ∆𝜃 we need d
to be large. The resolution is also a function of the wavelength. As λ increases for a fixed
aperture the resolution gets worse.

APPLICATIONS:

Microscope: Ultraviolet microscopes have higher resolution than visible light microscopes. In
electron microscopes the resolution is limited by the wavelengths associated with the
electron. These wavelengths can be made 100,000 times smaller than wavelengths of visible
light.
Storage media: Resolving power also explains the difference in storage capacity between
compact discs (CDs), digital video discs (DVDs), and Blue-ray discs. Information is stored
in all of these in a series of pits. The scanning process using optics must be able to resolve
to adjacent pits. CDs use infrared lasers, DVDs red lasers, Blue-ray violet lasers. The
shorter the scanning wavelength the better the resolution and the more information can
be stored on a disc. This is why more information can be stored on a DVD than CD.

Figure 26: Comparison of CD, DVD and Blue-ray Discs’ storage capacity
RESOLVING POWER OF DIFFRACTION GRATING

When a diffraction grating is illuminated with white light, we get maxima due to several
wavelengths of which the original light is composed and they are obtained as spectral lines. This
is one of the properties of diffraction grating that it shows separate maximum for very same
wavelengths. The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as its capacity to for separate
diffraction maxima of two wavelengths. The two lines of wavelengths λ and dλ are said to be just
resolved, if the central maximum due to λ+dλ falls on the first minimum of λ. The ratio λ/dλ is
called the resolving power of the grating.

Figure 27: Resolving power of diffraction grating

Let P1 is nth principal maximum of spectral line of wavelength λ at an angle of diffraction θ and
P2 is the nth principal maximum of spectral line of wavelength λ+dλ at angle of diffraction θ+dθ.
According to Rayleigh criterion, the two wavelengths will be just resolved if the first minimum of
λ is formed at P2, the principal maximum of λ+dλ .
The principal maximum of λ in the direction of θn is given by
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 … … (1)
The position of minima is given by
𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆 … … (2)
Where m is an integer except 0, N, 2N, …. nN, because for these values of m we obtain maxima.
The first minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction θn+dθn can be obtained
by substituting the value of m as (nN+1).
Therefore the first minimum in the direction θn+dθn is given by
𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = (𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆 … … (3)
The principal maximum of (λ+dλ) in the direction θn+dθn is given by
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) … … (4)
Multiplying above equation by N, we get
𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑁(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) … … (5)
Comparing equations (3) with (5), we get
 (𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆)
⇒ 𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁𝑑𝜆
𝜆
⇒ = 𝑛𝑁
𝑑𝜆
(𝑎+𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
From equation (1), 𝑛 = 𝜆

So,
𝜆 𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
=
𝑑𝜆 𝜆
As N(a+b) is the total width of the grating, at a particular angle of diffraction, the resolving power
is directly proportional to the total width of the diffraction grating.