Architectural Science II (Water & sewage) – ARCH 3232

CHAPTER TWO
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN BUILDIGNS

2.1. INTRODUCTION
At any point within a building, a water distribution system must deliver an adequate water pressure and
volume to operate the fixtures or equipment that it serves, without excessive noise, under all conditions
of normal use.

Mains Connection
After being treated, water is distributed from the Water Supplier to individual buildings and domestic
premises through a network of pipes known as mains. The local mains supply provides the ‘final leg’ for
the supply of water to buildings and domestic dwellings. The Water Supplier is also responsible for the
ferrule connection of a new or replacement supply pipe to the distribution main.

The connection between the main and the consumer’s stop tap is made using a ferrule. The ferrule is
basically a valve that is tapped into the main, with a connection to the supply pipe. The ferrule can be
turned off in order to isolate the supply pipe. Once the ferrule connection is completed, the connection
between the supply pipe and the consumer’s stop valve can take place. Figure below shows the
completed ferrule installation. Note the gooseneck in the service pipe.

Fig: Ferrule and goose neck

The purpose of the gooseneck is to allow for any ground movement, e.g. subsidence or shrinkage that
may take place. If the pipe is laid straight, the ground movement can damage the pipe causing it to split
or fracture.
Fig: 1-Details from the mains to the internal stop tap, 2- Typical Water Meter

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1 2
Installation of external stop valves
As you can see in Figure above, the supply pipe to the building can be isolated from the main by
installing an external stop valve. This enables the external supply to be isolated for maintenance and
emergency reasons, so easy access to the stop valve is very important. The top of the chamber has a
robust stop valve cover. A stop valve cover is generally made from steel plate or a combination of steel
plate and plastic.

Installation of internal stop valves

The internal stop valve within a building must be: In an accessible position Fitted above the floor level as
close as reasonably practicable to where the supply enters the building Installed so that when closed, it
will prevent the flow of water to all distribution points within the building. The installation must include
a drain tap immediately above the stop valve, so that if it is turned off, the cold water in the pipe work
can be drained off for repair work, or in instances, where a building may be left empty for a long period
of time, especially through the winter months.

Installation of Water Meter

They can be installed externally in a purpose-made chamber, or fitted internally on the supply pipe, at
the point where it enters the building which is the most preferred practical method. This type would
most likely be fitted externally. Meters are also available that are suitable for installation inside a
dwelling. The meter measures in cubic meters (1 cubic meter = 1000 liters or 220 gallons), the actual
quantity of water used by the consumer, and on billing, the consumer is charged for the metered
amount used.

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2.2. COLD WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

There are two types of cold-water system:

1. Direct system
2. Indirect system

Direct System (An up-feed system)

Direct system is a water distribution system in which the water is supplied and fed upward through the
vertical piping to the highest point of the system that may be fed using the pressure available. With a
direct system, the cold water is supplied directly from the mains supply to all the draw-off points within
the building, i.e. kitchen sink, bath, washbasin, WC, etc, as shown in Figure below.

Fig.: Direct System

Indirect System (A down-feed system)
Indirect System is a water distribution system in which the water distribution main is located at the top
of the pressure zone; the distribution main supplies the vertical piping (risers) that distributes water
downward to the lowest point of the zone. With an indirect system, only one draw-off point, usually the
kitchen sink tap is supplied directly, and this is used for drinking water purposes.

The supply then goes on to feed the cold-water storage cistern (CWSC); which is usually found in the
roof space of the building or dwelling. The CWSC is used to supply water to the remaining draw-off
points indirectly

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Fig.: Indirect System

A pressure zone is an area of a building (it may be an entire floor, several floors, or the entire building)
supplied with water having a common pressure origin or a common supply. Buildings having more than
one pressure zone are described as having multiple pressure zones.

In low-rise buildings, the water pressure in the public water mains is usually sufficient to distribute the
water to the hydraulically most remote point. When the pressure of the water main is not sufficient for
this purpose, the pressure must be increased or “boosted or pumped,” as described in this chapter and
the one that follows.

Therefore, when planning or designing any water distribution the basic physical laws must be
considered:
1. Water is subject to the force of gravity and will find its own level.
2. To overcome friction within the conveying pipes water which is stored prior to distribution
will require to be under pressure and this is normally achieved by storing the water at a
level above the level of the outlets. The vertical distance between these levels is usually
called the head.
3. Water becomes less dense as its temperature is raised; therefore, warm water will always
displace colder water whether in a closed or open circuit.

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DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN LOW-RISE BUILDINGS

Single Pressure Zone

Where the pressure in the water main is sufficient to distribute water throughout an entire building, a direct

system is used. In this system, there is a single pressure zone; i.e., all floors in the building are supplied with water
using the pressure in the water main.

Fig. An up-feed water distribution system in a low-rise building

The height of building that may be served without pumps to boost the water pressure depends on the available

pressure in the water main, the requirements of the fixtures, and the applicable plumbing code. Most plumbing
codes place restrictions on the maximum water pressure that may be delivered to a plumbing fixture.

Multiple Pressure Zones

If the pressure in a water main is sufficiently high, it can be used to distribute water in a high building
without a pump to provide additional pressure. Many codes restrict the maximum pressure at any
fixture, under no-flow conditions (i.e., under static pressure conditions), (551 kPa). Therefore, where the
pressure in the main is high, it is necessary to split the water distribution system into multiple pressure
zones so that the pressure in any zone does not exceed the value permitted by code. In order to reduce
the water-main pressure to the maximum pressure permitted by code, a pressure-regulating valve

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(PRV), also called a pressure-reducing valve or pressure regulator, must be used in the water supply
branch to the lower zone.

Fig. An up feed water distribution system in a 15 story building

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

Multiple Pressure Zones

The water supply system for a high-rise building is a combination of distribution systems. Figure 3.5
shows an 83-story high-rise building in which several water distribution systems are installed. Zone 1
typically is supplied by the pressure from the water main-to the extent permitted by the residual
pressure of the water main; it is an up-feed cold-water system.

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FIG.: A water supply system in a high-rise building; several water distribution systems are installed; there are
multiple pressure zones.
Zones 2 through 9 are down-feed systems. Zone 10, the top zone, is fed from a tankers pumping system.
The gravity tank is not sufficiently elevated to supply floors 81 through 83.
It is highly desirable that the static pressure in the down-feed gravity main riser not exceed the listed or
maximum working pressure (i.e., the maximum pressure at which piping materials of the “standard” or
“normally used” type may be installed). This is to avoid the necessity of using “extra strength” piping
materials, which may increase the cost.

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2.3. STORAGE OF WATER IN BUILDING

Water is stored in buildings due to the irregular supply of city water. Normally water is stored in
basement with pump transferring water to roof tanks. Roof tanks could one single tank for the whole
building or separate tanks for each flat.
In the buildings, the storage of water is required for the following purposes:

1. For supplying the water to the consumers during non-supply hours

2. For reducing the maximum rate of demand on the water mains

3. For storage of watering during interruption to damage repair etc. of the water mains

4. When the available head is insufficient to supply the water in each story in multi-story buildings

ESTIMATING STORAGE CAPACITY

The quantity of water to be stored depends on the following factors.
a. Rate of supply of water from water works
b. Type of building such as residential, public or industrial
c. Whether water supply is continuous or intermittent
d. Frequency replenishment of overhead tanks, during the 24 hour

Types of Storage Tanks

Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:
1. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)
2. Elevated reservoir (Overhead Tank)

Accessories of Storage Tanks

The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:
1. Float operated supply valve: To maintain the correct water level in the cistern/storage tank/
2. Inlet Pipe: For the entry of water
3. Ladder: To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for inspection
and cleaning
4. Lightening Conductor: In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
5. Manholes: For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
6. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water

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7. Screened overflow Pipe: For the exit of water above full supply level.
8. Vent pipes: For free circulation of air
9. Washout pipe: For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
10. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.

In order to reduce the risk of waterborne diseases in water storage systems, it is recommended that the
outlet connection be positioned as near as possible to the bottom of the cistern. This allows any small
particles that may be present to pass through the system, preventing an unhealthy buildup of sediment
at the base of the cistern.

Fig.: Accessories of Storage Tanks

Materials used for cisterns

Today, cisterns used for domestic installations are made from nonmetallic materials conforming to the
requirements of British Standard BS 4213 rather than galvanized ones that are still in practice. Typical
materials are:
Polyethylene Olefin copolymer
Polypropylene Fiber glass
Polyolefin Reinforced plastic.

CWSCs manufactured from these materials are:

Light Corrosion resistant
Hygienic Flexible.
Cisterns are available in a range of sizes and shapes including square, rectangular or circular. They are
generally manufactured in black as this restricts the growth of algae (a type of green microorganism).

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2.4. HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Properties of hot water in practice
To produce hot water some form of heat is required; heat is a form of energy created by chemical
change or friction. In the case of domestic hot water systems, they are heated by burning fuels, such as
oil, gas or solid fuels or using electricity. Solar water heating panels collect heat directly from sunshine.

The intensity of heat is expressed as temperature, which can be measured using equipment such as a
thermometer or a thermostat. The temperature in a domestic hot water system rarely exceeds 85C.

TYPES OF HOT WATER SYSTEMS

There are a number of factors that will influence the design and type of hot water system. Much will
depend on the type of building that it is going to be installed into, availability of fuel types and of course
the requirements of the consumer.
The following factors should be taken into consideration prior to system selection and design.
Fuel cost and overall efficiency of the system
Hot water demand requirements
Storage and distribution temperature
Installation and maintenance costs
Safety of the user
Waste of water and energy

HOT WATER SYSTEM SELECTION

Hot water systems can range from a simple single point outlet, to the more complex centralized boiler
systems supplying hot water to a number of outlets. The BS 6700 sets out several ways of supplying hot
water, and generally they are divided into two types, centralized and localized.

Centralized system
With this type of system, the heated water can be stored, usually centrally within the building, supplying
a system of pipe work to various draw-off points. Stored means water held in a vessel until required,
with the water temperature usually controlled by a thermostat.

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Localized system
With this type of system, the water is heated locally to meet the requirements of the consumer, a
typical example being a single point instantaneous water heater sited over a sink. These are often used
in situations where a long distribution pipe-run from a stored system would lead to an unnecessary wait
for hot water to be drawn off. Not only does this save energy and reduces the wastage of water, it also
helps prevent the risk of growth of microorganisms such as Legionella in the system.

Instantaneous supply
Instantaneous, as the name implies, means that there is a readily available (instant) supply of hot water
at the outlet, and only the amount of water drawn off is heated.

TYPES OF WATER HEATERS

In a centralized water heater, the source of heat (gas, oil, or electricity) is located where the water is
heated. This is in contrast to a localized water heater, where the water is heated by a remotely located
heat source. Some of water heaters used in practice are gas-fired heaters, oil fired heaters and electric
water heaters.

Electric Water Heaters

In general, electric water heaters are fully automatic and have a storage tank, one or more electric
heating elements, and operating and safety controls. The heating elements are available in a variety of
standard voltages and wattages to meet the specific requirements of the installation. It is often
economical to heat water during off-peak periods when the cost of electricity is lowest and stores the
water for later use during peak demand periods. For larger electrically heated hot-water systems, this
type of control is essential to minimize the cost of electric power for water heating.
The use of an electric water heater is advantageous because;
a) This type of heater does not require a supply of combustion air,
b) It does not require venting to the outdoors,
c) It does not require a chimney,
d) It is inherently a clean system-no soot or grime is generated, and so it may be installed
in areas of a building where a heater fired by a fossil fuel may be impractical,

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e) It may reduce space requirements for a heater, and

f) The possibility of fuel leakage is obviated
2.5. HOT WATER STORAGE SYSTEMS
Hot water systems can be categorized as being:
Direct
Indirect
Sealed/unvented
Mains thermal store
Combination

Direct system (vented)

The system works on the principle of convection in which water is heated from a gas circulator or a solid
fuel boiler, or in some instances, hot water can be provided solely using an electric immersion heater,
controlled by a thermostat.

The immersion heater is inserted directly into the water through a boss fitting at the top of the storage
vessel, or in some cases two small immersion heaters are used at the top and the base of the storage
vessel thus ensuring that the whole of the vessel is heated during peak demand. The temperature is
controlled by a thermostat

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Fig: Vented Direct System

Indirect Systems (Vented)

In this system, water is heated by a boiler, which is usually adequately sized to allow for the provision of
a central heating circuit. The hot water from the boiler is conveyed to the storage vessel via primary flow
and return pipes.

The storage vessel is fitted with an internal heat exchanger, usually in the form of a coil or an annulus.
The heated water passes through the heat exchanger, heating the stored water within the vessel, and
then returning back to the boiler. This water does not mix with the stored water within the vessel, and
requires an independent feed and expansion cistern to supply it

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Fig: Vented Indirect System

2.6. WATER PUMPS

The operation of lifting water or any fluid is called pumping. Pump, a mechanical machine, is used for
lifting water or any fluid to a higher elevation or at higher pressures.

Types of Pumps
Pumps are primarily of three types: centrifugal, reciprocating, and rotary. The most common pump
used in residential and commercial buildings is the centrifugal type. The other types are used in special
industrial applications-for example, reciprocating pumps are used in actuating large forming presses and
rotary pumps in transporting viscous liquids.
A centrifugal pump illustrated in Fig. below, is a continuously acting pump that moves liquid by
accelerating it radially outward in a rotating member (called an impeller) to a surrounding case. The
impeller is essentially a rotating disk with vanes attached to it. Arrows indicate the direction of rotation
and the direction of flow. The vanes on the impeller are curved backward, since this shape provides the
most stable flow characteristics.

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Fig.: Centrifugal pump

PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
Capacity
The capacity Q of a pump is the rate of flow of liquid through the impeller expressed in gallons per
minute, gpm (cubic meters per hour, m3/h).

Total Head
Head (h) is the energy per unit weight of a fluid due to

a) Its pressure head (hp)

b) Its velocity head (hv) and
c) Its elevation head (Z) above some datum.

It is commonly expressed as the height of a column of water in feet (or meters) which is necessary to
develop a specific pressure. The total head developed by a pump is equal to the discharge head hd minus
the suction head hs. The discharge head is the energy per unit weight of fluid on the discharge side of
the pump. The suction head is the energy per unit weight on the suction side of the pump. According to
these definitions:

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Therefore, by definition, the total head H is equal to the difference between the above two equations.

If there is some distance between the points of measurement of the discharge head and the suction
head, there will be a friction loss head hf that must be added to the above equation. Values of hf in pipes
and fittings can be determined from data given in several handbooks.

The pressure head (hP) is given by:

Where, P = pressure in newton’s per square meter, or Pascal’s, and

y = specific weight of the liquid in newtons per cubic meter.
The velocity head (hv) is given by;

Where, V = velocity in meters per second and

g = acceleration of gravity in meters per second per second.

The static head (Z) is the static elevation measured in feet (meters) at the same point where the
pressure is measured. Note that if a pressure gage is used, the center of the gage is the measurement
point for the static head. The centerline of the pump impeller is usually used as the reference point for
such measurements.

Input Power
The input power or brake horsepower (Pp) required to drive such a pump also varies with capacity, as
shown in Fig. below.

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FIG.: Centrifugal pump performance characteristics.

Output Power
The pump output power or water horsepower (PW) is given by

Where Q = capacity of the pump, m3/h

H = total head, m
S = specific gravity of liquid pumped
Efficiency
The efficiency in percent with which the pump operates is the ratio of the output power to the input
power multiplied by 100. It is given by:

Efficiency varies with capacity, as shown in Fig. above, reaching a maximum value at one capacity where
the sum of all losses is a minimum.

Net Positive Suction Head

Net positive suction head (NPSH) is the total suction head in feet (meters) of liquid in absolute pressure
terms determined at the pump impeller, minus the vapor pressure of the liquid in feet (meters). The net
positive suction head required (NPSHR)by the pump is determined by test and is the NPSH value at
which the pump total head has decreased by 3 percent because of low suction head and resulting

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cavitation within the pump. In multistage pumps, the 3 percent head reduction refers to the first stage
head. As illustrated in Fig. above, the NPSHR increases with capacity.
Speed
Usually a centrifugal pump is driven by a constant-speed electric motor. However, it is more efficient to
control a pump by a variable-speed drive. The extra cost of variable-speed drives can be justified by the
resultant savings in electric power.

Centrifugal pump characteristics vary with speed according to the following relationships.

The total head vs. capacity characteristics for a typical pump at several different speeds are illustrated in
Fig. below.

FIG.: Variable-speed pump curve.

System Head Curve

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In order to move liquid through any system of pipes, the pump must produce a total head equal to or
greater than the total head required by the system. The system head usually increases with flow rate,
and if plotted vs. capacity, it is called the A system head curve.

The shape of the system head curve is an important consideration in the proper selection of a pump in
building services. The total head required to pump liquid through a system is the sum of the static head
and the head due to friction loss in the system.

FIG.6.8 System head curves.

If a typical pump characteristic curve is combined with either of the above system head curves, a result
such as that shown in Fig. below is obtained.

FIG. 6.9 Pump curve plus system head curve.

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The pump will operate where the pump curve intersects with the system head curve; at this point the
full flow required will be pumped. Because the pump is subject to wear, the total head output is
reduced. As a result, there is a reduction in flow. However, note that the reduction is greater when there
is a high static head than when the head is due only to friction losses. Hence, it is important that the
system head curve and pump characteristic curve be compared at the time of pump selection to ensure
that a 10 percent reduction in pump output, due to wear, does not result in a significant reduction in
flow rate.

Pump Efficiency
Centrifugal pumps are more efficient at high flow rates and moderate heads than at low flow rates and
high heads.

PUMP APPLICATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Booster Pumps
A booster pump is a pump used to increase the pressure in a water supply line. Water usually is supplied
by most utility water companies at a pressure of 500 kPa. This is adequate for most relatively low
buildings but is inadequate for buildings of 5 to 10 stories or higher. To provide additional pressure, one
or more booster pumps may be required.

Booster pumps require no special design features; most of them can be used if properly selected for
head and capacity. On the other hand, the capacity demand on such pumps may vary from a day-time
maximum to a night-time low of practically nothing. Such operation wastes power and causes rapid
wear in pumps. For these reasons, water reserve tanks on the roof of the building or tanks under air
should be used to even out demand. A pressure switch and check valve should be used to shut down the
booster pump automatically when it is not required.

Pumps for Circulating Hot and Cold Water

Central heating and air-conditioning systems may require the circulation of hot or cold water for space heating or
cooling. In such applications, quiet operation of the circulator pump is important. Pump noise can be carried

through the piping system and be a source of disturbance in quiet rooms some distance away. To minimize noise

generation, besides implementing other noise control measures, the rotational speed of the pump is often limited

to 1800 rpm. It is also helpful to select a pump that provides wide clearance between the impeller and casing

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volute tongue, with a minimum value of 15 percent of the impeller radius, since this will minimize hydraulic
pulsations and therefore the generation of noise.

For water circulation systems, an in-line circulator pump is usually used. These pumps are generally operated at
low speeds with a very flexible coupling between the pump and motor and cushioned motor mountings to
minimize the transmission of motor noise to the circulation system.

The circulation of water in high-rise buildings sometimes presents problems because a high-pressure system may
be required to accommodate the height of the vertical pipes. Steel pump casings may be required to withstand the
high system pressure; care must be taken to ensure that mechanical seals also can withstand these pressures,
particularly in hot-water systems. A high-pressure hot-water system is difficult to seal because the hot water turns
to steam between the seal faces, thereby eliminating any lubricating or cooling action. As a result, the seal faces
wear quickly.

Fire Pumps
Fire pumps are designed for connection to automatic sprinkler systems; they are rarely, if ever, used.
However, they are usually turned on periodically for a short time to ensure their proper operation if
needed. For sprinkler systems that use well water as a source of supply, vertical turbine pumps are
available.

Sewage Service and Sump Pumps

A sump is a tank or pit, located below the normal grade of the gravity system that receives and temporarily stores
sewage or liquid waste, and is emptied by means of a pump called a sump pump or sewage pump.

Sewage pumps are centrifugal pumps of special design, having impellers that can pump large pieces of solid matter
without clogging. Even the smallest pumps of this type are subject to the requirement that the impeller pass a
sphere 6.4cm in diameter. In addition to wide impellers, hand holes are provided in the pump casing for access to
remove obstacles that may lodge in the pump. Such a pump usually is mounted vertically to save floor space in the
confined area of a sump. This arrangement raises the motor relatively high so that it is protected in the event of
flooding of the sump. Many installations purposely raise the motor even higher with an extended drive shaft.

Other installations include the vertical sump pump of the volute type. If used for handling sanitary sewage, the
impeller of such a pump must have the same solids-handling capability described above. If the pump is used to
remove storm and other runoff water, a more conventional impeller can be used. In either case, the design and

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lubrication of the lower support bearing is of paramount importance since this bearing is the weakest component
in the structure. A hard shaft sleeve which runs in a wear-resistant material is important. It will prolong the life of
the pump if this bearing is flushed periodically with an independent source of clean water.

Submersible pumps are frequently used in sewage and sump application. A submersible pump is usually of close-
coupled construction with the electric motor protected by a waterproof housing that permits the pump and motor
to be submerged in the liquid to be pumped. Such a pump may be mounted on a slide rail to permit removal from
the sump for service with a minimum of effort. The pressure connection between the casing and the piping is
designed for automatic release when the pump is removed from the sump.

Vertical sump pumps are mounted to the floor above the sump. A rigid floor supporting the pump is extremely

important to avoid vibration problems. The floor should have a natural frequency of vibration well above the
operating speed of the pump.

Pump Installation
The most critical steps in any installation include the following;

Rigidly support the foundation of a pump. This is particularly important with vertically mounted
pumps, which are more likely to vibrate excessively because of resonance with relatively flimsy
supports.
Minimize piping strain where practical. Pumps should not be used as pipe hangers or supports.
Excessive forces on pumps from expanding or heavy pipes should be avoided.
Accurately align the pump and drive shaft to minimize vibration and load on pump and motor
bearings.
Ensure that the inlet piping is relatively straight where it is connected to the pump so that flow
entering the impeller is uniform.
Avoid water hammer (described in Chap. 11) by avoiding control valves or check valves which
quickly stop the flow of water, thereby creating a surge in pressure.

Centrifugal Pump Operation

Centrifugal pumps are usually designed to operate continuously without problems for at least 5 years. Proper
lubrication of bearings and adjustment of stuffing box packing at regular intervals are important. It is also

common to replace mechanical seals regularly. In addition, to ensure proper operation of the pump,

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Operate the pump as closely as possible to its point of highest efficiency. When pumps operate
below 50 percent of this value, re-circulating flow within the impeller can result in cavitation and
excessive forces on the shaft and bearings, causing damage.
Avoid pumping abrasive solids. Most centrifugal pumps are not designed to handle liquid with
abrasive solids. Although this is generally not a problem in building services, sump pumps may
collect dirt with water runoff. Therefore, a settling chamber upstream of the sump pump is
helpful.
Provide sufficient NPSH margin. The value of net positive suction head required by the pump is
indicated by the pump manufacturer. This value is based on a pump test with some cavitation
occurring. Experience shows that to avoid cavitation, about 5 times this value may be required.
However, if the output power of a pump is below 300 hp (400 kw), an NPSH value equal to the
NPSH required by the pump will usually result in satisfactory pump life.

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