Deflection of Beams

and Shafts
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
■
To determine the deflection and slope at specific points on
beams and shafts using the integration method, discontinuity
functions, and the method of superposition.
■
To use the method of superposition to solve for the support
reactions on a beam or shaft that is statically indeterminate.

16.1 The Elastic Curve

The deflection of a beam or shaft must often be limited in order to provide
integrity and stability of a structure or machine., and prevent the cracking
of any attached brittle materials such as concrete or glass. Furthermore,
code restrictions often require these members not vibrate or deflect
severely in order to safely support their intended loading. Most important,
though, deflections at specific points on a beam or shaft must be
determined if one is to analyze those that are statically indeterminate.
Before the slope or the displacement at a point on a beam (or shaft) is
determined, it is often helpful to sketch the deflected shape of the beam
when it is loaded, in order to "visualizes' any computed results and
thereby partially check these results. The deflection curve of the P
longitudinal axis that passes through the centroid of each cross-sectional
area of a beam is called the elastic curve. For most beams the elastic
curve can be sketched without much difficulty. When doing so, however,
it is necessary to know how the slope or displacement is restricted at
various types of supports. In general. supports that resist a force, such as
a pin, restrict displacement, and those. that resist a moment, such as a
fixed wall, restrict rotation or slope as well as displacement. With this in
mind, two typical examples of the elastic curves for loaded beams
(or shafts), sketched to an exaggerated scale. are shown in Fig. 16-1. Fig. 16-1
718 CHAPTER 16 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND SHAFTS

+A/tell!. If the elastic curve for a beam seems difficult to establish, it is suggested
that the moment diagram for the beam be drawn first. Using the beam
sign convention established in Sec. 11.1, a positive internal moment tends
Positive internal moment
concave upwards to bend the. beam concave upward, Fig. 16-2a. Likewise, a negative
(a) moment tends to bend the beam concave downward, Fig. 16-2b.
Therefore, if the moment diagram is known, it will be easy to construct
the elastic curve,. For example. consider the beam in Fig. 16-30 with its
associated moment diagram shown in Fig. 16-35. Due to the roller and
w
Negative internal moment pin supports, the displacement at B and D must be zero. Within the.
concave downwards region of negative moment, AC, Fig. 16-35, the elastic curve must be
(b) concave downward, and within the region of positive moment, CD, the
elastic curve must be concave upward. Hence, there must be an inflection
Fig. 16-2
point at point C, where the curve changes from concave up to concave
down, since this is a point of zero moment. Using these facts. the beam's
elastic curve is sketched in Fig. 16-3e. It should also be noted that the
displacements AA and AE are especially critical. At point E the slope of
the elastic curve is zero, and there the beam's deflection may be a
ma_xlimun. Whether AE is actually greater than A,4 depends on the
relative magnitudes of PI and F2 and the location of the roller at B.
Following these same principles, note how the elastic curve in Fig. 16--1.
was constructed. Here the beam is cantilevered from a fixed support at A
and therefore the elastic curve must have both zero displacement and
zero slope at this point. Also, the largest displacement will occur either at
D, where the slope is zero,or at C.

P2

■
(a) (a) A
M
)

A (b)
Moment diagram Moment diagram

A
(c) I AD
Inflection point
Inflection point Elastic curve

Elastic curve Fig. 16-4

Fig. 16-3
 16.1 THE ELASTIC CURVE 719

Moment-Curvature Relationship. We will now develop an

important relationship between the internal moment and the radius of
curvature p (rho) of the elastic curve at a point. The resulting equation
will be used for establishing each of the methods presented in the chapter
for finding the slope and displacement at points on the elastic curve.
The following analysis, here and in the next section, will require the use
of three coordinates. As shown in Fig. 16-5a, the x axis extends positive
to the right, along the initially straight longitudinal axis of the beam. It is
used to locate the differential clement, having an undeformed width eh.
The v axis extends positive upward from the x axis. It measures the
displacement of the elastic curve. Lastly, a "localized" y coordinate is
used to specify the position of a fiber in the beam clement. It is measured
positive upward from th c neutral axis (or elastic curve) as shown in
Fig. 16-5b. Recall that this same sign convention for x and %p was used in
the derivation of the flexure formula.
To derive the relationship between the internal moment and p, we
will limit the analysis to the most common case of an initially straight
beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied perpendicular to the
beam's x axis and lying in the x-v plane of symmetry for the. beam's
cross-sectional area. Due to the loading, the deformation of the beam is
caused by both the internal shear force and bending moment. If the
beam has a length that is much greater than its depth, the greatest
deformation will be caused by bending, and therefore we will direct our
attention to its effects.

