Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction TOC - Chap1 MaintOfI-n-S 2nd Goettsche
Introduction TOC - Chap1 MaintOfI-n-S 2nd Goettsche
Introduction TOC - Chap1 MaintOfI-n-S 2nd Goettsche
Practical Guides
for Measurement and Control
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Overview 1
History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance 1
Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering 6
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
Disadvantages 419
Applications 420
Analog Input/Output Modules 423
Sensors 423
Index 447
ix
1
Introduction
Overview
The Maintenance volume is key to the Practical Guides Series and certainly a
key to the profitability of companies through ensuring that the control system is
maintained so the plant can produce its products. This volume includes some his-
tory and speculates about future advances of instrumentation and control (I&C)
system maintenance; it also covers some of the fundamental principles, vocabu-
lary, symbolism, standards, and safety. It suggests the necessary basic knowledge
required of I&C technicians and the interaction of maintenance in the retrofitting
and start-up of control systems.
1930s
Distributed control is not new. In 1938, when Chemical Processing published
its first issue, mechanisms for control were indeed distributed throughout the
plant. Process control consisted of operator adjustments to hand valves that were
based on direct readings of local gages. Control room instrumentation has taken
some dramatic turns along the way — from large-scale pneumatic recorders to
miniature analog electronic controllers to microprocessor-based digital systems.
Chemical and petroleum plants were among the first to use control systems
for their processes. Pneumatic instrumentation became the leader in automatic
control because of its safety. Pipe fitters were asked to perform maintenance on
these early pneumatic instruments. In many cases, outmoded control room hard-
ware is still operating effectively today — a tribute to the worldwide manufactur-
ers of process control instrumentation.
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, operators relied on local instrument gages
to monitor production processes. Control panels that did exist were located in the
field near process sensing points. Typically, only a handful of indicators, record-
ers, and controllers were mounted on a local panel. Often, the process fluids were
piped directly into control panels.
Where fill fluids were needed, mercury was commonly used. Control panels
served as a convenient means for improving control coordination by allowing op-
erators to adjust valves in response to visual instrument readings.
1
Introduction
1940s
In the 1940s the use of pneumatic proportional controllers was increasing, so
the early pipe fitters had to understand more of the theory of process and control.
New words such as integral, derivative, sensors, and final control elements were
added to their vocabularies.
By the late 1940s, a trend toward the concentration of controls in centralized
locations had begun.
1950s
In the 1950s, operating unit control rooms were built to centralize operations
and to accommodate operators assigned to monitor control boards on a full-time
basis. With the growing number and complexity of the indicators, recorders, and
controllers and the “need” to operate the plant remotely from these panels, the in-
strument mechanic was specialized to maintain the pneumatic control systems.
By the mid 1950s, electronic analog instrumentation had been formally intro-
duced but did not win industry acceptance until the late 1950s and early 1960s.
With the exception of chemical and petroleum plants, most new plants used elec-
tronic analog instrumentation because of the greater cost of tubing work between
pneumatic transmitters and controllers and the expensive pneumatic auxiliaries,
such as air compressors, filters, and dryers.
Increasing plant complexity necessitated increasing amounts of accurate, up-to-
date operating information.
1960s
Digital computers began to appear in control rooms in the 1960s. The com-
puter’s initial role was essentially that of a data logging device from which paper
printouts could be obtained. However, the concept of direct digital control (DDC)
gained notoriety in the 1960s.
1970s
By the mid 1970s, the drawbacks to DDC had become apparent. The central
computer approach depended on the availability of a single large computer.
Highly trained computer personnel were needed to maintain the computer hard-
ware and to deal with the high-level software languages.
Single-loop analog control continued to flourish during the early 1970s.
Thousands of electronic signal wires crisscrossed central control rooms, adding
complexity to the pursuit of improved coordination. Recognizing multiple func-
tions inherent in panel instruments, split architecture systems were introduced.
