MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics

Faculty Name: Dr.E.Porpatham

Faculty Code: EPM
School: ARC
 Module 1 and 2
• Basic Concepts and First Law of Thermodynamics
– Basic concepts of Thermodynamics
– Thermodynamics and Energy
– Closed and open systems
– Properties of system
– States and equilibrium
– Processes and cycles
– Forms of energy
– Work and Heat transfer
– Temperature and zeroth law of thermodynamics
– First law of thermodynamics
– Energy balance for closed systems
– Energy balance for unsteady flow process
– First law applied to steady flow engineering devices
 Module 3 and 4
• Second law of Thermodynamics and Concept of Exergy
– Limitations of the first law of thermodynamics
– Thermal energy reservoirs
– Kelvin Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics
– Clausis statement
– Equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausis statements
– Refrigerators, Heat pump and Air conditioners
– COP
– Perpetual Motion Machines
– Reversible and Irreversible process
– Carnot cycle
– Entropy
– Clausis inequality
– Availability and irreversibility
– Second law efficiency
– Quality of energy
 Module 5 and 6
• Properties of Pure Substance and Thermodynamic Relations
– Properties of pure substance
– Property diagram for phase change processes
– Refrigerants
– Real Gases
– Compressibility factor
– Gibbs and Helmoltz function
– Maxwells relations
– Clapeyron equations
– General relations of properties
 Module 7 and 8
• Gas Power Cycles, Vapor and refrigeration Cycles
– Rankine cycle
– Reheat- regeneration cycle
– Vapor compression refrigeration cycle
 Module 9

• Ideal Gas Mixtures

– Composition of gas mixtures

– Mass and mole fractions
– Daltons law of additive pressures
– Amagats law of additive volumes
– Evaluating properties of gas mixtures
 Thermodynamics
• Science of energy transfer and its effect on the
physical properties of substances
• Based on common observation and experience these
laws have been formulated
• Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes
• Thermodynamics =Therme (heat) dynamics (power)
• Efforts to convert heat into power
• Most fundamental laws of nature is conservation of
energy principle
 Introduction and Basic concepts

• We start this chapter with an overview of

thermodynamics and the unit system
• Continue with a discussion of some basic
concepts such as system, state, equilibrium,
process and cycle
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature
scales, pressure and absolute and gauge
pressure
• Problem solving technique
 Conservation of Energy principle
• It states that during an interaction energy can change from one form
to another but the total amount of energy remains constant
• Energy can not be created or destroyed
• The change in energy content of system is equal to the difference
between the energy input and the energy output and energy
balance is Ein-Eout=∆E
• A rock falling off a overhang, picks up speed as a result of its
potential energy being converted to kinetic energy
• A person who has a greater energy input (food) than energy output
(exercise) will gain weight (store energy in the form og fat) and a
person who has a smaller energy input than output will lose weight

Conservation of Energy principle for the human body

 First and Second law of Thermodynamics
• It is simply an expression of conservation of energy
principle
• First law of Thermodynamics:
– It states that energy is a thermodynamic property
• Second law of Thermodynamics:
– It states that energy has quality as well as quantity
– Also tells actual processes occur in the direction of
decreasing quality of energy

•A cup of hot coffee left on a table ultimately cools

•But a cup of cool coffee in the same room never gets hot by itself
•The high temperature energy of the coffee is degraded or transformed into
a less useful form at low temperature
 Application areas of Thermodynamics

•Steam power plants

•Nuclear power plants
•Internal combustion engines
•Gas turbines
•Air conditioning
•Refrigeration
•Compressors
•Direct energy conversion devices
 Dimensions and Units
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by Dimensions
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called Units
• Primary dimensions
– Mass (m), Length (L), Time (t) and Temperature (T) are selected as
primary or fundamental dimensions
– Velocity (V), Energy (E) and Volume (v) are expressed in terms of
primary dimensions and are called secondary dimensions or derived
dimensions
• English system and International System (SI) are still in common use today
– SI is a simple and logical system based on decimal relationship
between the various units and it is being used for scientific and
engineering work in most of the industrialized nations.
 SI and English Units
• SI units
– Mass (kg), length (m) and time (s)
• English system
– Pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), second (s)
– 1lbm=0.45 kg
– 1ft=0.30m
– Force=mass*acceleration=m*a, unit-N (kg*m/s2)
• force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2
– Kilogram-force (kgf), which is the weight of 1 kg mass at sea level
(1kgf=9.81 N)
– Weight –it is a gravitational force applied to a body and its magnitude
is determined from Newton's second law
• W=m*g (N), m is the mass of the body, g is local gravitational
acceleration 9.81 m/s2 at sea level
– Specific weight (ν)- weight of a unit volume of a substance
• ν =ρg
 SI and English Units
– The mass of a body remains the same regardless of its
location in the universe. Its weight changes with a change
in gravitational acceleration
• A body weighs less on top of a mountain since g
decreases with altitude
– Work- is a form of energy, can be defined as force times
distance-Nm, which is called Joule (J)
– Calorie- the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 1°C
• 1 cal=4.186J
– The value of g varies with location from 9.82 m/s2 at 4500
m below sea level to 7.321 m/s2 at 100 000 m above sea
level. However, at altitudes up to 30000 m, the variation of
g from the sea level of less than 1 percent.
 Dimensional Homogeneity
• Spotting errors from unit inconsistencies
– E=25 kJ + 7 kJ/kg
• Obtaining formulas from unit considerations
– A tank is filled with oil whose density is 850 kg/m3.
if the volume of the tank is 2 m3, find amount of
mass in the tank
• Assumption- oil is an incompressible substance and
thus its density is constant
• Analysis- suppose we forgot the formula that relates
mass to density and volume. However, we know that
mass has the unit of kilograms
 Study of behaviour of matter
• A substance consists of a large number of particles is called molecules
• Classical Thermodynamics:
– Study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual particles
– It provides direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems
– Macroscopic approach
– Example:
• Pressure of a gas container, one does not need to know the
behavior of the gas particles to determine the pressure in the
container
• Attach a pressure gauge to the container
• Statistical Thermodynamics:
– A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of large
groups of individual particles
– Microscopic approach
 Types of Systems
• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study
• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system can
be fixed or movable
• Closed system: (control mass)
– Consists of fixed amount of mass
– No mass can cross the boundary. That is no mass can enter and leave
the system
– Energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary
• Isolated system:
– No interaction between system and surroundings
• Open system: (control volume)
– No fixed mass
– Mass crosses the boundary
– There may energy transfer also
– Most of the engineering devices are generally open systems
Types of Systems
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous system

• A quantity of substance homogenous

throughout in chemical composition and
physical structure is called a phase
• A system consisting of a single phase is called
homogeneous system
• A system consisting of more than one phase is
known as a heterogeneous system
 Properties of a System
• Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical
condition may be described
– e.g. pressure, temperature, volume, mass
• Properties are considered to be
– Intensive property, are those independent of the mass of a
system.
• Pressure, Temperature and density
– Extensive property, are related to mass
• Volume, energy
– Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific
properties
• Specific volume v=V/m
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• The word equilibrium implies a state of balance
• In an equilibrium state, there are no driving forces with in the system
• Thermal equilibrium- a system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system
– System involves no temperature differential, which is the driving force
for heat flow
• Mechanical equilibrium- is related to pressure, if there is no change in
pressure at any point of the system with time
• Phase equilibrium- if a system involves two phases, when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there
• Chemical equilibrium- chemical composition does not change with time,
no chemical reactions occur
 State
• Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all
the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the
entire system, which gives us a set of properties that
completely describes the condition or the state of the system
• At given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values
• If the value of even one property changes, the state will change
to a different one
• Properties are the coordinates to describe the state of a system
• All the properties of a system have definite values, the system
is said to exist at a definite state
• Any operation in which one or more of the properties of a
system changes is called change of state
 Process and Cycles
• Series of states through which a system passes during a process is called
the path
• When the path is completely specified, the change of state is called a
process
• Any change that a system undergoes from equilibrium state to another is
called a process
• To describe a process completely one should specify the initial and final
states of the process, as well as the path it follows and the interactions with
the surroundings
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called quasi-
static process
• Quasi-static process is an idealized process and is not a true representation
of actual process. But many actual processes approximate it and they can
be modeled as quasi-static process with negligible error
• Quasi-static process is also called reversible process
• Engineers are interested in quasi-static processes for two reasons
– Easy to analyze
– Work producing devices deliver the most work when they operate on quasi-static process
 Quasi-Static Process
• Let us consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder
• The system initially is in equilibrium state, represented by the properties
p1, v1, t1
• The weight on the piston just balances the upward force exerted by the
gas
• If the weight is removed there will be a unbalanced force between the
system and surroundings
• Under the gas pressure, the piston will move up till it hits the stops
• The system again comes to an equilibrium state and the properties are p2,
v2, t2
• The intermediate states passed through by the system are non equilibrium
states which cannot be described by thermodynamic coordinates
• Now single weight is made up of many very small pieces of weights and
theses weights are removed one by one
• At any instant of the upward travel of the piston will be an equilibrium
state
• Such a process is called quasi-static process
• Quasi-static process is also called reversible process
Process and Cycles
 Process and Cycles
• Process diagram plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates
in visualizing the process
• Common properties that are used to as coordinates are temperature, pressure and
volume
• Process path that indicates a series of equilibrium states through which the
system passes during a process and has significance for quasi equilibrium
processes only
• For non quasic-equilibrium processes, not able to characterize the entire system by
a single state
• iso- often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant
– Isothermal process, Temperature (T) remains constant
– Isobaric, Pressure remains constant (P)
– Isochoric, volume remains constant (v)
• Cycle
– Is defined as a series of state changes such that the final state is identical with
the initial state
 Steady-flow process
• The terms steady and uniform are frequently used in engineering
– Steady implies no change with time
– Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region
– Unsteady , Transient
• Steady-flow process, device operate for long periods of time under the same conditions are
classified as steady-flow devices
– Processes involving such devices can be represented as steady flow process ( process during
which a fluid flows through control volume steadily)
– Fluid properties can change from point to point with in the control volume, but at any fixed
point they remain the same during the entire process
– Volume, mass and total energy content of the control volume remain constant during a
steady flow process
– Turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, heat exchangers and refrigeration systems are steady
flow devices
– Reciprocating engines, compressors do not satisfy the steady flow condition and flow at the
inlets and exits will be pulsating not steady.
 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
• When a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a different
temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher to the one at lower
temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature
• It states that, when a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also
with a body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other. At
that point, the heat transfer stops and the two bodies are said to have reached
thermal equilibrium.
• It is the basis of temperature measurement
• In order to obtain a quantitative measure of temperature, a reference body is
used and a certain physical characteristic of this body which changes with
temperature is selected
• Reference body which is used in the determination of temperature is called the
thermometer
 Temperature
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the
freezing and boiling points of water, which are also called the steam point
• A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm
pressure is said to be ice point
• A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm
pressure is said to be steam point
• Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale
• On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were originally assigned the values of 0
and 100°C. The corresponding values in Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212°F
• These are often referred to as two point scales since temperature values are assigned
at two different points
• In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance. Such a temperature is called a
thermodynamic temperature scale
• It is developed in combination with second law of thermodynamics
• The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is Kelvin scale, which is denoted by K
• The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero or 0K
 Constant volume gas thermometer
• Rigid vessel filled with a gas, usually hydrogen or helium at low pressure, it is based
on the principle that at low pressures the temperature of a gas is proportional to
its pressure at constant volume
• Relationship between the temperature and pressure of the gas in the vessel can be
expressed as T=a+bP
• The value of the constant ‘a’ , which corresponds to an absolute pressure of zero is
determined to be -273.15°C. This is the lowest temperature that can be obtained
by a gas thermometer
• The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by T(K)=T(°C)+273.15
• We highlight that the magnitudes of each division of 1K and 1°C are identical.
Therefore when we are dealing temperature difference ∆T, the temperature
interval on both scales is the same. ∆T(K)= ∆T(°C)
 Problem
• During a heating process, the temperature of a system raises
by 10°C. express the raise in temperature in K, °F and R
– Analysis: this problem deals with temperature changes,
which are identical in Kelvin and Celsius scales
– Discussion: Note that the units of °C and K are
interchangeable when dealing with temperature
differences.
• Thermocouple:
– A thermocouple circuit made up from joining wires A and B
made of dissimilar metals
– Due to Seebeck effect, a net e.m.f is generated in the
circuit which depends on the difference between the hot
and cold junctions
– Copper-constantan, chromel-alumel and platinum-
rhodium are typical combinations in use
 Density, specific volume, specific gravity
• Density (ρ): is defined as mass per unit volume
– ρ=m/V (kg/m3)
• Specific volume (v): reciprocal of density is called
specific volume
– v=V/m=1/ρ (m3/kg)
• Specific gravity or relative density: Ratio of the
density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance at specified temperature (at 4°C
ρH2o=1000 kg/m3)
– SG= ρ/ ρH2o
– 1 g/cc=kg/L=1000 kg/m3, 13.6 g/cc=13.6
kg/L=13600 kg/m3
 Density, Specific volume, Specific gravity
• Density of substance depends on temperature and pressure
– Density of gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional
to temperature
– On the other hand, liquids and solids are essentially incompressible in
substances and the variation of their density with pressure is
negligible
• At 20°C the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 1 atm to
1003 kg/m3 at 100 atm, a change of 0.5 percent
• The density of liquids and solids depends more strongly on
temperature than it does on pressure. At 1 atm, the density of
water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 20°C to 975 kg/m3 at 75°C, a
change of 2.3 percent
• Specific gravity less than 1 are lighter than water and thus they
would float in water
 Pressure
• Normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
• We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid
• The counter part of pressure in solids is normal stress
• 1Pa=1 N/m2, 1 kPa=103 Pa, I Mpa=106 Pa, bar, standard
atmosphere, kilogram force per square centimeter
– 1 bar=105 Pa=0.1 Mpa=100 kPa
– 1 atm=101,325 Pa=101.325 kPa=1.01325 bar=760 mm of Hg
– 1 kgf/cm2=9.807 N/ cm2=9.807 x 104 N/m2=9.807 x 104
Pa=0.9807bar=0.967 atm
– In English system, the pressure unit is Pound force per square
inch (psi)
– 1 atm =14.69 psi
 Pressure
• Most instruments indicate pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure
• The pressure relative to the atmosphere is called gauge pressure
• The pressure relative to the perfect vacuum is called absolute pressure
• The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure and
it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure)
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressure
Pabs = P gauge + Patm
P Vac= P atm - Pabs
 Variation of pressure with depth
• The pressure of a fluid at rest increases linearly with depth as a result of
added weight
• The pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction
• ∆P=P2-P1=ρ*g*∆z (prove this equation), ∆z -pressure head
• We conclude that the pressure difference between two points in a
constant density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance
• We also conclude, that for small to moderate distances, the variation of
pressure with height is negligible for gases because of their low density
 Pascal’s Law
• Pascal's Law:
– Pressure exerted anywhere in a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all
directions throughout the fluid remains same
– Force applied by a fluid is proportional to the surface area
– Two hydraulic cylinders of different areas could be connected and the larger
could be used to exert a proportionally greater force than that applied to the
smaller. Example hydraulic brakes and lifts
– P1=P2
– F1/A1=F2/A2, F2/F1=A2/A1
– F1=F2/(A2/A1)
 Pressure measurement devices
• Bourdon tube:
– It consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and connected to
a dial indicator needle.
– When the tube is open to the atmosphere, the tube in un-deflected and the needle on
the dial at this state is calibrated to zero (gauge pressure)
– When the fluid inside the is pressurized, the tube stretches and moves the needle in
proportion to the pressure applied.
• Pressure Transducers:
– Converting pressure effect to an electrical effect such as change in voltage, resistance or
capacitance
– Gauge pressure transducer, absolute pressure transducer, differential pressure
transducer, strain gauge pressure transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers:
– Works on piezoelectric principle. Electrical charge is generated in a crystalline substance,
when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.
– Suitable for high pressure application
 Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer. Atmospheric is often
referred to as barometric pressure
• Inverting a mercury filled tube into a mercury container that is open to the atmosphere. The
pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure and the pressure at C can be taken
to be zero
• P atm= ρ*g*h
• Frequently used pressure unit is standard atmosphere, which is pressure produced by a
column of mercury 760 mm in height (ρ=13600 kg/m3, g=9.81 m/s2)
• Unit of mmHg is also called torr
• If water is used instead of mercury to measure the standard atmospheric pressure, a water
column of about 10.3 m would be needed
• The length or cross sectional area of the tube has no effect on the height of the fluid column
of a barometer
• For a given temperature, the density of air is lower at high altitudes and in
a given volume contains less air and less oxygen
• So we get breathing problems at high altitudes
• 2.0 L car engine will act like a 1.7 L car engine at 1500 m altitude (unless it
is turbocharged) because of the 15% drop in pressure and thus 15% drop
in density of air
• A fan or compressor will displace 15% less air at that altitude. Therefore
larger cooling fans may need to be selected for operation at high altitudes
• Lower pressure and lower density also affects lift and drag
• Airplanes need a longer runway at high altitudes to develop the required
lift
 Manometer
• ∆P=ρ*g*∆z
– ∆z=∆P/ ρ*g
– ∆z changes with respect to elevation, when fluid at rest and which suggests
that fluid can be used to measure pressure differences. A device based on this
principle is called manometer
– It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences
– A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol or oil
– To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated

•This manometer used to measure pressure in the

tank
•Pressure anywhere in the tank and at point 1 has
the same value
•Since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the
horizontal direction with in a fluid
•Pressure at point 2 is same as at point 1
•P1=P2
•Fluid column is open to atmosphere and it is in
static equilibrium
• P2= P atm + ρ*g*h
•Cross sectional area of the tube has no effect
 Manometer-Problem
1. A manometer is used to measure the pressure in tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85
and the manometer column height is 55 cm. if the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa.
Determine absolute in the tank. (Ans: 100 kPa)
2. In stacked up fluid layers, the pressure change across a fluid layer of density ρ and height h
– Can be analyzed by remembering
• Pressure change across a fluid column of height h is ∆P=ρ*g*h
• Pressure increases downward in a given fluid and decreases upward, P bottom>P top
• Two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest are at the same pressure
• Pressure at any point can be determined by starting with a point of known pressure and
adding or subtracting ρ*g*h term as we advance toward the point of interest
• P atm + ρ1*g*h1+ ρ2*g*h2+ ρ3*g*h3=P1
• Applicable to all fluids having the same density
• Manometers are particularly well suited to measure pressure drops across
a horizontal flow section between two specified points due to the
presence of a device such as a valve or heat exchanger or any resistance
to flow
• This is done by connecting two legs of the manometer to theses points
• Working fluid can be either gas or a liquid whose density is ρ1
• The density of the manometer fluid is ρ2 and the differential fluid height is
h
• Pressure difference P1-P2 can be obtained by starting at point 1 moving
along the tube by adding or subtracting ρ*g*h term, until we reach point 2
and get P2
P1+ ρ1*g*(a+h)- ρ2*g*h – ρ1*g*a=P2
(P1-P2)=(ρ2-ρ1)*g*h
P1-P2= ρ2*g*h
Measuring pressure with multi-fluid manometer
• The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a
multifluid manometer. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of
1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air
pressure in the tank if h1=0.1m, h2=0.2 m and h3=0.35m. Take the
densities of water, oil and mercury to be 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3 and
13600 kg/m3. (Ans=130 kPa)
– Air pressure in the tank is to be determined
– Air pressure in the tank is uniform (its variation with elevation is negligible due to its low
density)
– Starting with the pressure at point 1 at the air water interface
– P1 + ρ water g*h1 + ρ oil g*h2 – ρ mercury g *h3= P atm
– P1= P atm - ρ water g*h1 - ρ oil g*h2 + ρ mercury g *h3
 Problem
1. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 740 mm
Hg and the gravitational acceleration is g=9.81 m/s2. Assume the temperature of mercury is
10 °C at which its density is 13750 kg/m3 (Ans:98.5 kPa)
1. P atm= ρ*g*h
2. Density changes with temperature and thus this effect should be considered in
calculations
2. The piston cylinder containing a gas and piston has a mass of 60 kg and cross-sectional area
of 0.04 m2. the local atmospheric pressure is 0.97 bar and g is 9.81 m/s2. determine the
pressure inside the cylinder. If some heat is transferred to the gas and its volume is doubled,
do you expect the pressure inside the cylinder to change (Ans:1.12 bar)
1. The gas pressure in the piston-cylinder device depends on the atmospheric pressure and
weight of the piston
2. Draw the free body diagram of the piston and balancing the vertical forces
3. The volume change will have no effect on the free body diagram and therefore the
pressure inside the cylinder will remain the same
 Problem solving Technique
• A step-by-step approach can greatly simplify problem solving
• Stpe1:
– Problem Statement
• Briefly state the problem and understand, the key information given and
the quantities to be found
• Step 2:
– Schematic
• Draw a sketch of the physical system involved, list the relevant
information on the figure
• Step 3:
– Assumptions and approximations
• State any appropriate assumptions and approximations made to simplify
the problem to make it possible to obtain the solution. Eg. specific heat of
air
• Step 4:
– Physical laws
• Water flowing through a nozzle is analyzed by conservation of mass
• Step 5:
– Properties
• Determine the unknown properties at known states to solve the
problem from property relations or tables
• Step 6:
– Calculations
• Substitute the known quantities into the simplified relations and
perform the calculations to determine the unknowns
• Pay attention to the units
• Round the results to an appropriate number of significant digits
• Step 7:
– Reasoning, verification and discussion
• Make sure that the results obtained reasonable and intuitive
• Repeat the calculations that resulted in unreasonable values
 Significant of digits
• Container filled with gasoline 3.75 L, whose density is 0.845
kg/L and determine mass.
– Multiply volume and density, we will get 3.16875 kg and mass has six
digits
– Since both the volume and the density are accurate up to three digits
only
– Therefore mass should be rounded to three digits only. The mass
should be reported to 3.17 kg instead of what appears on the
calculator
– The result 3.16875 kg is correct if volume and density were given to be
3.75000 L and 0.84500 kg/L
•
Summary
Basic concepts of thermodynamics
– First law of thermodynamics
– Second law of thermodynamics
• Systems
– Open system
– Closed system
– Isolated system
• Properties
– Intensive properties
– Extensive properties
• Equilibrium
– Thermal equilibrium
– Mechanical equilibrium
– Chemical equilibrium
– Phase equilibrium
• Process and cycle
– Quasi-static process
– Isochoric process
– Isobaric process
– Isothermal process
 Summary
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics
– Thermocouple
– Seebeck effect
• Temperature
– Celsius scale
– Kelvin scale
• Pressure
– Absolute pressure
– Gauge pressure
– Vacuum pressure
– Pascal's law
– Pressure measurement devices
• Manometer
– U tube manometer
• Barometer
• Problem solving Technique
• Significant of digits
 Energy, Energy Transfer, Energy Analysis

• Understanding Sources of energy

• Various forms of energy
– Thermal, mechanical, electric, chemical and nuclear
• Conversion of energy from one form to another
– Energy can be transferred to and from a closed system in
two forms heat and work
– Energy transfer by temperature is called heat and it is
caused by force acting through a distance is called work
• Internal energy
• Concept of heat and work
• First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy
principle)
• Energy balance and energy conversion efficiencies
 Conservation of Energy Principle
• Energy can not be created or destroyed during a process, it can only
change from one form to another
• Lets test ourselves to see how well we understand and truly believe
in this principle
• Consider a room whose door and windows are tightly closed and
whose walls are well insulated
– Now place a refrigerator in the middle of the room with its door open
and plug it into a wall outlet
– You may even use a small fan to circulate the air in order to maintain
temperature uniformity in the room
– What do you think will happen to the average temperature of air in
the room?
• Will it be increasing, decreasing or remain constant?
• Only energy interaction involved is the electrical energy crossing the system
boundary and entering the room
• The conservation of energy requires the energy content of the room to
increase by an amount equal to the amount of the electrical energy drawn by
the refrigerator
• The refrigerator or its motor does not store this energy. Therefore, this energy
must be in the room air and rise in the room air temperature
• Electrical energy is converted into thermal energy stored in the room air
– Energy conservation means the conservation of the
quality of energy not the quantity
– Electricity which is the highest quality of energy
– Electrical energy can always be converted to an equal
amount of thermal energy (heat), which is the lowest
quality of energy
– But only a small fraction of thermal energy can be
converted back to electricity
 Forms of Energy
• Forms of energy
– Thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic,
chemical and nuclear
– Total energy (E) is sum of all energies
– Total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by
e=E/m (kJ/kg)
– Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute
value of the total energy. It deals only with the change of the
total energy
• Total energy of a system can be divided into two groups
– Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame
• Kinetic energy and potential energy
– Microscopic forms of energy are those related to molecular
structure of a system and are independent of outside reference
frame
• Internal Energy-Sum of all the microscopic forms of energy and it is
denoted by ‘U’
 Forms of Energy
• Kinetic Energy:
– Energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame
– KE=1/2*m*v2 (kJ)
– Ke=1/2*v2 (kJ/kg) on mass basis
– KE=1/2*I*ω2, I is the moment inertia of the body, ω is angular velocity
• Potential Energy:
– Energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
field
– PE=m*g*z (kJ)
– Pe=g*z (kJ/kg)
• Total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential and internal
energies
– E=U + KE + PE= U + ½*m*v2 + m*g*z (kJ)
– e=u +Ke + Pe = u + ½*v2 + g*z (kJ/kg)
– Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus experience
no change in kinetic and potential energies
– Close systems frequently referred to as stationary system
– the change in total energy ∆E of a system is equal to change in internal energy
∆U
 Mass flow rate and energy flow rate
• Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods
of time and it is convenient to express the energy flow
associated with a fluid flow in the rate form
• This is done by incorporating the mass flow rate (m dot),
which is the amount of mass flowing through a cross
section per unit time
• It is related to the volume flow rate (V dot), which is the
volume of a fluid flowing through a cross section per unit
time
• Mass flow rate (m dot)=ρ*V=ρ* A *Vavg (kg/s)
– V=volume flow rate
– V avg=average flow velocity
– ρ =fluid density
– A= cross sectional area
• Energy flow rate (E dot)=mdot* e (total energy of a system)
(kW)
 Internal Energy
• Internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms
of the microscopic energies
– Chemical energy, Internal energy associated with the
atomic bonds
– nuclear energy, associated with the strong bonds with
in the nucleus of the atom itself
– latent energy, associated with the phase of a system
– Sensible energy, associated with the kinetic energies
of the molecule
– Atom consists of neutrons and positively charged
protons bound together by a very strong nuclear
forces in the nucleus and negatively charged electrons
orbiting around it
 Heat and Work
• Total energy of a system can be stored in a system and
can be viewed as the static forms of energy
• The forms of energy not stored in a system can be
viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as energy
interactions
– Dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the system
boundary as they cross it
– They represent energy gained or lost by a system during a
process
– Only two forms of energy interactions associated with a
closed system are heat transfer and work
– In daily life, we frequently refer to the sensible and latent
forms of internal energy as heat
– We usually refer those forms energy as thermal energy
 Organized and Disorganized energy
• Macroscopic kinetic energy of an object as a whole
• Microscopic kinetic energies of its molecules
• Kinetic energy of an object is an organized form of energy
associated with the orderly motion of all molecules in one direction
in a straight path
• Kinetic energies of the molecules are completely random and highly
disorganized
• Organized energy is much more valuable than the disorganized
energy
• Major application of thermodynamics is the conversion of
disorganized energy (heat) into organized energy (work)
• Organized energy can be converted to disorganized energy
completely
• Fraction of disorganized energy can be converted to organized
energy by specially built devices called heat engines
• Work is said to be high grade energy
• Heat is said to be low grade energy
 Car powered by Nuclear fuel
• An average car consumes about 5 L of gasoline a
day and the capacity of the fuel tank of a car is
about 50 L. Density of gasoline 0. 78 kg/L and its
lower heating value is about 44000 kJ/kg. and car
is to be powered by U-235. If new car comes
equipped with 0.1 kg of nuclear fuel U-
235.compare the two fuels (Ans:40,790 days)
– Mass of gasoline= density*volume
– Daily Energy use=mass of gasoline*heating value
– The complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium-235 releases
6.73 x1010 kJ of heat
– 0.1*6.73*1010 kJ of heat
– No of days= energy content of fuel/daily energy use
 Wind Energy
• A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to
have steady winds at a speed of 8.5 m/s.
Determine the wind energy per unit mass, for
a mass of 10 kg and for a flow rate of 1154
kg/s for air
– Wind energy per unit mass of air is
• e=ke=1/2*v2 (J/kg)
– Wind energy for an air mass of 10 kg
• E=m*e (J)
– Wind energy for a mass flow rate of 1154 kg/s
• E dot=mdot*e (kW)
 Energy Interactions
• A closed system and its surroundings can interact in two ways
– By work transfer
– By heat transfer
• pdv work or Displacement work:
– Let the gas in the cylinder be a system having initially the pressure p1 and
volume v1. The system is in thermodynamic equilibrium
– Piston moves due to gas pressure to a new final position 2, which is also a
thermodynamic equilibrium state specified by pressure p2 and v2
– When the piston moves an small distance dl and ‘a’ be the area of the
piston
• The force acting on the piston is F=p.a
• dW= F.dl=padl=pdV
• When the piston moves out from position 1 to position 2 with the
volume changing from V1 to V2, the amount of work done by the
system will be
– W1-2=∫V1 V2 pdV
– The integration of pdV can be performed only on quasi-static path
– The amount of work involved is not a function of the end states of the
process and it depends on the path of the system
– Work and heat is called a path function
– Thermodynamic properties are point functions
 Energy Transfer by work
• Work is an energy interaction between a system and its
surroundings
• If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat,
it must be work
• Heat is easy to recognize, its driving force is temperature difference
between the system and surroundings
• Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance
• Work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by
W12 or W
• The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w=W/m
(kJ/kg)
• Work done per unit time is called power and denoted by Wdot
(kJ/s or kW)
• Heat and work are directional quantities, they requires specification
of both magnitude and direction
– Heat transfer and work done by a system are positive
– Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative
 Energy Transfer by work
• Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system
and its surroundings
– Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena
– Systems possess energy, but not heat or work
– Both are associated with a process, not a state
– Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states)
– Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol δ
– Therefore, a differential amount of heat and work is represented by
δQ or δW, instead dQ or dW
– Properties are point functions (they depend on the state only not an
how the system reaches that state) and they have exact differentials
designated by d
– A small change in volume is represented by dV and the total volume
change during a process between states 1 and 2 is
• ∫12 dV=V2-V1=∆V
– The total work done during the process 1-2 is
• ∫12 δW =W12 (not ∆W)
 Energy Transfer by Heat
• Energy can cross the boundary of closed system in two ways
– Heat and work
• Cold soda left on a table, warms up and hot baked potato on the same
table cools down
• When a body is left in a medium that is at different temperature,
energy transfer takes place between the body and the surrounding
medium until thermal equilibrium is established
• The direction energy transfer is always from the higher temperature
body to the lower temperature
• Once the temperature equality established, energy transfer stops.
Energy is transferred in the form of heat
• Heat is defined as the from of energy that is transferred between two
systems by virtue of temperature difference
– Heat addition, transfer of heat into a system
– Heat rejection, transfer of heat out of a system
• Energy is recognized as heat transfer only it crosses the system
boundary
• Temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer. The larger
the temperature difference, the higher is the heat transfer
 Energy Transfer by Heat
• A process during which there is no heat transfer is called adiabatic
process
• There are two ways a process can be adiabatic
– Either the system is well insulated
– Both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature
– A wall which is impermeable to the flow of heat is an adiabatic wall
– A wall which permits the flow of heat is a diathermic wall
• The amount of heat transferred during the process between two
states (state 1 and state 2) is denoted by Q12
• Heat transfer unit mass of a system is q=Q/m (kJ/kg)
• Rate of heat transfer (Qdot)-amount of heat transferred per unit
time (kJ/s=kW)
• The amount of heat transfer during a process is determined by
integrating Qdot over the time interval of the process
– Q = ∫t2t1 Qdot*dt (kJ)
– When Qdot remains constant during a process, Q=Qdot*∆t
Energy Transfer by Heat
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat is transferred by three mechanisms
• Conduction:
– The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact
• A cold canned drink in a warm room, warms up to the room
temperature as a result of heat transfer from room to the drink
through the aluminum can by conduction
• Rate of heat conduction Q dot cond through a layer of constant
thickness ∆x is proportional to the difference ∆T across the layer
and the area A normal to the direction of heat transfer and is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer
– Q dot cond = -kt*A* ∆T/ ∆x (W)
– Thermal conductivity, which is a measure of the ability of a material to
conduct heat
– Which is known as Fourier's law of heat conduction, it indicates that
the rate of heat conduction in a direction is proportional to the
temperature gradient in that direction
– -ve sign indicates, heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature and the temperature gradient becomes negative
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Convection:
– The transfer of heat between a wall and a fluid system in motion
– It involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the
fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer
– Forced convection
• The fluid is forced to flow in a tube or over a surface by external means such as fan,
pump or the wind
– Free or natural convection
• The fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces induced by density differences due to
variation of temperature in the fluid
– The rate of heat by convection Q dot conv is determined from Newton's law of
cooling
• Q dot conv=h A (Ts-Tf)
• h- is the convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2)
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Radiation:
– The transfer of heat between two bodies separated by empty space or gases through
electromagnetic waves
– The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature
Ts is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law
• Q dot emit, max=σAT4s (W)
• σ= 5.67x10-8 (W/m2)
– The idealized surface that emits radiation at maximum rate is called blackbody
– The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at
the same temperatures
• Q dot emit = εσAT4s
• ε- emissivity of the surface, varies from 0 to 1, for blackbody it is 1
– Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity (α), varies from 0 to 1
– A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is blackbody is a perfect absorber
(α=1) as well as the perfect emitter
– Kirchhoff's law of radiation states that, the emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface are
equal at the same temperature and wave length
 Specific Heat and Latent Heat
• Specific Heat:
– Is defined as the amount of heat required to raise a unit mass
of the substance through a unit rise in temperature
• c= Q/m*∆t (J/kg-k)
• Q-amount of heat transfer (J), m-mass of the substance
(kg), ∆t-rise in temperature (K)
• Cp= the process is at constant pressure for gases
• Cv=the process is at constant volume for gases
• For solids and liquids, specific heat does not depend on
the process
• Specific heat of a substance is a function of temperature
• Cp is always greater than Cv because at constant pressure the
system is allowed to expand and the energy for this expansion
work must also be supplied to the system
• Heat capacity:
– The product of mass and specific heat is called heat capacity
Specific Heats Examples
 Latent Heat
• Latent Heat:
– Is the amount of heat transfer required to cause a phase
change in unit mass of a substance at a constant pressure
and temperature
– There are three phases in which matter can exist
• Solid, liquid and vapor
– Latent heat of fusion:
• The amount of heat required to melt unit mass of solid
into liquid or freeze liquid to solid
– Latent heat of vaporization:
• The amount of heat required to vaporize unit mass of
liquid into vapor or condense vapor into liquid
– Latent heat of sublimation:
• The amount of heat required to convert solid to vapor
or vice versa
 Various forms of work
• Electrical work
– Electrons crossing the system boundary do
electrical work on the system
– In an electric field, electron in a wire move under
the effect of electromotive forces, doing work
– Electrical power (W dot e)=VI (W)
• I – is the number of electrical charges flowing per unit
time, that is current
• We=∫12 VI dt (kJ)
 Various forms of work
• The work done by a constant force F acting on a body is displaced a
distance s in the direction of the force is given by W=Fs (kJ)
• If the force is not a constant, the work done is obtained by adding
(integrating) the differential amounts of work W=∫12 F ds (kJ)
• Shaft work:
– Energy transformation with a rotating shaft is common
– The torque T applied to the shaft is constant, which means that the
force F applied is also constant
– For a specified torque, the work done during n revolutions is
determined
– A force F acting through a moment arm r, generates a torque T
• T=F*r F=T/r
– This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r
• S= (2πr)n
• Shaft work W sh= F*s=(T/r) (2πrn)= 2*π*n*T (KW)
 Various forms of work
• Spring Work:
– When a force is applied on a spring, the length of a
spring changes
– When the length of the spring changes by a
differential amount dx under the influence of force F,
the work done is
• δW spring= F*dx
• To determine the total spring work, we need to know a
functional relationship between F and x
• F=k*x (kN), k is spring constant (kN/m)
 First law of Thermodynamics
• We have considered various of energy such as heat Q, work W and
total energy E individually and no attempt is made to relate them to
each other during a process
• First law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of
energy principle, provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among the various of energy and energy interactions
• It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a
process, it can change only forms
 First law of Thermodynamics
• We all know that rock at some elevation possesses some potential
energy
• Part of this potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as the rock
falls
• Experimental data show that the decrease in potential energy (mg∆z)
exactly equals the increase in kinetic energy (m(v22-V21/2))
• System undergoing a series of adiabatic processes from a specified
state 1 to another specified state 2
• Being adiabatic, these processes cannot involve any heat transfer but
they may involve several kinds of work interactions
• For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed
system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the
closed system, the value of the net work must depend on the end
states of the system only and thus it must change correspond to a
change in property of the system. This property is the total energy E
• A major consequence of the first law is the existence and the definition
of the property total energy E
• Change in the total energy during an adiabatic process must be equal
to the net work done
 First law of Thermodynamics
• We consider some processes that involve heat transfer but no
work interactions
• The potato baked in the oven is a good example
• As a result of heat transfer to the potato, the energy of the
potato will increase
• The increase in the total energy of the potato becomes equal
to the amount of heat transfer
• If 5 kJ of heat is transferred to the potato, the energy increase
of the potato will also be 5 kJ
• The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to
the amount of heat transferred to it
 First law of Thermodynamics
• We consider the heating of water in a pan on top of a range
• If 15 kJ of heat is transferred to the water from the heating
element and 3 kJ of it is lost from the water to the
surrounding air
• The increase in energy of the water will be equal to the net
heat transfer to water, which is 12 kJ
• In the absence of any work interactions, the energy change of
system is equal to the net heat transfer
 First law of Thermodynamics
• We consider a well insulated (adiabatic) room heated by an electric heater
• As a result of electrical work done on the system, the energy of the system
will increase
• Since the system is adiabatic and cannot have any heat transfer to or from
the surroundings (Q=0)
• The conservation of energy principle dictates that the electrical work done
on the system must equal the increase in energy of the system
• Let us replace the electric heater with a paddle wheel
• As a result of stirring process, the energy of the system will increase
• No heat interaction between the system and its surroundings (Q=0)
• The energy change of a system during a process is equal to the net work
and heat transfer between the system and its surroundings
 Energy Balance
• (Total energy entering the system)- (Total energy leaving system)=
(change in the total energy of the system)
• E in – E out=∆E system
• Energy change of a system ∆E system
– Energy change= Energy at final state- Energy at initial state
– ∆E system= E final – E initial= E2 - E1
• The change in the total energy of a system during a process is the
sum of the changes in its internal, kinetic and potential energies
– ∆E = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE
– ∆U=m(u2-u1)
– ∆KE=1/2*m (v22-V21)
– ∆PE=m*g(z2-z1)
• Most systems encountered in practice are stationary, they do not
involve any changes in their velocity or elevation during a process
• Thus for stationary systems, the change in kinetic and potential
energies are zero
• Total energy change relation reduces to ∆E= ∆U
 Mechanisms of Energy transfer
• Energy can be transferred to or from the system in three ways
– Heat, work, mass flow
• Heat transfer (Q):
– Heat transfer to a system increases the energy of the molecules and
thus the internal energy of the system
– Heat transfer from a system decreases, as heat comes out from the
energy of the molecules of the system
• Work transfer (W):
– An energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings is work
• Mass flow(m):
– Mass flow in and out of the system serves as an additional mechanism
of energy transfer
– When mass enters a system, the energy of the system increases
because mass carries energy with it
– When mass leaves the system, the energy contained with in the
system decreases because leaving mass takes out come energy
• E in-E out=(Q in-Q out) + (W in-W out) + (E mass, in-E mass, out)=∆E system
 Mechanisms of Energy transfer
• Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of
process can be expressed
– E in – E out = ∆E system (kJ)
– In the rate form, E dot in – E dot out =dE system / dt (kW)
– Energy balance per unit mass, e in-e out=∆e system (kJ/kg)
– In differential form,δE in- δE out=dE system
– δe in- δe out=de system
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final
states are identical
– ∆E system=E2-E1=0
– Then energy balance, E in – E out=0 or E in=E out
– W net, out=Q net, in
 First law for a closed system undergoing a
change of state

• If a system undergoes a change of state during which both

heat transfer and work transfer are involved
• The net energy will be stored or accumulated within the
system
• Q-is amount of heat transfer to the system
• W-is the amount of work transferred from the system
• The net energy transfer (Q-W) will be stored in the system
• Energy storage is neither heat nor work and is given the name
internal energy
– Q-W=ΔE
 Energy conversion Efficiencies
• Performance or efficiency can be expressed in terms of
– Desired output / Required Input
• Water heater 90% efficiency, heating elements of electric
water heaters are resistance heaters and the efficiency of
all resistance heaters is 100% as they convert all the
electrical energy they consume into thermal energy
• The heat losses from the hot water tank to the surrounding
air amount to 10% of electrical energy consumed
• If you have access to LPG or natural gas purchase a gas
water heater whose efficiency is only 55%. Annual energy
cost of the gas will be less than that of an electric unit
• Efficiency of gas water heater is much lower than the
efficiency of an electric heater
• Efficiency of gas heater that involves the combustion of fuel
is based on the heating value of the fuel and combustion
efficiency of the equipment
 Energy conversion Efficiencies
• Heating value of the fuel:
– Amount of heat released when a unit amount of fuel at room
temperature is completely burned and the combustion products
are cooled to the room temperature
– Amount of heat released during a combustion process is equal
to the heating value of the fuel
– Most fuels contain hydrogen, which forms water when burned
and the heating value of a fuel will be different, depending on
whether the water in combustion products is in the liquid or
vapor form
– Lower heating value (LHV),water leaves as a vapor and is not
practical to try to recuperate the heat of vaporization
– Higher heating value(HHV), water vapor is condensed and the
heat of vaporization is also recovered
 Energy conversion Efficiencies
• The performance of combustion equipment can be
characterized by combustion efficiency
– η comb=Q /HV=Amount of heat released during combustion /
heating value of the fuel burned
• Overall Efficiency
– A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy
– For IC engines, the work output is the power delivered by the
crankshaft
– For power plants, the work output can be the mechanical power
at the turbine exit or electrical power output of the generator
– Overall efficiency
• η overall=η comb* η thermal * η generator
• Cooking Efficiency
 Energy conversion Efficiencies
• Mechanical efficiency
– Mechanical work is often referred to as shaft work
– A pump or fan receives shaft work (from an electrical motor) and
transfers it to the fluid as mechanical energy
– A turbine, converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to shaft work
– η mech=mechanical energy output /mechanical energy input
– The mechanical efficiency of a fan is the ratio of the kinetic energy of
air at the fan exit to the mechanical power input
 Energy conversion Efficiencies
• Pump, turbine, motor, generator efficiency
– The degree of perfection of the conversion process
between the mechanical work supplied or extracted
– η pump=Mechanical energy increase of the fluid/Mechanical
energy input
– η turbine=Mechanical energy output/Mechanical energy
decrease of the fluid
– η motor=Mechanical power output/Electric power input
– η gene=Electric power output/Mechanical power input
• A pump is usually packaged together with its motor
and a turbine with its generator
• Therefore, the combined or overall efficiency of pump-
motor and turbine-generator is
– η pump-motor= η pump *η motor
– η turbine-gen= η turbine * η gen
 Energy and Environment
• The conversion of energy from to another often affects
environment and the air we breathe in many ways
• The largest source of pollution is the motor vehicles and the
pollutants released by the vehicles are grouped together as
– Hydrocarbons (HC)
– Nitrogen oxides (Nox)
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Smog: is made up mostly ground level ozone(O3), but it also
contains other chemicals, including carbon monoxide, particulate
matter such as soot and dust
• The harmful ground level ozone should not be confused with the
useful ozone layer high in the stratosphere, that protects the earth
from the suns harmful ultraviolet rays
• The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with water vapor and other
chemicals high in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to
form sulfuric and nitric acids
• The acids formed usually dissolve in the suspended water droplets
in clouds or fog. This is known as acid rain
 Energy and Environment
• Green house Effect:
– When you leave your car under direct sunlight on a sunny day,
the interior of the car gets much warmer than the air outside
– This is because, glass allows the solar radiation to enter freely
but blocks the infrared radiation emitted by the interior surfaces
– This causes a rise in the interior temperature as a result of the
thermal energy build up in the car
– This heating is known as green house effect
– The green house effect is also experienced large scale on earth
– The surface of the earth, which warms up during the day as
result of the absorption of solar energy, cools down at night by
radiating part of its energy into deep space as infrared radiation
– The undesirable consequences of the green house effect are
referred to as global warming
Energy and Environment
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS
 Overview
• We start this chapter with a moving boundary
work or Pdv work commonly encountered in
reciprocating devices such as automotive
engines and compressors
• We continue by applying the general energy
balance relation, which is simply expressed as
E in – E out=∆E system
 Objectives
• Examine the moving boundary work or P dv work
• Identify the first law of thermodynamics as simply a
statement of the conservation of energy principle for
close systems
• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed
systems
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and specific
heat at constant pressure
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes
in internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases
• Solve energy balance problem
 Moving Boundary Work
• One form of mechanical work encountered in practice is associated with
the expansion and compression of gas in a piston cylinder device
• During this process, part of the boundary (the inner face of the piston)
moves back and forth
• Therefore, the expansion and compression work if often called moving
boundary work or Pdv work
• Moving boundary work is the primary from of work involved in automobile
engines. During their expansion, the combustion gases forces the piston to
move, which in turn forces the crankshaft to rotate
• Moving boundary work associated with real engines cannot be
determined exactly from a thermodynamic analysis alone because the
piston usually moves at very high speeds, making it difficult for the gas
inside to maintain equilibrium
• States through which the system passes during the process cannot be
specified and no process path can be drawn
• Work, being a path function, cannot be determined analytically without
knowledge of the path
• Therefore, the boundary work in real engines is determined by direct
measurements
 Moving Boundary Work
• We analyze the moving boundary work for a quasi
equilibrium process, a process during which the system
remains nearly in equilibrium at all times
• A quasi equilibrium process, also called a quasi-static
process, is closely approximated by real engines
• Consider the gas enclosed in the piston-cylinder device. The
initial pressure of the gas is P, the total volume is V, the
cross sectional area of the piston is A
• If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi
equilibrium manner, the differential work done during this
process is
• δWb=F ds=P A ds=P dv
• The boundary work is the product of the absolute pressure P
and the differential change in volume dV of the system
• P is always positive, the volume change dV is positive during
expansion (volume increasing), dV is negative during a
compression process (volume decresing)
 Moving Boundary Work
• The total boundary work done during the entire process as
the piston moves is obtained by adding all the differential
works from the initial state to the final state
• W b=∫21 PdV (kJ)
• The integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional
relationship between P and V during the process
• P=f(V) is simply the equation of the process path on a P-V
diagram
 Moving Boundary Work
• The quasi-equilibrium expansion process is shown on P-V diagram
• The differential area dA is equal to PdV, which is the differential work
• The total area A under the process curve 1-2 is obtained by adding these
differential areas
• Area=A=∫21 dA=∫21 P dV
• A comparison of this equation with previous equation reveals that the area
under the process curve on a P-V diagram is equal to the work done during a
quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression process of a closed system
• The work is a path function, it depends on the path followed as well as the
end states
• The boundary work done during a process depends on the path followed
as well as end states
• The net work done during a cycle is the difference between the work done
by the system (during the expansion process, area under path A) and the
work done on the system (during the compression process, area under the
path B)
 Boundary Work for a constant volume process
• A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a
result of heat transfer to the surroundings, the
temperature and pressure inside the tank drop to 65°C
and 400 kPa. Determine the boundary work during the
process
• Rigid tank has a constant volume dV=0, W b=∫21 PdV=0
• Therefore, there is no boundary work done during the
process
• The boundary work done during a constant volume
process is always zero
• The area under the process curve is zero
 Boundary Work for a constant pressure process
• A stationary mass of gas is compressed
without friction from an initial state of 0.3 m3
and 0.105 Mpa to a final state of 0.15 m3 and
0.105 Mpa. There is a transfer of 37.6 kJ of
heat from the gas during the process
• W b=∫21 P (V2-V1)
• Q=∆E + W
• Find ∆E
 Boundary Work for a Isothermal process
• A piston cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air
at 100 kPa and 80°C. the air is now compressed to 0.1
m3 in such a way that the temperature inside the
cylinder remains constant. Determine the work done
during the process
• Ideal gas, PV= mRT0=C
• P=C/V, where C is constant
• W b=∫21 PdV= W b=∫21 C/V*dV
• W b=C∫21 dV/V=C ln V2/V1=P1V1 ln V2/V1
• P1V1=P2V2=mRT0
• V2/V1=P1/P2
 Boundary Work for Polytrophic process
• During actual expansion and compression
processes of gases, pressure and volume are
often related by PVn=C
• Where n and C are constants
• A process of this kind is called Polytrophic process
• The pressure for a polytrophic process can be
• P=CV-n
• W b=∫21 PdV= ∫21 CV-ndV = P2V2-P1V1/1-n
• Since C=P1V1n=P2V2n, ideal gas PV=mRT
• Wb= mR (T2-T1)/1-n, for n≠1 (kJ)
• W b=∫21 PdV= ∫21 CV-1 dv=PV ln(V2/V1) for n=1
 Energy Balance for Closed Systems
• For a cycle ∆E=0 and thus Q=W
• The energy balance relation for a closed system becomes
– Q net, in – W net, out = ∆E system
– Q – W= ∆E, where Q= Q net, in=Q in- Q out, is the net heat input, W=W net,
out= W out – W in, is the net work output
• Expansion against a vacuum involves no work and thus no energy
transfer
• For a closed system undergoing a quasi-equilibrium, P= constant
process, ∆U + W b = ∆ H =H2-H1
• Also H= U + PV
 Specific Heats
• Specific Heat:
– To express the specific heats in terms of other thermodynamic
properties
– Consider a fixed mass in a stationary closed system undergoing a
constant volume process (no expansion or compression work is
involved)
– The conservation of energy principle, e in– e out=∆e system
– δe in – δe out = du
– The left hand side of the equation represents the net amount of
energy transferred to the system
– From the definition of Cv this energy must be equal to CvdT
• Cv dT= dU
• Cv=(δU/δT)v
– Specific heat at constant pressure process
• Cp=(δh/δT)p
– Cv is related to the changes in internal energy and it is a measure of
the variation of internal energy of a substance with temperature
– Cp is related the changes in enthalpy and is a measure of the variation
of enthalpy of a substance with temperature
 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, specific heats of ideal gases
• For an ideal gas internal energy is a function of the temperature
– u=u (T)
• h= u + Pv, Pv=RT
• h= u + RT, since R is constant and u=u(T)
• h= h(T)
• Enthalpy of an ideal gas is also a function of temperature
• Since u and h depend only on temperature fro an ideal gas, the specific heats
Cv and Cp also depend on temperature only
• Therefore, at a given temperature, u,h,CP and Cv of an ideal gas have fixed
values regardless of the specific volume or pressure
• The change in internal energy or enthalpy for an ideal gas during a process
from state 1 to state2 is
∆u=u2 – u1=∫21 Cv(T) dT (kJ/kg)
∆h= h2 – h1= ∫21 Cp(T) dT (kJ/kg)
du= Cv (T) dT
dh= Cp (T) dT
• The above equation can be replaced by the constant average specific heat
values
u2 – u1=Cv ang (T2-T1) (kJ/kg)
h2 – h1= Cp avg(T2-T1) (kJ/kg)
 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, specific heats of ideal gases
• h= u + Pv, Pv=RT
• h= u + RT,
• dh=du + R dT
• Replacing dh by CpdT and du by CvdT
• Cp=Cv + R (kJ/kg K)
• Cp – Cv=R
• Specific heat ratio k= Cp/Cv
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, specific heats of solids & liquids
• A substance whose density is constant is
called an incompressible substance
• Liquids and solids can be approximated as
incompressible substances
• The constant volume and constant pressure
specific heats are identical for incompressible
substances
• Therefore, for solids and liquids, the subscripts
on Cv and Cp can be dropped and both specific
heats can be represented by a single symbol C
– Cv=Cp=C
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, specific heats of solids & liquids
• Internal energy changes
– The specific heats of incompressible substances depend on
temperature only
– du= Cv (T) dT=C(T)dT
– ∆u=u2 – u1=∫21 C(T)dT (kJ/kg)
– ∆u= C avg (T2-T1) (kJ/kg)
– The Cv and Cp values of incompressible substances are identical
– The specific volumes of incompressible substances remain
constant during a process
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, specific heats of solids & liquids
• Enthalpy changes
– h=u + Pv, v= constant
– dh= du + vdP + p dV =du + v dP, dV=0
– ∆h= ∆u + v ∆P=C avg ∆T + v ∆P (kJ/kg)
– For solids v ∆P is insignificant
– ∆h= ∆u=C avg ∆T
– For liquids, two special cases are
• Constant pressure processes, as in heaters(∆P=0),
• ∆h= ∆u=Cavg ∆T
– For constant temperature processes, as in pumps(∆ T=0)
• ∆ h= v ∆P
• For a process between states 1 and states 2, the last relation can
be expressed as
• h2 – h1 = v( P2 – P1)
• h @ P,T=h f@T + V f@T (P – P sat @T)
• The enthalpy of the compressed liquid could be taken as hf at the
given temperature (h @ P,T=h f@T )
MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CONTROL VOLUMES
 Overview
• The general energy balance relation expressed
as Ein – Eout =∆E system to closed systems
• We extend the energy analysis to systems that
involve mass flow across their boundaries
• Development of the general conservation of
mass relation for control volumes
• Apply the energy balance to systems that
involve steady flow processes
 Objectives
• Develop the conservation of mass principle
• Apply the conservation of mass principle to
various systems including steady and unsteady
flow control volumes
• Apply the first law of thermodynamics to control
volumes
• Identify the energy by a fluid stream
• Solve energy balance problems for steady flow
devices such as nozzles, compressors, turbines,
throttling valves, mixers, heaters and heat
exchangers
• Apply the energy balance to general unsteady
flow processes
 Conservation of Mass
• Chemical equations are balanced on the basis of the
conservation of mass principle
• When 16 kg of oxygen reacts with 2 kg of hydrogen, 18 kg
of water is formed
• In an electrolysis process, the water separates back to 2 kg
of hydrogen and 16 kg of oxygen
• Mass, like energy is conserved property and it cannot be
created or destroyed during a process
• However, mass and energy can be converted to each other
according to the well known formula by Einstein,
• E=mc2, c-is the speed of light in vacuum=2.9979 X 108 m/s
• For closed systems, mass of the system remain constant
during a process. For control volumes, mass can cross the
boundaries so we must keep track of the amount of mass
entering and leaving the control volume
 Mass and Volume flow rates
• The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called
the mass flow rate and is denoted by m dot
• δ and d are used to indicate differential quantities, but
• δ is used for quantities, such as heat, work and mass transfer that are path
functions and have inexact differentials
• d is used for quantities such as properties that are point functions and have
exact differentials
• m dot = ρ Vavg Ac (kg/s)
• The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is
called the volume flow rate V dot
• V dot= V*Ac (m3/s)
• The mass and volume flow rates are related by
• m dot = ρ Vdot
• Average velocity is defined as the average speed through a cross section
 Conservation of Mass Principle
• The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a
time interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase or
decrease) in the total mass within the control volume
during ∆t
• (Total mass entering the CV during ∆t)-(total mass leaving
the CV during ∆t)=(net change in mass within the CV during
∆t)
• m in – m out=∆mcv (kg)
• ∆mcv= m final – m initial
• m in – m out=dmcv /dt (kg/s)
 Mass balance for Steady Flow Process
• During a steady flow process, the total amount of mass contained
within a control volume does not change with time (mcv= constant)
• Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total
amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount
of mass leaving it
• For a garden hose nozzle in steady operation, the amount of water
entering the nozzle per unit time is equal to the amount of water
leaving it per unit time
• When dealing with steady flow processes, we are not interested in
the amount of mass that flows in or out of a device over time,
instead we are interested in the amount of mass flowing per unit
time
• Σ m in dot = Σ m out dot (kg/s)
• It states that the total rate of mass entering a control volume is equal
to the total rate of mass leaving it
• Devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors and
pumps involve a only one inlet and one outlet. For these cases, we
denote the inlet state by the subscript 1 and the outlet state by the
subscript by 2 and drop the summation sign
• m1 dot = m2 dot=ρ1A1V1=ρ2A2V2
 Mass balance for Steady Flow Process
Incompressible flow
• The conservation of mass relations can be simplified when the fluid is
incompressible
• Σ V in dot = Σ V out dot (m3/s), steady incompressible
• V1 dot = V2 dot=A1V1=A2V2 steady incompressible, single stream
• It should always be kept in mind that there is no such thing as a
conservation of volume principle
• Volume flow rates into and out of a steady flow device may be different
• The volume flow rate at the outlet of an air compressor is much less than
that at the inlet even though the mass flow rate of air through the
compressor is constant
• This is due to the higher density of the air at the compressor exit
• For steady flow liquids, the volume flow rates as well as the mass flow
rates remain constant since liquids are incompressible
• If you can balance your checkbook (by keeping track of deposits and
withdrawals)
Flow work & the Energy of a flowing fluid
• Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve mass flow across
their boundaries and some work is required to push the mass into
or out of the control volume. This work is known as flow work or
flow energy
• Consider a fluid element of volume V, the force applied on the fluid
element F=PA
• To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this force
must act through a distance L
• W flow=FL=PAL=PV (kJ)
• The flow work per unit mass w flow= Pv (kJ/kg)
 Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
• The total energy of a compressible system consists of three parts
• Internal, kinetic and potential energies
• On a unit mass basis,
• e=u + ke + pe =u + V2/2 +gz (kJ/kg)
• Total energy consists of three parts for a non-flowing fluid and four parts for a
flowing fluid
• The fluid entering and leaving a control volume possesses an additional form of
energy, the flow energy Pv
• Then the total energy of flowing fluid on unit mass basis (denoted by θ)
• θ= Pv + e = Pv + (u + ke + pe)
• But the combination of u + Pv = h enthalpy
• θ= h + ke + pe = h + V2/2 + gz (kJ/kg)
• By using the enthalpy instead of the internal energy to represent the energy of a
flowing fluid and energy associated with pushing the fluid into or out of the
control volume is automatically taken care of by enthalpy
 Energy transport by mass
• The total energy of a flowing fluid of mass m is
simply mθ
• Amount of energy transport,
• E mass=mθ=m(h + V2/2 + gz) (kJ)
• Rate of energy transport,
• E dot, mass=m dotθ=m dot(h + V2/2 + gz) (kW)
• When the kinetic and potential energies are negligible
• E mass=mh, E dot, mass=m doth
 Energy Analysis of Steady flow systems
• Under steady flow conditions, the mass and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant
• The fluid properties at an inlet or exit remain constant (do not change with time)
• Energy can be transferred by heat, work and mass only
 Energy Analysis of Steady flow systems
• The energy balance relation is easy to use when the magnitudes and
directions of heat and work transfers are known
• When solving a problem that involves an unknown heat or work
interaction, however we need to assume a direction of heat or work
interactions
• In such cases, it is common practice to assume heat to be transferred into
the system (heat input) at a rate of Qdot and work produced by the
system (work output) at a rate of Wdot
• The first law or energy balance relation for a general steady-flow system
becomes

• For a single stream devices

• On a unit mass basis

• When the fluid experiences negligible changes in Kinetic and potential

energies, the energy balance equation reduced to
Steady Flow Devices, Nozzles & Diffusers
• Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines, rockets, space craft and
even garden hoses
• Nozzle-is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure
• Diffuser- is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down
• Nozzle and diffusers perform opposite tasks
• The cross-sectional area of a nozzle decreases in the flow direction for subsonic
flows and increases for supersonic flows
• The reverse is true for diffusers
• The rate of heat transfer between the fluid flowing through a nozzle or diffuser
and the surroundings is usually small (Qdot=0)
• Since the fluid has high velocities and it does not spend enough time in the device
for any significant heat transfer to take place
• Nozzles and diffusers involve no work (wdot=)) and change in potential energy is
negligible(∆pe=0)
• Kinetic energy change must be accounted (∆ke # 0)
Steady Flow Devices, Turbines & Compressors
• As the fluid passes through the turbine, the work is done
against the blades, which are attached to the shaft and the
turbine produces work
• Compressors as well as pumps and fans are devices are
used to increase the pressure of a fluid
• Work is supplied to these devices from an external source
through a rotating shaft
• Fan – increases the pressure of a gas slightly
• Compressor- is capable of compressing the gas to very high
pressures
• Pumps- very much like compressor except they handle liquids
instead gases
• Heat transfer from turbine and compressor are negligible
(Qdot=0)
• Potential energy changes are negligible (∆pe=0)
• With the exception of turbine and fans, kinetic energy is
negligible (∆ke=0)
 Throttling Valves
• Throttling valves are any kind of flow restricting devices that cause
significant pressure drop in the fluid
• Examples are ordinary adjustable valves, capillary tubes and porous plugs
• Unlike turbines, they produce a pressure drop without involving any work
• The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in
temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are commonly used in
refrigeration and air-conditioning applications
• The magnitude of temperature drop during a throttling process is
governed by a property called the Joule-Thomson coefficient
• Throttling devices are usually adiabatic (q=0) and also there is no work done
(w=0)
• ∆pe=0 and ∆ke=0
• h2= h1 (kJ/kg)
• The enthalpy values at the inlet and exit of a throttling valve are the same. For
this reason, a throttling valve is sometimes called an isenthalpic device
• u1 + P1v1 = u2 + P2v2
• Internal energy + flow energy = constant
 Mixing Chambers
• In engineering applications, mixing two streams of fluids is not a
rare occurrence
• The section where the mixing process takes place is commonly
referred to as a mixing chamber
• Mixing chambers are sometimes called direct contact heat
exchangers
• An ordinary T elbow or a Y elbow in a shower
• Mixing chambers are well insulated (q=0)
• Do not involve any kind of work (w=0)
• Also (∆ke=0, ∆pe=0)
• The conservation of energy equation becomes similar to the
conservation of mass equation for this case
 Heat Exchangers
• Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat
without mixing
• The simplest form of heat exchanger is a double wall (also called tube and shell)
heat exchanger
• Heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the cold fluid through the wall separating
them
• Some times the inner tube makes a couple of turns inside the shell to increase the
heat transfer area and thus the rate of heat transfer
• Under steady operation, the mass flow rate of each fluid stream flowing through a
heat exchanger remains constant
• Heat exchangers involve no work interactions (w=0) and negligible kinetic and
potential energy changes (∆ke=0, ∆pe=0)
• When the entire heat exchanger is selected as the control volume Qdot becomes
zero, since the boundary for this case lies just beneath the insulation and no heat
crosses the boundary
• If one of the fluid is selected as the control volume, then heat will cross the
boundary and Q dot will not be zero
 Pipe and Duct flow
• The transport of liquids or gases in pipes and ducts is of great
importance
• Under normal operating conditions, the amount of heat gained or
lost by the fluid may be very significant
• Sometimes heat transfer is desirable and is the only purpose of the
flow
• Water flow through the pipes in the furnace of a power plant, the
flow of a refrigerant in a freezer and the flow in a heat exchangers
• If the control volume involves a heating section (electric wires), a
fan or a pump shaft, the work interactions should be considered
• Kinetic energy changes are usually negligible, when the pipe or duct
diameter is constant. However, it is significant with variable cross-
sectional area
• The potential energy term may also be significant when the fluid
undergoes elevation changes