cis

rls

Before After
deformation deformation

(u) (b)

Fig. 16-5
720 CHAPTER 16 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND SHAFTS

When the internal moment M deforms the clement of the beam, the
angle between the cross sections becomes de, Fig. 16-51). The arc six
represents a portion of the elastic curve that intersects the neutral axis
for each cross section. The radius of curvature for this arc is defined as
the distance p, which is measured from the center of curvature 0' to dx.
Any arc on the element other than six is subjected to a normal strain. For
example, the strain in arc cis, located at a position y from the neutral axis,
is e = (ds. - d.s.) c s. However, ds = cfx = p de and ifs' = (p - y) de,
and so e = [(p - y) & - p dO] / p de or

de
(164)
— dx dx

If the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear-elastic manner,

then Hook_ess law applies, e = 01E. Also, since the flexure formula
Before Mite r
deform [ion de forma [ion applies, u = -My/1. Combining these. two equations and substituting
into the above equation, we have
(b)

Fig 16-5 (cont.)

I M
(16-2)
p E1

where

p = the radius of curvature at the point on the elastic curve

(1 / p is referred to as the curvature)
M = the internal moment in the beam at the point
E = the material's modulus of elasticity
1 = the beam's moment of inertia about the neutral axis

The product El in this equation is referred to as the flexural rigidity,

and it is always a positive quantity. The sign for p therefore depends on
the direction of the moment. As shown in Fig. 16-6, when M is positive,
p extends above the beam, i.e., in the positive v direction; when M is
negareve. p extends below the beam. or in the negative 'v direction.
0'
Using the flexure formula, a- = -My/I, we can also express the
Fig. 16-6 curvature in terms of the stress in the beam, namely,

1 o-
=-— (16-3)
p Ey

Both Eqs. 16-2 and 16-3 are valid for either small or large radii of
curvature. However, the value of p is almost always calculated as a very
large quantity. For example, consider an A-36 steel beam made from a
W l4 >c 53 (Appendix C), where Eyl = 29( '03) ksi and 0- y = 36 ksi. When
the material at the outer fibers, v = ±7 in., is about to yield, then. from
Eq.16-3,p = 5639 in. Values of p calculated at other points along the
beam's elastic curve may be even larger, since 0- cannot exceed (T y at the
outer fibers.
 16.2 SLOPE AND DISPLACEMENT BY INTEGRATION 721

16.2 Slope and Displacement by

Integration
The equation of the elastic curve for a beam can be expressed
mathematically as v = f(x). To obtain this equation, we must first
represent the curvature (11p) in terms of v and x. In most calculus books
it is shown that this relationship is
d2u/ebc2

P [1 + (ilv/dx)2]3/2

Substituting into Eq. 16-2, we have

6/213/thc2
(16-4)
[l + (dv dx)2]3/2 El

Th is equation represents a nonlinear second-order differential equation.

Its solution, which is called the elastica,gives the exact shape of the elastic
curve, assuming, of course, that beam deflections occur only due to
bending. Through the use of higher mathematics. elastica solutions have
been obtained only for simple cases of beam geometry and loading.
In order to facilitate the solution of a greater number of deflection
problems, Eq. 16-4 can be modified. Most engineering design codes
specify limitations on deflections for tolerance or esthetic purposes, and
as a result the elastic deflections for the majority of beams and shafts
form a shallow curve. Consequently, the slope of the elastic curve.. which
is determined from tiv/d3c, will be very small, and its square will be
negligible compared with unity* Therefore the curvature, as defined
above, can be approximated by 11p = d2D tbr2. Using this simplification,
Eq. 16-4 can now be written as

dv 1
(16-5)
dx2 =

It is also possible to write this equation in two alternative. forms. If we

differentiate each side with respect to x and substitute V = dM Idx
(Eq. 11-2), we get

d d2v
El7-)
eb = V (x) (16-6)