Analog display stations were segregated from rack-mounted printed circuit cards
in the quest for functional modularity.
I&C groups flourished, everyone was retrofitting and updating plants, and
new plants provided more and more instrumentation requirements. Instrumenta-
tion vendors were training the instrument mechanics and electricians to maintain
their equipment.
2
History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance
1980s
DCS operator interfaces were refined in the 1980s (see Figure 1-2). Intelligent
CRT stations utilized multiple-display formats to condense and organize exten-
sive operating information. Hierarchical arrangements of plant-, area-, group-, and
loop-level displays simplified on-screen database presentation. Real-time color
graphics added further comprehensive overviews of unit operations.
Most microprocessor-based control systems had a vast array of alarms and di-
agnostics to help operators and maintenance personnel determine if there were
any problems. Distributed control systems had many on-line and off-line diagnos-
tics, including process and input alarms, reportable events, error messages, and
hardware and software failure reporting.
3
Introduction
XYZ COMPANY
OPERATIONS
MANAGER
1990s
Trends for the 1990s were computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) and
management information systems (MIS). These interfaced the real-time devices
(field devices at the machinery/process level) through distributed controllers to
multiple-station coordination, then on to scheduling, production, and management
information to the plant level for overall planning, execution, and control. Further
development of artificial intelligence and expert systems gave advanced control
new meaning.
With the introduction of computers and databases, maintenance management
systems (MMS) helped maintenance and management personnel determine repair
frequency and spare parts availability and made decisions on when to replace ob-
solete equipment.
Distributed control systems (DCS), programmable logic controllers (PLC),
computer control systems (CCS), supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) and smart field devices were the norm. A digital signal was superim-
posed on the 4-20 mA signal for ranging and calibrating field devices. The Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization (ISO) Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model and interconnection of devices made by different manufactures has opened
systems architecture, replacing proprietary communications among devices.
2000s
Historically, factory floor maintenance methods and practices have been de-
veloped across a wide range of vertical industries, where the focus was to keep the
assembly lines and processes running rather than preserving assets. Today, manu-
facturers are focused on the long-term benefits of factory floor support practices
4
History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance
that incorporate methods and procedures which ensure production lines are opera-
tional and preserve capital assets.
Skids and modular systems became the norm in the design of new plants. New
gas electrical generating plants have been built from start to operational within a
two year period. These plants are designed to be operated with a skeleton crew of
25 to 30 personnel, including operators, maintenance crew, and supervisors.
A crew of three operate and maintain in 12 hour shifts. Major overhaul peri-
ods are contracted to the system manufacturer, and contract maintenance is re-
sponsible for calibration. Knowledge of the complete plant, including operations
and systems, are learned by all crews and supervision. Each crew member special-
izes in two or three systems.
A newer gas fired electrical generating plant organization chart is shown in
Figure 1-3 which differentiates between maintenance and production. Because
modern automation systems are installed, three units can be maintained and oper-
ated with 30 employees. Old coal-fired plants needed up to 200 people to operate
them.
With the concept of skeleton crews to operate the plant, contractor type main-
tenance programs are becoming the norm. Many of the instrumentation tasks are
completed by contract personnel. Work in the plant is becoming multi-disciplined.
5
Introduction
PLANT
PskdjkjdidP
MANAGER
SHIFT
WELDER SUPERVISORS
ELECTRICIAN
I&C
MACHINIST
(M-F 8 hrs)
WATER/LAB TECH.
AUX. OPERATOR
(Outside)
CONTROL
OPERATOR
12 hr shift
Rotating 24/7
Figure 1-3. Typical Gas Fired Electrical Generating Plant Organization Chart.
6
Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering
tells much more about the process. Proper operation of all equipment is required
to make a quality product and to do it safely.
The technological advances of the past few years and the trends for more
technical and specialized equipment require better trained and educated mainte-
nance personnel. The types of equipment in control systems cover many disci-
plines: mechanical, electrical, electronic, computer science, chemical, and
environmental, among others.
