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Vivian
➔ Research 1 (Foreign): The release process of microfibers: from surgical face
masks into the marine environment - good as supporting journal to claims like
surgical masks ruins the environment, specially marine

Introduction:
Surgical face masks when inspected are made of microfibers. In this
research, they measured the amount of microfiber that can be extracted from a
single face mask. They concluded that a single surgical mask subjected to 180 hours
UV-light irradiation and vigorous stirring in artificial seawater may release up to
173,000 fibers/ day.

1. Purpose of the research

a. Evaluate the risk of releasing microfibers in the marine life
2. Methods used
a. Samples - they used a total of 12 masks and label it as “SM” dash
number. (e.g. SM - 12). SM 1 to 7 are acquired from local italian store
while SM 8 to 12 are the ones collected in Italian beaches, used.
b. Artificial aging - the experiment wherein they mimic the condition when
a SM is in a body of water, conditions like sea water. Waves, and UV
light.
i. Weathering conditions - (a) soaking of the surgical mask in
artificial seawater for a prolonged time and without UV
irradiation (in this case motion was applied by using a orbital
shaker and (b) exposition of the surgical mask to UV light and
then to turbulent flow generated by magnetic stirring inside a
glass bottle filled with artificial seawater.
c. UV light exposition - mimicking the uv ray of sun, they used UV-A
lamps for 10 hours at temperature of 65°C.
d. Seawater exposition - exposure to sea water, contributes to
degradation. Artificial seawater, prepared following the indication of
ASTM D1141- 98.
e. Mechanical stress - to imitate the waves, using a magnetic stirring
bar. 4000 rpm for 24h at room temperature
f. Microplastic analysis - experiment resulted to two variables. part when
they separate the artificial seawater by sieving it to get the plastic
 fragments. To get the microfiber they used Whatman nitrocellulose
filter then dry it for 24 hours.

3. Instruments used
a. HITACHI TM3030 Plus - to get the SEM (scanning electron
microscope) image, before and after the experiment
b. Perkin Elmer Spotlight 200i instrument
c. liquid nitrogen cooled mercury cadmium telluride (MCT)
4. Result
a surgical mask has the potential to release in the marine environment
thousands of microscopic fibers.
5. Recommendation of the researchers
a. campaigns to promote the correct disposal and improvements in
managing these new waste streams
b. search efforts may provide more eco-friendly alternatives based face
masks
6. Additional information from this journal
a. Surgical face mask increase in production, estimated between 2,4- 52
billion pieces in the 2020 ( Eurorostat 2021 ; Phan & Ching, 2020 ;
Prata et al., 2020 )

Significant references:
Main:
Saliu, F., Veronelli, M., Raguso, C., Barana, D., Galli, P., & Lasagni, M. (2021). The
release process of microfibers: from surgical face masks into the marine environment.
Environmental Advances, 4, 100042.
(Saliu et al., 2021) - in text citation
Added:
Which country imported the most face masks?. (2021). Retrieved 30 May 2021, from
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/ddn-20201006-1 ("Which country
imported the most face masks?", 2021)

➔ Research 2 (Local): The effect of plastic particles on the performance of

concrete hollow blocks- no full access but results are presented

Introduction:
Researchers used plastic particles as an alternative to sand aggregate in
creating hollow blocks. Note that hollow block is made up of cement, water and
aggregate. In this research, they referred to concrete hollow blocks as CHB.
 1. Purpose of the study
a. determine the effect of plastic particles on the performance of
concrete hollow blocks
b. The mix design of the CHB is based on existing studies, and aims
to pass all applicable standards in the Philippines.
2. Methods
a. Sample - they used polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fines and
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pellets as aggregate to the concrete
b. Mix design - they made the plastic particles as an alternative to
sand and is mixed in different percentages namely: 5%, 10%, and
15% volumetric replacement. 7 days of curing
c. Test - compressive strength ranges from 14.2 to 18.9 MPa.
d. Microscope analysis - scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis
to determined that the bond between sand and cement is stronger
than plastic and cement

3. Results
a. plastics may be beneficial or detrimental to the compressive strength
of CHBs, depending on the amount.
b. both PET fines and HDPE pellets decrease the compressive
strength of CHBs at both 7 and 28 days of curing;
c. except at 5% replacement, the CHB with PET fines have a higher
compressive strength at 7 days of curing. Which is parang nagdagdag
ka lang ng konti kaya di na apektuhan yung compressive strength
d. Some positive effects of plastics in CHB production are potential
weight reduction and serve as a means for waste disposal.

References:
Cavida, R. G. B., Mondano, R. P., Diola, M. B. L. D., & Orozco, C. R. The
effect of plastic particles on the performance of concrete hollow blocks.
In Text citation: (Cavida et al., 2017)

Donita
➔ Research 1 (Foreign)

Preliminary evaluation of the feasibility of using polypropylene fibres

from COVID-19 single-use face masks to improve the mechanical
properties of concrete.
 - To support claims that surgical masks can help improve the compressive strength of a
concrete through its fibers.

Their experiment

➢ Single-use masks have been cut-up by first removing the ear loops and inner nose
wire to size and spread throughout five different mix designs to explore the possible
benefits and uses within concrete. The masks were introduced by volume at 0%
(control), 0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25% with testing focusing on compressive
strength, indirect tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic pulse velocity to
test the overall quality of the concrete.

Important findings and knowledges from this literature

● The main plastic in single- use face masks is polypropylene which in landfill can take
more than 25 years to break down.
● The introduction of the single-use face masks led to an increase in the strength
properties of the concrete samples, as well as an increase in the overall quality of the
concrete.
● Best result was prevalent with a 0.2% addition of the shredded face masks by volume
but beyond 0.2% volume, the trend of increasing strength began to decrease
● Volumes between 0.10% and 0.20% demonstrated a steady increase in compressive
strength before dropping off slightly at 0.25% when compared to the control mix
sample.
● Samples showed an increase between 3.81% and 17.06% from volume additions of
0.10% - 0.20%.
● The increase in compressive strength with the addition of polypropylene fibres can be
attributed to the crack restriction effect of the fibre.
● The decreasing trend at 0.25% volume of fibres can be due to the presence of voids at
0.25% volume replacement and the existence of weakening interfacial bonds between
the cut-up masks and the cement as seen in the study of Mohammad Hosseini et al.
(2017).
● It was stated by Yap et al. (2013) that a good quality concrete in between the above
ranges implies that the concrete specimen does not have any large voids or cracks;
therefore, it can be hypothesized that the inclusion of the shredded face masks limited
the amount of microcracks in the concrete as demonstrated in studies by Shen et al.
(2020); thus, improving the overall quality of the concrete.
● Compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic
pulse velocity of the concrete from the experiment mixture between 0.10% up to
0.20% all showed an increase to the concrete’s overall mechanical strength. These are
supported by the results of the experiment done (under Results and Discussions)

Relevant Conclusions

● The use of single-use face masks at small percentages has the capability to increase
some of the mechanical properties of concrete.
● A steady trend was seen across compressive and indirect tensile strengths showing
that 0.20% volume of single-use surgical masks was the ideal percentage to
incorporate into the concrete. The increase can be noted by the fibres becoming more
densely spaced, which therefore resulted in an increase to both compressive
and indirect tensile strengths.
● The modulus of elasticity could be deemed unaffected when incorporating the
shredded face masks into the concrete mix.
 References:

Lynch, S., Saberian, M., Li, J., & Roychand, R. (2021). Preliminary evaluation of
the feasibility of using polypropylene fibres from COVID-19 single-use face
masks to improve the mechanical properties of concrete. Journal Of
Cleaner Production, 296. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126460
In-text: (Lynch et al.,, 2021)

➔ Research 2 (Foreign)

The effect of polypropylene fibers on asphalt performance.

- Additional supporting rsx that claims the same but in asphalts which deduce the fact
for road applications

Their experiment

● Asphalt concrete specimens with polypropylene fibers were manufactured at the

optimum bitumen content.

Important findings and knowledges from this literature

● The polypropylene fibers provide three-dimensional reinforcement of the concrete.

● Polypropylene fibers were also used as a modifier in asphalt concrete in the United
States.
● It was observed for fiber-reinforced specimens that the Marshall stability values
increased and flow values decreased in a noticeable manner.
● The fatigue life of the asphalt concrete specimens was increased.
● The fiber-reinforced asphalt mixture exhibits good resistance to rutting, prolonged
fatigue life and less reflection cracking.
● It was found that the unit weight of the fiber-reinforced specimens is lower than that of
plain specimens. The volume of air voids is increased with increase in the content of
polypropylene fibers
● Fiber-reinforced specimens have shown different elastic and permanent deformation
behavior. The elastic deformations at the beginning of the test are nearly the same for
both types of asphalt concrete, but, when the pulse count increases, polypropylene
fiber added specimens show higher level of elastic deformation. When breaking point
is approached, the elastic deformation of the fiber-reinforced specimens drops below
the level of reference specimens. It can be observed that fiber-reinforced specimens
demonstrated a permanent deformation response.

Relevant Conclusions

● The application of polypropylene fibers alters the characteristics of asphalt mixture in

a very beneficial way.
● The improvement of the properties of asphalt concrete shows the positive effect of
polypropylene fibers.
● The Marshall tests and repeated load indirect tensile tests have shown that the
addition of polypropylene fibers considerably alters the behavior of asphalt concrete.
● The addition of polypropylene fibers provides a positive contribution to the
performance of asphalt pavements. This finding has quite important practical
implications for the design of high-performance asphalt concrete pavements.
 References:

Saberian, M., Li, J., Kilmartin-Lynch, S., & Boroujeni, M. (2021). Repurposing of
COVID-19 single-use face masks for pavements base/subbase. Science
Of The Total Environment, 769. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145527
In-text: (Saberian, Li, Kilmartin-Lynch & Boroujeni, 2021)

Clarisse
➔ Research 1 (Foreign)

Content here.

➔ Research 2 (Local)

Content here.

Ronalyn
➔ Research 1 (Foreign): Environmental challenges induced by extensive use of
face masks during COVID-19: A review and potential solutions
- information regarding waste mask generated in selected countries and
structure of mask
- how waste mask affect the environment, in general, and solutions to
reduce mask waste
- applications of extracted polypropylene and polyethylene
I. Waste Mask Generation
A. Data collection
1. Online survey - they conducted an online survey among different age
groups in different countries. Their aim is to identify mask waste
generation and provide information on how it affects the environment.
The questions include:
○ the types of mask
○ amount of mask usage per week
○ methods of mask disposal
2. Literature review - they collected other additional information
B. Result in online survey
1. People with age 26-45 showed more interest in participating. 96% of
the research population wear masks, 3% rarely, and 1% have never
used due to their pre-existing medical condition.
○ Majority of them used surgical masks (40%)
○ This survey discovered that 25% of them generate 5 mask
waste per week, hence, an individual generates at least one
mask per day
 ○ 34% and 11% dispose the mask as mixed waste and
hazardous waste, respectively, 19% just throws away their
mask in the street, 12% washes and dispose the mask, 10% of
them burn the mask, and 3% flush it in toilets
II. Structure of a Mask
A. Surgical Mask
○ Layers: (1) an outer hydrophobic non-woven layer (translucent), (2)
middle melt-blown layer (generally in white colour), and (3) an inner
soft absorbent non-woven layer (green, blue, or white colour)
○ Weight: 3.5 g
B. N95
○ Layers: (1) an outer layer of spunbond polypropylene, (2) a
cellulose/polyester layer, (3) melt-blown polypropylene filter material
layer, and (4) an inner layer of spun-bound polypropylene
○ Weight: 18.14 g
➢ The ear loops of both face masks were made of natural and synthetic
polyisoprene (i.e. latex-free) rubber.
C. Cloth Mask
○ There are mostly two kinds of cloth masks, "commercial cloth masks"
and "homemade cloth masks" (Santarsiero et al., 2020a; Santarsiero
et al., 2020b). These cloth masks are made of multi layered cloth like
old t-shirts and sewing material (Ayse et al., 2020).
III. Impact of Mask Waste on the Environment
A. It gets into the freshwater and marine water which adds the presence of
plastics into the aquatic medium.
B. The production of the face masks also contributes to the emission of CO2,
which will potentially contribute to global warming (Liebsch, 2020).
C. The mask production releases CO2-eq.
D. Most plastics are chemically stable, resistant to corrosion and difficult to
degrade by microorganisms (Webb et al., 2013).
E. Discarded masks can affect the animals.
F. Fragmentation of the macro plastic in the mask could occur.
IV. Solutions to Reduce Mask Waste
A. Mask rotation - mask is dried for long enough periods (>72 hrs) and is reused.
They either hang it to dry or keep them in a paper bag between uses.
Decontamination can also be done through moist heat, dry heat, UV
treatment, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) vaporization.
B. Recycling - there are 2 ways for recycling; (1) primary recycling is reusing the
product in its original structure, and (2) in secondary recycling, the mask that
 consists of thermoplastic can be reused (re-processed into different end
products).
○ Different types of recycling methods such as mechanical recycling,
chemical recycling and incineration have been used for the extraction
of polypropylene from plastic wastes.
C. Biodegradable mask - bioplastic, a type of biodegradable plastic derived from
biological substance, and biodegradable polymers can be an option to
replace the polypropylene. These masks are not widely known as they are
produced in limited countries only.
V. Use of recycled waste face masks as a composite material
➢ The polypropylene pyrolysis was carried out using a two-stage continuous
process equipped with auger and fluidized bed reactors linked in sequence
(Park et al., 2020; Park et al., 2019)
➢ Existing technologies used to extract the plastic derivatives from waste have
the potential to separate the plastic particles in the mask wastes.
a. These extracted recycled polyethylene and polypropylene derivatives
were used in road construction as a partial replacement for
asphalt/bitumen (Williams-Wynn and Naidoo, 2020).
b. A study by Arulrajah et al., 2017 also investigated the feasibility of
using recycled plastic waste granules blends with crushed brick and
reclaimed asphalt pavement for road construction.
c. The latest invention from mask waste has proved strongly that the
face mask can be used for sustainable brick manufacturing (Adlakha,
2020).
VI. Additional information from this journal
● A study by Akber et al. (2020) highlighted that the amount of polypropylene in
surgical masks and N95 masks are 4.5 g and 9 g, respectively. A minimum of
about 2.5 kt, 0.6 kt, 0.04 kt plastic (i.e. polypropylene) waste were generated,
respectively from India, USA, Australia per week.
● The polypropylene (i.e. known as plastic) is used as a major material to
produce this surgical mask. However, other polymers like polystyrene,
polycarbonate, polyethylene or polyester are also used to produce this mask
(Akber et al., 2020). The typical raw materials used to produce N95 masks
are polypropylene similar to the surgical mask (Barycka et al., 2020).
● A study was conducted in the UK and analyzed that if each individual uses
one disposable surgical mask every day for a year, this would create over
124,000 tons of unrecyclable plastic waste 66,000 tons of contaminated
waste and 57,000 tons of plastic packaging (Ayse et al., 2020).
 ● This study shows that the woven technology used in the filter of the surgical
mask can be made with biodegradable plant fibers.
● A study by Hama and Hilal, 2017 concluded that the addition of fine, coarse,
and mixed plastic wastes to self-consolidating concrete (SCC) enhanced its
fresh properties, such as passing capability and filling capacity, at 12.5%
replacement level of plastic by weight of fine aggregate.
Reference:
Selvaranjan, K., Navaratnam, S., Rajeev, P., & Ravintherakumaran, N. (2021).
Environmental challenges induced by extensive use of face masks during COVID-19: A
review and potential solutions. Environmental Challenges, 3, 100039.

➔ Research 2 (Local): Recycling of Waste Coconut Shells as Substitute for

Aggregates in Mix Proportioning of Concrete Hollow Blocks
- researchers used coconut shells and fiber as aggregates in
developing concrete hollow blocks
I. Purpose of the study
1. Explore the use of coconut shells and fibers as an aggregate.
2. Analyze the performance and the effectiveness of the coconut shells and
fibers as aggregates in concrete hollow blocks in terms of physical and
mechanical properties in order to obtain a design technical specification of
concrete hollow blocks.
II. Methods
1. Sample - they used coconut shells and fiber
2. Mix design - they use a measured amount of sand, coconut shell, fiber, water,
and Portland cement and are then mixed for 6-8 minutes.
3. Curing - it is cured for 7, 14, and 28 days and on these dates, the specimen
will undergo laboratory tests such as compressive strength test, moisture
content, and absorption
4. Physical property test - they used sieve analysis, specific gravity, and
moisture content
5. Mechanical property test - they used compressive strength test
III. Results
1. Physical properties
a. Color: CHB with coconut and fiber is much darker than the commercial
CHB. (Commercial CHB: Gray; CHB with coconut and fiber: Dark
Gray)
b. Texture: The texture of both specimens are absolutely rough.
c. Size: Both CHB have a dimension of 100 mm × 400 mm × 800 mm.
 d. Density: CHB with coconut shell and fiber has a density of 1213.59
kg/m³ while commercial CHB has a density of 1529 kg/m³.
2. Mechanical properties
a. Compressive strength test: CHB with coconut and fiber reached a load
capacity 65 KN to 84.99 KN for 28 days of age while the commercial
CHB reached a load capacity 25.09 KN to 27.07 KN. CHB with
coconut and fiber have doubled the average load a commercial CHB
can handle.
b. Modulus of elasticity: CHB w/ coconut shell sand fiber has the greater
modulus of elasticity rather than commercial CHB.
c. Modulus of rupture: CHB with coconut shell and fiber modulus of
rupture for 7th, 4th and 28th days are 0.392 MPa, 0.54 MPa, and 0.40
MPa, respectively.
d. Moisture content: CHB with coconut shell and fiber have lesser
moisture content and water absorption than the commercial CHB.
e. Thermal conductivity at cold temperature: CHB with coconut shell and
fiber can resist freezing gained a large value of the load. In cold
temperatures, CHB with coconut shell and fiber has a load capacity of
96.69 KN and stress capacity of 4.69 MPa.
f. Thermal conductivity at warm temperature: CHB with coconut shell
and fiber has a load capacity of 50.47 KN and stress capacity of
2.97MPa.
g. Fire resistances of CHB with coconut shell and fiber: CHB with
coconut shell and fiber can resist in a fire. This means that CHB with
coconut shells and fiber can resist high temperatures. The results at
28th days attained an average load capacity of 64.15 KN and 3.175
MPa for average stress.
IV. Conclusions
1. The physical properties of CHB with coconut shell and fiber affect the quantity
and quality in terms of production.
2. The compressive strength of CHB with coconut shell and fiber attained the
highest average loads and stress compared to commercial CHB.
3. The thermal conductivity of CHB with coconut shell and fiber for cold and
warm temperature resist freezing and heating gained a large value of the
load.
4. The fire resistance of CHB with coconut shell and fiber affects its mechanical
properties in terms of compressive strength.
5. The CHB with coconut shell and fiber exceeds the minimum strength of
commercial CHB at 28 days.
 6. The good indicators of CHB with coconut shell and fibers are particles shape
and texture, resistance to crushing, absorption and surface moisture, grading,
resistance to freezing and heating and lightweight.
7. The CHB with coconut shell and fiber is used as an alternative coarse
aggregate for CHB.
Reference:
Ganiron, T. Jr., Ucol-Ganiron, N., Ganiron, T. III. (2017). Recycling of Waste Coconut
Shells as Substitute for Aggregates in Mix Proportioning of Concrete Hollow Blocks. The
Scientific World Journal 77(2): 107-123.

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