Differentiating again, using (Eq. 11-1), yields

d-
(16-7)
dx2 dx 2

*Sec Example 16.1

722 CHAPTER 16 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND SHAFTS

For most problems the flexural rigidity (El) will be constant along the
length of the beam. Assuming this to bc the case, the above results may
be reordered into the following set of three equations:

d4v
EI = w(x)

d3v
= V (x)

d213
= 114(x)
EI de
-

Solution of any of these equations requires successive integrations to

obtain the deflection v of the elastic curve. For each integration it is
necessary to introduce a "constant of integration" and then solve for all
the constants to obtain a unique solution for a particular problem. For
example, if the distributed load w is expressed as a function of x and
Eq. 16-8 is used, then four constants of integration must be evaluated;
however, if the internal moment 111 is determined and Eq. 16-10 is used,
only two constants of integration must be found. The choice of which
equation to start with depends on the problem. Generally, however, it is
easier to determine the internal moment M as a function of x, integrate.
twice, and evaluate only two integration constants.
Recall from Sec. 11.1 that if the loading on a beam is discontinuous,
that is, consists of a series of several distributed and concentrated loads,
then several functions must be written for the internal moment, each
valid within the region between the discontinuities. Also, for convenience.
in writing each moment expression, the origin for each xcoordinate can be.
selected arbitrarily. For example, consider the beam shown in Fig. 16-7a.
'The internal moment in regions AB, BC, and CD can be written in terms
(a) of the _xi ,x2 , and x3 coordinates selected, as shown in either Fig. 16-7b or
Fig. 16-7c, or in fact in any manner that will yield M = f(x) in as simple a
form as possible. Once these functions arc integrated twice through the
use of Eq. 16-10 and the constants of integration determined, the
functions will give the slope and deflection (elastic curve) for each region
of the beam for which they are valid.

1 I
13
A

H x1 k x2 H

(c)

Fig. 16-1
 16.2 SLOPE AND DISPLACEMENT BY INTEGRATION 723

Sign Convention and Coordinates. When applying Eqs.16-8

through 16-10, it is important to use the proper signs for P4', V, or w, as
established by the sign convention that was used in the derivation of
these equations. For review, these terms are shown in their positive
directions in Fig. 16-8a. Furthermore, recall that positive deflection, v,
is upward, and as a result, the positive slope angle 0 will be measured
counterclockwise from the x axis when x is positive to the right. The
reason for this is shown in Fig. 16-85. Here positive increases dx and
dv in x and v create an increased 0 that is counterclockwise.
If, however, positive x is directed to the left, then 8 will be positive
clockwise, Fig. 16-8c.
Realize that by assuming du I dx to be very small, the original horizontal
length of the beam's axis and the arc of its elastic curve will be about
the same. In other words, ids in Fig. 16-85 and 16-8c is approximately The design of a roof system requires a
equal to dx, since J = (dx)2 + =(( 7v/ - dx)2 dx dx. As careful consideration of deflection. For
a result, points on the elastic curve are assumed to be displaced vertically, example, rain can accumulate on areas of the
roof, which then causes ponding, leading to
and not horizontally. Also, since the slope angle 8 will be very small, its
further deflection, then further ponding, and
value in radians can be determined directly from 0 v tan 8 = dv/ebc. finally possible failure of the roof. 16

+4 +V
Positive sign convention

(a)

Or
0'

-Fp
Elastic curve ticp

cI0
+0 tiv
+v
Frix +yr

Positive sign convention Positive sign convention

(b) (c)

Fig. 16-8
724 CHAPTER 16 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND SHAFTS

Boundary and Continuity Conditions. When solving Eqs.

TABLE 16-1
16-8, 16-9, or 16-10, the constants of integration are determined by
evaluating the functions for shear, moment. slope, or displacement at a
particular point on the beam where the value of the function is known.
A=0 These values are called boundary conditions. Several possible boundary
M=0
Roller conditions that are often used to solve beam (or shaft) deflection
2 problems are listed in Table 16-1. For example, if the beam is supported
by a roller or pin (1,2,3,4). then it is required that the displacement be.
A=0 zero at these points. Furthermore. if these supports are located at the
M= ends of the beam (1, 2. ). the internal moment in the beam must also be
Fin zero. At the fixed support (5). the slope and displacement are both zero,
3 whereas the free-ended beam (6) has both zero moment and zero shear.
Lastly, if two segments of a beam are connected by an "internals' pin or
hinge (7). the moment must be zero at this connection.
A=
Roller If the elastic curve cannot be expressed using a single coordinate, then
continuity conditions must be used to evaluate some of the integration
constants. For example, consider the beam in Fig. 16-9a. Here two x
coordinates are chosen with origins at A. Each is valid only within the
- regions 0 xi a and a x2 u + h) Once the functions for the
slope and deflection are obtained, they must give the same values for
5 the slope and deflection at point B so the elastic curve is physically
COMMIWEIS. Expressed mathematically. this requires that Ma) 82(0
and vi(a) = v2(a). These conditions can be used to evaluate two constants
= of integration. If instead the elastic curve is expressed in terms of the
A= 0
Fixed end coordinates 0 a and 0 x2 h, shown in Fig. 16-9b, then the
continuity of slope and deflection at B requires 01(a) = -9,(h) and
// I u) = v2(b). In this particular case, anegasive sign is necessary to match
V=0
the slopes at B since xi extends positive to the right, whereas x, extends
M=0 positive to the left. Consequently, el is positive counterclockwise, and 0,
Free end is positive clockwise. See Figs. 16-8b and 16-8e.
7