The instrumentation and control field is more than electronics — it is a systems
experience. It is necessary to know the physics of heat, light, noise, and mechani-
cal advantage, as well as to have mechanical dexterity and aptitude, logical
thought, computer literacy, process knowledge, and the ability to work with others in dif-
ferent disciplines.
Because of the many different knowledge factors, the individual crafts (elec-
trician, mechanic, pipe fitter, etc.) have to work together, and finger pointing will
sometimes occur. Electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, chemical engineers,
and process engineers must understand each other and determine where their re-
sponsibilities start and stop.
The field has grown with the application of computers, artificial intelligence,
self-tuning, computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), and so on. Larger
companies train pipe fitters to be instrument mechanics in pneumatic plants and
electricians to be instrument technicians in electronic plants. Knowledge of the
process is needed to design new systems; therefore, all engineering disciplines get
involved with the instrumentation and control system. Those who were fortunate
to get involved in early instrumentation and control systems have become the I&C
maintenance personnel and the control systems engineers of today.
The complexity of control loops and systems requires specialists. The systems
concept requires more varied knowledge and the overall concept of control rather
than component troubleshooting and replacement.
When the control system doesn't work, the plant doesn't produce. The control
system design can determine the profitability of a company. If it is maintainable
and the mechanics, technicians, and engineers are trained, the production output
of the plant will be high.
Corrective, preventive, and operational maintenance must be performed by
qualified and experienced I&C maintenance personnel.
Because of the complexity of existing control systems that utilize many fields
of expertise, several maintenance backgrounds are also required. This group is
now required to maintain, troubleshoot, and calibrate pneumatic, electrical, elec-
tronic, and computerized instruments and systems. The systems approach, which
looks at the whole picture to gain an understanding of the process, is the special
attribute of I&C maintenance personnel.
When assistance is needed, I&C personnel must have someone to go to for
help. In the past, maintenance supervisors had a broad knowledge of most of the
equipment and could make decisions on how to repair, when to repair, and so on.
A few years ago, many supervisors were instrument mechanics, but contemporary
maintenance supervisors are managers who know very little about the operation
and maintenance of the wide variety of instruments and control systems used to-
day, since most have never been instrument mechanics or technicians. In fact,
many of them know very little about pneumatics, electronics, or computers. To-
day, knowledge of the process, knowledge of the overall system, and knowledge
of the expertise of their employees is far more important than knowledge of how
to repair an individual instrument.
Who should the maintenance supervisors and managers go to for expert ad-
vice on the control system? Instrumentation and control system engineers or
maintenance engineers with an I&C background. Instrumentation and control sys-
tem engineers assist the mechanics and technicians and keep the supervisors and
7
Introduction
managers informed. They need to be a part of the design and start-up of the con-
trol systems.
Much money is being spent for training, fault tolerant systems, redundancy,
and new techniques. One simple but essential area that may be neglected is the ex-
perience of the past and what that may teach about the present.
We learn from our past experiences. Being involved in the problems we en-
countered and the solutions that were found yesterday helps us make better deci-
sions today. The learning technology that produces greater retention levels uses
the most senses, such as hearing, seeing, and feeling. The applications of older
systems should be used as the basis for designing newer and generally faster con-
trol systems. New problems are encountered in newer systems, but past applica-
tion experience will help solve the new problems.
Good maintenance saves money. With the equipment working properly, the
Don’t neglect the knowledge process quality and production will be high. When equipment fails, production
and experience gained in the normally stops, and many production personnel cannot do their jobs. With good
past.
maintenance management, spare parts are available quickly to reduce the mean
time to repair (MTTR). When the equipment is repaired properly, the mean time
between failures (MTBF) is extended. The proper frequencies of preventive main-
tenance should provide less down time, and the down time that occurs can be
scheduled. We can become pro-active instead of reactive.