M=0
Internal pin or hinge

vI v2
v2

(a) (b)
Fig. 16-9
 16.2 SLOPE AND DISPLACEMENT BY INTEGRATION 725

The following procedure provides a method for determining the

slope and deflection of a beam (or shaft) using the method of
in teg rat ion.

Elastic Curve.
• Draw an exaggerated view of the beam's elastic curve. Recall that
zero slope and zero displacement occur at all fixed supports, and
zero displacement occurs at all pin and roller supports.
• Establish the. x and v coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel
to the undeflected beam and can have an origin at any point
along the beam, with a positive direction either to the right or to
the left. In all cases. the associated positive v axis should be.
directed upward.
• If several discontinuous loads are present, establish A- coordinates
that arc valid for each region of the beam between the
discontinuities. Choose these coordinates so that they will
simplify subsequent algebraic work.

Load or Moment Function.

• For each region in which there is an x coordinate, express the
loading w or the internal moment M as a function of x. In
particular, always assume that M acts in the positive direction.
when applying the equation of moment equilibrium to determine.
M= fix).
Slope and Elastic Curve.
• Provided El is constant, apply either the load equation
El d 4v/dx4 = w(x), which requires four integrations to get
v= v(x), or the moment equation El 4:12 v/dx2 = M(x), which
requires only two integrations. For each integration it is
important to include a constant of integration.
• The constants are evaluated using the boundary conditions for
the supports (Table 16-1) and the continuity conditions that
apply to slope and displacement at points where. two functions
meet. Once the constants are evaluated and substituted back into
the slope and deflection equations, the slope and displacement at
specific points on the elastic curve can then be determined.
• The numerical values obtained can be. checked graphically by
comparing them with the sketch of the elastic curve. Realize that
positive values for slope are counterclockwise if the x axis extends
positive to the right, and clockwise if the x axis extends positive to
the left. In either of these cases, positive displacement is upward.
726 CHAPTER 16 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND SHAFTS

EXAMPLE 16.1

The cantilevered beam shown in Fig. 16-10a is subjected to a vertical load

P at its end. Determine the equation of the elastic curve. El is constant.

SOLUTION I
Elastic Curve. The load tends to deflect the beam as shown in
Fig. 16-10a. By inspection, the internal moment can be represented
throughout the beam using a single x coordinate.
Moment Function. From the free-body diagram, with M acting in
the positive direclion, Fig. 16-10b, we have
M = -Pi
Slope and Elastic Curve. Applying Eq. 16-10 and integrating
twice yields
ti2v
eir 3c2 = -Px (1)

car P -2
Elastic curve = + CI (2)
dr 2
20-13
El?) = --+ Cix + C2 (3)
6
Using the boundary conditions dv c c = 0 at x = L and v = 0 at
x = L, Eqs. (2) and (3) become
PL'
0=- + CI
PL3
0 = - — + CI L + C,

Thus, CI = PL2 /2 and Cr2 = -PL3 / 3. Substituting these results into

(b) Eqs. (2) and (3) with 0 = dvIdx, we get
Fig. 16-10
8 = —(L2 - x2 )
2
E1

= — (-x3 + 3L2x - 2L3) Ants.

6E1
Maximum slope and displacement occur at A (Je = 0), for which
= PL2
191 2E1
PL3
3E1
 16.2 SLOPE AND DISPLACEMENT BY INTEGRATION 727

The positive result for 9 indicates counterclockwise rotation and the

negative result for t 4 indicates that vA is downward. This agrees with
the results sketched in Fig. 16-10a.
In order to obtain some idea as to the actual magnitude of the
slope and displacement at the end A, consider the beam in Fig. 16-10a
to have a length of 15 ft, support a load of P = 6 kip, and be made of
A-36 steel having Ed = 29(103) ksi. Using the methods of Sec.15.2. if
this beam was designed without a factor of safety by assuming the
allowable normal stress is equal to the yield stress (Tallow = 36 ksi;
then a W12 X 2.6 would be found to be adequate (l = 204 in4). From
Eqs. (4) and (5) we get
6 kip(15 ft (12 in. /f02
9,4 - = 0,0164 rad
2[29(103) kip/ in2](2(14 in4)
6 kip(15 ft)3(12 in. /ft
vA
3[29(103) kip/ in2] (204 in4) = -1.97 in.

Since 02A = (dv/ibc)2 = 0.000270 rad2 < 1, this justifies the use of
Eq.16-10. rather than applying the more exact Eq. 16-4, for computing
the deflection of beams. Also, since this numerical application is for
a cantilevered beam, we have obtained larger values for 0 and v than
would have been obtained if the beam were supported using pins,
rollers, or other fixed supports.

SOLUTION II
This problem can also be solved using Eq. 16-8, El d 4v1d3c4 = w(x).
Here w(x) = 0 for 0 x L, Fig. 16-10a, so that upon integrating
once we get the form of Eq. 16-9, i.e.,
4
13
El =
dx-r
0

d3v
El — = C;= V
dr3
The shear constant q can be evaluated at x = 0, since VA = -P
(negative according to the beam sign convention, Fig. 16-8a). Thus,
C; = -P. Integrating again yields the form of Eq. 16-10, i.e.,

d3v
El i -P

d2v
El— = -Px + C. = M
dx2
Here M = 0 at x = 0, so C; = 0, and as a result one obtains Eq. (1)
and the solution proceeds as before.
728 CHAPTER 16 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND SHAFTS

EXAMPLE 16.2

The simply supported beam shown in Fig. 16-11a is subjected to the

concentrated force. Determine the maximum deflection of the beam.
El is constant.

• kN

2 ill 1-1Trl --1

13
A . C C.

LI
D Hp =O

(a) (b)

SOLUTION
Elastic Curve. The beam deflects as shown in Fig. 16-115. Two
coordinates must be used, since the moment function will change. at B.
Here we will take xi and x having the same origin at A.
Moment Function. From the free-body diagrams shown in Fig. 16-11c,
MI = 2A,

2 = 2-x2 6(x2 2) = 4(3 3c2)

31)

Slope and Elastic Curve. Applying Eq. 16-10 for M I , for

2 kN
0 xi < 2 rn, and integrating twice yields
d2v,
EI dici 2 = 2xi
6 kN (x2 —2 Tri.)

2m
dvi 2
EI = x1 +
WC!
A
1
EMI = -xi' CIJCI + C2
3
2 kN
Likewise for M2, for 2 rn < x2 3 rn,

d2v2
El 2 =4(3 — x2)
dr2-
x22
El dp2 = 4(3x2 C3
d'IC2 2 +

13 )
Ely2 = 4 -x22 - + C3162 + C4
6
 16.2 SLOPE AND DISPLACEMENT BY INTEGRATION 729

The four constants are evaluated using Iwo boundary conditions,

namely, xi = 0, vI = 0 and x2 = 3 m, 412 = 0. Also, two continuity
conditions must be applied at B. that is, eivi /dr i = at
xi = x2 = 2. m andul = r, atx, = x2 = 2 rn. Substitution as specified
results in the following four equations:

Di = OaLICI =0; 0 = 0 -I- 0 -I- C2

3 (3)3
v2 = Oatx2 = 3 m; 0 = 4G(3)2 - — ) + C3(3) + C4

Sul 2
= du2 (2)2 + CI = 4(3(2) - ) + C3
di! z= 2 In IIC2 x = 2 m 2
1 3 ()3
vi p m) = v2(2 m); -(2)3 -h Ca) + C2 = 4(-(2)2 - + C3(2) + C4
3 2 6
Solving, we get
8
CI = -- C2 = 0
3
44
C3 = C4 = 8
Thus Eqs. (1) through (4) become
du
El ul
— = X12 - 8- (5)
3
1 8
El rl = ix 1 3 - 3x, (6)

dp2 44
El — = 12x2 - 2x22 - — (7)
eix2 3
2 44
Eli)) = 6x22 - x23 - —x2 + 8 (8)
3 3
By inspection of the elastic curve, Fig. 16-11h, the maximum
deflection occurs at D, somewhere within region AB. Here the slope
must be zero. From Eq. (5),
x12 - 8 = 0
3
xi = 1.633
Substituting into Eq. (6),
2.90 kN • tri3
=

The negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward.