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Geomorphic expression of rapid Holocene rights reserved;
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silicic magma reservoir growth beneath American Association
for the Advancement
Laguna del Maule, Chile of Science. No claim to
original U.S. Government
Works. Distributed
Brad S. Singer1*, Hélène Le Mével2, Joseph M. Licciardi3, Loreto Córdova4, Basil Tikoff1, under a Creative
Nicolas Garibaldi1, Nathan L. Andersen1†, Angela K. Diefenbach5, Kurt L. Feigl1 Commons Attribution
NonCommercial
Large rhyolitic volcanoes pose a hazard, yet the processes and signals foretelling an eruption are obscure. Satellite License 4.0 (CC BY-NC).
geodesy has revealed surface inflation signaling unrest within magma reservoirs underlying a few rhyolitic volca-
noes. Although seismic, electrical, and potential field methods may illuminate the current configuration and state
of these reservoirs, they cannot fully address the processes by which they grow and evolve on geologic time
scales. We combine measurement of a deformed paleoshore surface, isotopic dating of volcanism and surface
exposure, and modeling to determine the rate of growth of a rhyolite-producing magma reservoir. The numerical
approach builds on a magma intrusion model developed to explain the current, decade-long, surface inflation at
>20 cm/year. Assuming that the observed 62-m uplift reflects several non-eruptive intrusions of magma, each simi-

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lar to the unrest over the past decade, we find that ~13 km3 of magma recharged the reservoir at a depth of ~7 km
during the Holocene, accompanied by the eruption of ~9 km3 of rhyolite. The long-term rate of magma input is
consistent with reservoir freezing and pluton formation. Yet, the unique set of observations considered here implies
that large reservoirs can be incubated and grow at shallow depth via episodic high-flux magma injections. These
replenishment episodes likely drive rapid inflation, destabilize cooling systems, propel rhyolitic eruptions, and
thus should be carefully monitored.

INTRODUCTION of square kilometers, over periods of months to years, typically at

The gradual accumulation of rhyolitic magma in the upper crust can
promote large caldera-forming eruptions (1, 2), but the processes
by which this occurs remain poorly understood (3, 4). A key issue is
whether the magma flux into the upper crust is sufficiently large,
over long enough periods of time, to sustain growth of magma reser-
voirs thermally capable of producing large rhyolitic eruptions, rather
than crystallizing into plutons (5–8). Many of the observations fueling
this debate come from radioisotopic dating of minerals [for example,
(8)] or trace element diffusion clocks preserved within them [for
example, (4)]. On the one hand, magma fluxes typical of plutonic
systems are thought to normally be too low to sustain large, eruptible
magma reservoirs in the upper crust (6, 9–12). On the other hand, a
growing body of evidence suggests that silicic magma is stored long-­
term at relatively cool, nearly subsolidus conditions and is episodically
remobilized by rapid injection of hot recharge magma that may propel
destabilization and eruption (3, 4, 8, 13–15).
The magnitude and pattern of surface deformation offer another
important means to understand magmatic processes operating beneath
restless, occasionally active, volcanoes (16, 17). Measurement of de-
formation by satellite geodesy in caldera volcanoes that produced
super­eruption scale (18, 19), as well as modest volume (20–23) rhy-
olitic eruptions, has revealed inflation affecting regions of hundreds
1
Department of Geoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1215 West Dayton
Street, Madison, WI 57760, USA. 2Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Institution for Science, 5241 Broad Branch Road NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA.
3
Department of Earth Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824,
USA. 4Observatorio Volcanológico de los Andes del Sur, Servicio Nacional de
Geología y Minería, Rudecindo Ortega 03850, Temuco, Chile. 5Cascades Volcano
Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey, 1300 SE Cardinal Court Building 10, Vancouver,
WA 98683, USA.
*Corresponding author. Email: bsinger@geology.wisc.edu­­
†Present address: Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oregon, 100 Cascade
Hall, Eugene, OR 97403, USA.
rates of 10 cm/year or less (17). Arrival of new magma into an extant,
shallow magma reservoir is the common explanation for the surface
inflation [for example, (22)], although the pressurization of magmatic
fluids also contributes in some systems (17, 24). What has remained
elusive is a means of measuring a long-term flux rate that integrates
several magma pulses and that may leverage interpretations of whether
a magma reservoir is likely to grow and erupt or to freeze into a
pluton (7).
The Laguna del Maule (LdM) volcanic field (Fig. 1) comprises the
greatest concentration of postglacial (younger than ~20,000 years)
rhyolite in the Andes and includes the products of ~40 km3 of ex-
plosive and effusive eruptions (25–28). Recent observations at LdM
by interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) and global po-
sitioning system (GPS) satellite geodesy have revealed inflation at
rates exceeding 20 cm/year since 2007 (29–31), thereby capturing
an ongoing period of growth of a potentially large upper crustal
magma reservoir (27). The current episode of inflation has been ex-
plained by a model of transient supply of magma into this reservoir at a
depth of 4.5 km and requires recharge at a rate of 0.03 to 0.04 km3/year
(31, 32), which is a flux sufficient to destabilize a cool silicic magma
reservoir (6, 7, 14, 22). Here, we use a geo­morphic record of surface
deformation at LdM that offers an unprecedented opportunity to link
this current episode of unrest and inflation in a rhyolite-producing
system to the record of rhyolitic volcanism and magma intrusion span-
ning the last 10,000 years.
RHYOLITIC VOLCANISM AND GEOMORPHIC EVOLUTION
Rhyolitic volcanism and unrest
LdM sits atop the southern Andean range crest where, following
a rapid retreat of glaciers between ~23 and 19 thousand years ago
(based on 40Ar/39Ar dating of pre- and postglacial lava flows), a

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Fig. 1. Maps of postglacial lava flows in the LdM volcanic field [modified from (25, 34)]. Shown are postglacial rhyolites (pink), rhyodacites (orange), and andesites
(pale green). The presumed vent for the plinian eruption of the Rhyolite of LdM (unit rdm) is beneath the lake. The star in the inset shows the location of LdM in South
America. Important map units include (i) rle, Rhyolite of Los Espejos that dammed the lake at 19 thousand years; and (ii) rcb, the many rhyolitic lavas of the Barrancas
complex that were emplaced during the last 14 thousand years. These and other map unit abbreviations follow those in (25, 34).
flare-up of dominantly silicic volcanism occurred within the central
lake basin (Fig. 1) (25, 33, 34). The silicic eruptions include effusive
and explosive events and are volumetrically dominated by crystal-­
poor rhyolite. Rhyodacite and andesite eruptions also occurred
throughout postglacial time but are concentrated in the northwestern
to western LdM basin several kilometers from the locus of rhyolitic
volcanism (Fig. 1). Rhyodacitic lavas are distinguished from rhyolitic
ones by higher crystallinities, common amphibole crystals, and abun-
dant centimeter-scale chilled mafic inclusions, which are nearly absent
within the rhyolites (25, 33, 34). 40Ar/39Ar dating and volcanic mor-
phology indicate that the frequency and spatial extent of the rhyolitic
eruptions were greatest during two pulses: an early postglacial period
(22 to 19 thousand years ago) and the middle to late Holocene (Fig. 1)
(33, 34). The early postglacial rhyolite eruptions began with the ~20-km3
plinian Rhyolite of LdM (unit rdm) (28), the large volume of which
distinguishes it from the subsequent, smaller-volume (0.5 to 3 km3)
rhyolites. Between 14.5 and 8.4 thousand years ago, rhyolite erupted only
from the Barrancas complex in the southeastern lake basin, after which
the focus of rhyolite volcanism expanded northwestward and north-
ward (Fig. 1) (25, 33, 34), while also continuing within the Barrancas
complex (35). Excluding ash fall deposits (28), the minimum total
volume of rhyolitic lava and pyroclastic flows that erupted from at least
10 vents ringing the southeastern margin of the basin during the last
14.5 thousand years is ~8.4 km3, more than half of which erupted
during the last 5.6 thousand years (33). This chronology is supported
by 36Cl surface exposure ages (Materials and Methods) of 2.5 ± 0.7,
1.4 ± 0.6, and 0.8 ± 0.6 thousand years from three late Holocene
rhyolite flows that have little ash cover and are thus among the youngest
eruptive features in the basin (Fig. 2 and table S1A).
Amphibole barometry, trace element compositions, thermody-
namic modeling of phase equilbria, and Sr, Pb, and Th isotope ratios
indicate that crystal-poor rhyolite erupted at LdM was produced in
the upper crust via fractional crystallization and assimilation of pre-
viously emplaced magma ± juvenile crust at depths of 4 to 6 km (33, 34).
Each cubic kilometer of erupted rhyolite is distilled from ~3 to 4 km3
of andesitic to rhyodacitic magma, suggesting that a substantial
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magma reservoir underlies the LdM basin (33). Subtle, temporally
coherent variations in whole-rock trace element, Fe-Ti oxide, pla-
gioclase, and zircon compositions indicate that the rhyolites evolved
within at least two physically discrete reservoirs that may or may
not have been contiguous beneath the LdM basin (33, 34). Mafic to
intermediate eruptions are conspicuously absent within the locus of
rhyolite volcanism. Yet, quenched basaltic andesite inclusions are
common in the rhyodacitic lavas (Figs. 1 and 2), indicating that the
ascent of mafic magma to shallow depths is frequent but is inter-
cepted by a voluminous shallow silicic magma reservoir.
A Bouguer gravity survey was conducted in the LdM basin, with
a focus over the recent area of inflation (36). Spatially coincident with
the center of current uplift is a negative Bouguer gravity anomaly that
has been modeled as a low-density, rhyolite-bearing magma reservoir
(36). Inversion of the density distribution yields a model wherein a
30-km3 body of low-density rhyolitic magma containing exsolved
fluids at depths of 2 to 4 km is embedded within a 115-km3 domain
comprising denser crystal mush with several-percent melt (36).
Rhyolite is extracted from rhyodacite magma near the base of the
low-density domains inferred from the gravity field (33, 34, 36).
Underlying this shallow reservoir is a long-lived transcrustal magma
system [for example, (3, 37)] that likely extends downward into a deep
crustal zone of magma storage, mixing, and assimilation (33, 38).
RESULTS
Dating the highstand paleoshoreline
The Espejos rhyolite coulée, 40Ar/39Ar-dated at 19.0 ± 0.7 thousand
years before present (33) (Fig. 2, unit rle), dammed the northern outlet
of LdM and raised the lake level by ~200 m to form a prominent basin-­
wide highstand shoreline (25). The lava dam was breached, resulting
in an outbreak flood of 15 km3 of water pouring through the gorge and
scouring the upper Maule river valley (25). The highstand shoreline is
variably preserved and expressed around the basin. Atop the Espejos
rhyolite coulée, it is a beach bar deposit of rounded boulders of the
rhyolite (Fig. 3A). To the northeast, it is a bench up to several tens of
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Fig. 2. Map of preserved highstand paleoshoreline (color-contoured for elevation) and postglacial silicic lava flows. Map unit abbreviations follow those in (25, 33, 34). ka,
thousand years ago (ka ago).
meters wide cut directly into Pleistocene volcanic rocks (Fig. 3B).
Around the eastern and southern edges of the basin, it is a bench cut
into older Pleistocene lavas, covered by rounded beach boulders and
late Holocene tephra (Fig. 3C). To determine the age of the highstand
shoreline, we collected samples for surface exposure dating from five
wave-cut terrace outcrops in the northern LdM basin at elevations be-
tween 2374 and 2388 meters above sea level (masl) (Fig. 2). Cosmogenic
36
Cl measurements (Materials and Methods) yield ages of 9.4 ± 0.4,
8.8 ± 0.6, 7.5 ± 0.3, 6.6 ± 0.6, and 4.2 ± 0.2 ka (±2 analytical uncer-
tainties; table S1A). Two outcrops, one in rhyodacite ignimbrite at
2376 masl (Fig. 3B), the other 4 km to the northeast in andesite at
2386 masl, comprise tens to hundreds of square meters of block-­
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jointed rock in windswept locations and yield the oldest dates of 9.4 ±
0.3 ka and 8.8 ± 0.6 ka that are indistinguishable from one another at
the 95% confidence level. The three other sites on the rhyodacite
ignimbrite spanning the same range in elevation yield younger ages.
For samples that contain low native chlorine (table S1C), erosion of
the surface or burial under ash, snow, or water will lower apparent 36Cl
surface exposure ages, whereas for samples with high Cl, the impacts
of erosion and burial tend to increase the apparent exposure ages. We
therefore infer that the two younger ages from the shoreline derived
from samples with low Cl (7.5 ± 0.3 thousand years ago and 4.2 ± 0.2
thousand years ago) reflect erosion or burial and that each gives a
minimum duration of exposure. Likewise, the oldest 36Cl exposure
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Fig. 3. Outcrops illustrating geomorphic expression of highstand paleoshoreline in select localities around the LdM basin. (A) Rounded boulders of 19.0 thousand years
old Espejos rhyolite deposited on an angular outcrop of the same unit to define the highstand of the paleoshoreline (dashed yellow line). (B) Wave-cut terrace on 990 thousand
years old Bobadilla rhyodacite ignimbrite north of LdM. The block below the hammer yields a 36Cl exposure age of 9.4 ± 0.4 thousand years. (C) Beach deposit of rounded boulders
of Pleistocene andesite partially buried by rhyolitic ash and lapilli at the southeastern end of the lake basin (Fig. 2). The rhyolite lava from the Barrancas complex flowed over
this shoreline terrace at 5.6 thousand years ago. (D) View north of the southern margin of the rhyodacite of Colada Dendriforme (unit rdcd in Figs. 1 and 2) where it flowed over
a highstand paleoshoreline terrace (arrows). A glassy tower on the levee of the flow lobe on the right yields a 36Cl exposure age of 8.4 ± 1.2 thousand years that provides a
lower limit for the age of the paleoshoreline. Photo credits: B.S.S. [taken on 1 January 2016 (A), 16 January 2015 (B), 8 January 2015 (C), and 29 March 2015 (D)].

age from the shoreline (9.4 ± 0.3 thousand years ago), also derived
from a low-Cl sample, provides a minimum age of exposure. How-
ever, we consider this figure to be a closely limiting minimum age
because posited rock surface erosion rates have a negligible impact
(table S1A), and past cover by ash or snow is deemed minimal be-
cause of the windswept location of these outcrops. The exposure ages
derived from moderate- to high-Cl material (8.8 ± 0.6 thousand
years ago and 6.6 ± 0.6 thousand years ago) are more difficult to evalu-
ate with regard to erosion, past cover, and pore water content (table
S1A) but may in part reflect episodic submergence associated with sea-
sonal changes in paleolake level similar to that observed along the
shore of the modern lake (25). We conclude that the abrupt drop in lake
level to near its modern elevation occurred at ca. 9.4 thousand years ago
and left the highstand shoreline outcrops exposed to buildup of 36Cl.
This conclusion is bolstered by the ages of two lavas that flowed onto
the highstand shoreline. A surface on the Colada Dendriforme rhyo­
dacite flow (unit rcd; Figs. 2 and 3D) yields a 36Cl age of 8.4 ± 1.2 thousand
years, whereas a rhyolite flow on the north flank of the Barrancas com-
plex (Fig. 3C) yields an 40Ar/39Ar age of 5.6 ± 1.1 thousand years (33).
Measuring Holocene surface deformation
We measured GPS positions of 64 sites on the highstand surface in
a rapid static mode using five continuously recording GPS stations as
base stations (Fig. 2), yielding elevations with centimeter-scale pre-
cision (Materials and Methods and table S2). We corroborated these
GPS measurements by mapping each onto a photogrammetrically
generated 1-m-resolution digital elevation model (DEM; Materials
and Methods) and outlining the preserved highstand shoreline surface
outcrops (Fig. 2 and fig. S1). Most surfaces are inclined toward the
modern lake, and many are covered by tephra (Fig. 3C); hence, the
main uncertainty in the GPS measurements comes from the choice
of the GPS site location within one inclined “outcrop,” which may
extend over 50 to 100 m in a horizontal distance. The comparison be-
tween the DEM and GPS height measurements allows us to estimate
a total uncertainty for each GPS position of ±3 m (Materials and
Methods and fig. S2). Elevations of the 64 GPS sites show 62 m of
relief and range from 2366 to 2428 masl, with the lowest values along
the western and northern perimeter of the lake basin and the highest
along the south and east (Fig. 4 and fig. S1A).
INTERPRETATION AND MODELING OF GROUND DEFORMATION
The highstand paleoshoreline is inferred to have been a horizontal
surface when the lake drained at 9.4 thousand years ago. Its elevation
gradient and spatial distribution are inconsistent with predicted iso-
static rebound in response to draining of the lake [for example, (39)]
(Materials and Methods and fig. S3). The LdM basin is adjacent to the
Andean range crest with current elevations of 2100 to 3000 masl through-
out the region shown in Fig. 1. Here, during the Last Glacial Maxi-
mum ~21 thousand years ago, an ice cap ~80 km across and up to several
hundred meters thick occupied the deepest valleys and range crest
basins (40, 41). Deglaciation of the LdM basin was likely completed by
19 to 18 thousand year ago, resulting in isostatic adjustment to less than
5 MPa (megapascals) equivalent of lost ice. Modeling of glacial isostatic

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A B C

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Fig. 4. Model of single magma intrusion to explain Holocene surface deformation at LdM. (A) Map of interpolated elevations of the paleoshoreline (color scale in meters)
relative to the lowest measured level to the northwest (NW) (2372 m), as measured at 64 GPS sites (black circles) on the highstand paleoshoreline around LdM (blue outline).
The white circle indicates the location of the best-fit prolate spheroid deformation source estimated from inversion of the GPS data set. (B) The analytical solution for a
pressurized prolate spheroid source (54) has seven free model parameters: location (x0, y0), depth (z0), dimensionless pressure change from which we calculate the total
volume change (V), spheroid aspect ratio (A = b/a), dip angle (, positive downward), and strike angle (, clockwise from north). Gray histograms show the initial random
distribution and bounds for each parameter. Blue histograms show the best-fit values for each parameter and each of the 250 runs. Final best-fit value (minimum 2) for
each parameter and uncertainty estimates from Jackknife resampling are indicated on top of each panel. (C) Vertical displacement data (red error bars) and modeled
values (blue squares) as a function of the radial distance from the source.

year
Fig. 5. Sketch illustrating a conceptual model of episodic deformation at LdM.
Triangles on the upper x axis indicate the eruption ages of the rhyolite flows mapped
in (25, 33) that issued from the Nieblas, Barrancas, Divisoria, and Cari Launa erup-
tive centers. Red filled triangles indicate flows dated by 40Ar/39Ar or 36Cl in (33) and
this study, and gray filled triangles indicate ages inferred from field relationships;
these flows have been placed at regular intervals between the bounding ages. The
black square shows the cumulative vertical displacement estimate of 60 m over
9.4 thousand years. If the uplift rate had been constant over this time interval, then
the long-term average rate would be 6.4 mm/year (dashed black line). The inset shows
the temporal evolution of the vertical displacement as observed during the uplift
episode that is ongoing since 2007 (red line) (32) and the projected rate assuming
no further perturbations (dashed line). If all the deformation episodes share the
same temporal and spatial characteristics, then 16 of these 50-year-long episodes
would be needed to reproduce the 60-m total uplift of the paleoshoreline over the
Holocene, with a magma intrusion average recurrence interval of 624 years.
uplift of the European Alps (42), where the extent and thickness of ice
at the Last Glacial Maximum were much larger than that at LdM, indi-
cates that deglaciation induced about 2 mm/year of uplift. Applying this
estimate as a maximum for LdM implies that less than 20 m of uplift,
across the entire region shown in Fig. 1, may have occurred during the
last 9.4 ka. This is inconsistent with both the short wavelength and the
>60 m magnitude of surface deformation measured at LdM since 9.4
thousand years ago (Materials and Methods). Instead, the gradient is
consistent with deformation associated with an inflating magma reser-
voir located below the southeastern portion of the lake basin near the
Barrancas volcanic complex (Fig. 2). Moreover, the 60+ m of perma-
nent deformation during the last 9.4 thousand years favors intrusion
and solidification of magma, rather than pressurization of volatiles in a
hydrothermal system.
To investigate the origin of the deformed paleoshoreline, we model
the cumulative vertical displacement measured over the last 9.4 thou-
sand years and relate it to the numerical modeling results of magma
injection into a long-lived reservoir on the decadal time scale (32)
The final GPS elevation data set is referenced in space to the lowest
elevation in the northwest (Fig. 4) and inverted for three different
deformation source geometries. Assuming that the crust is an iso-
tropic, homogeneous, elastic half-space, we find the best-fitting source
to be a prolate spheroid located in the southeast of the lake basin ex-
periencing a volume change of 13 km3 over 9.4 thousand years at a
depth of 7 km (Figs. 2 and 4A). A statistical F test confirms that this
model with seven adjustable pa­ra­meters is a significantly better fit than
a simple spherical source with 95% confidence (Materials and Methods).
The inflating source model reproduces the main characteristics of the
spatial pattern and magnitude of the paleoshoreline deformation. The
location of the inferred source of magma intrusion is centered among
the rhyolitic volcanic complexes that ring the southern and eastern

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Fig. 6. Schematic evolution of the upper crustal magma reservoir beneath LdM during the last 22 thousand years. The current Bouguer gravity low (36) is inter-
preted to include a smaller melt-rich body embedded within a larger, mostly crystalline, body centered under the lake. The gravity data suggest that the magma reservoir
has begun to solidify into relatively dense crystal-rich mush beneath the southern end of the lake basin. Petrologic data (33, 34) imply that low-density rhyolitic melt
segregates from crystal mush at depths of 4 to 6 km. The source of current inflation is best modeled as a sill opening at a depth of 4.5 km (31, 32). Thus, in the lowermost
panel, we show that the partially molten zones and locus of magma injection coincide with the deeper portion of the inferred source of the Bouguer gravity low.

flanks of the LdM basin and from which eruptions were focused during
the last 9.4 ka (Figs. 1 and 2).
Whereas there are no obvious offsets of the highstand paleo-
shoreline bench by faults, there is a relatively abrupt change in
elevation of 20 m over a distance of 500 m across the inferred trace
of the regional Troncoso fault (Fig. 2 and fig. S4). Cumulative move-
ment of several meters along this fault may explain some of the larger
residuals visible on the radial profile (Fig. 4C).
The kinematic model considers a constant change in pressure with
time to reproduce the pattern of cumulative uplift. In the absence of a
record of the temporal evolution of the uplift over the 9.4 thousand-­
years time interval, we use information revealed from the study of
the ongoing uplift episode that began between 2004 and 2007. To
reproduce the exponentially increasing and decreasing rates of up-
lift measured at LdM, Le Mével et al. (32) modeled the flow of magma
through a conduit into an ellipsoidal source underlying most of the
central part of the lake basin. If several such non-eruptive deformation
episodes with the same characteristic time constant occurred over
9.4 thousand years ago, then 16 distinct episodes such as this would
be necessary to uplift the paleoshoreline by 60 m as plotted in Fig. 5.
However, the modeling results indicate two main differences between
the deformation sources: The location has moved northwestward since
9.4 thousand years ago (Fig. 2), and the Holocene deformation source
was deeper, leading to a wider deformation footprint at the surface.
DISCUSSION
Geomorphic constraints on magma reservoirs
Geomorphology has been used to constrain the depths and growth
rates of magma reservoirs in a variety of settings, a few examples of
which are outlined here. Whereas InSAR data show that growth of
the magma body at a depth of 19 km below Socorro, New Mexico,

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propels recent uplift at 2.5 mm/year, geomorphic evidence suggests
that it is unlikely that this uplift has persisted for more than a few
centuries (43). Geodetically measured uplift rates at Uturuncu and
Lazufre volcanoes in the Central Andes are between 1.0 and 3.5 cm/year
(44). Several lines of geomorphic evidence suggest that at Lazufre,
expansion of a magma reservoir at depths of 10 to 20 km generated
pulses of surface uplift that total several hundred meters during the
last 400 thousand years, punctuated by long intervals of quiescence or
subsidence (45). Also in the Central Andes, a long-wavelength topo-
graphic dome about 1 km high reflects growth of the enormous 10-
to 20-km-deep Altiplano-Puna magma body during perhaps the last
10 million years (Ma) (46). Resurgent doming or uplift of tens to
hundreds of meters over periods of centuries to several millennia at
rates of between 1 and 20 cm/year has also been ascribed to magma
intrusion beneath calderas at Toba (47), Campi Flegrei (48), and
Iwo Jima (49). Features that distinguish LdM from these other ex-
amples include the following: (i) the shallow depth of the magma
reservoir inferred from gravity (36), geodesy (30–32), and petrology
(33, 34); (ii) a highly resolved series of rhyolitic eruptions of well-­
constrained volumes before, and during, the 60+ m of surface defor-
mation of the last 9.4 thousand years (Fig. 1); and (iii) the exceptional
magnitude of the current uplift at more than 20 cm/year during the
last decade that is centered among the many rhyolitic vents (Fig. 2). We
next integrate these observations to explore the long-term dynamics
of the LdM magma reservoir.
Incremental growth and eruption of a shallow
plutonic reservoir
Deformation of the paleoshoreline, coupled with knowledge of the
volcanic output, the numerical simulations of magma intrusion, and
geometry of the Bouguer gravity anomaly (33), leads to the model
outlined in Fig. 6. During the last 9.4 thousand years, the ratio of
rhyolite erupted (~9 km3) to the volume of magma transiting into
and out of the reservoir (22 km3) is about 0.4, suggesting reservoir
growth through underaccretion of magma as suggested in some epi-
zonal plutons (6, 50, 51). Thermal modeling suggests that at a depth of
~7 km, the time-averaged magma flux here of 0.0023 km3/year is un-
likely to favor the eruption of rhyolite, instead leading to solidification
of a pluton (7, 10, 52). However, the >1.5 million years of LdM vol-
canism (25) attests to a magma flux that has thermally primed the
upper crust to host a large, dynamic, eruptible reservoir of silicic magma
[for example, (11, 33, 34)]. During the Holocene alone, at least 10 erup-
tions of crystal-­­poor rhyolite reflect crystallization of perhaps 40 km3
of andesitic to rhyodacitic magma within the shallow reservoir (34).
The absence of measured deformation before 2007 (29, 30) demon-
strates that the current inflation event reflects an episodic process
operating beneath LdM. Following the uniformity principle, the
long-term deformation measured here would also reflect successive
uplift episodes. We propose that the magma supply is best under-
stood as an aggregation of repeated high-flux episodes exemplified by
the ongoing inflation. During one such episode, the transient uplift
rate could be as high as 200 mm/year, corresponding to a magma
recharge rate of as high as 0.04 km3/year (Fig. 5) (32). These recharge
episodes each propelled destabilization of the reservoir via the addi-
tion of volatiles and ascent of bubble-rich plumes of rhyolitic melt
through low-porosity crystal mush (Fig. 6) (33, 53, 54). Moreover,
the locus of magmatic intrusion, wavelength of surface inflation, and
locations of rhyolitic eruptions have migrated several kilometers
during the last 20 thousand years, highlighting the spatially hetero­
Singer et al., Sci. Adv. 2018; 4 : eaat1513 27 June 2018
g­eneous, incremental growth of the magma reservoir. The Bouguer
gravity anomaly implies that the reservoir today is partially molten
under the lake (~1800 to 2400 kg/m3), with much denser crystal mush
or subsolidus material (~2700 kg/m3) underlying the southern flank of
the basin (36), suggesting that here it has cooled and begun to solidify
(Fig. 6). Additional gravity measurements on the Barrancas complex
and to its south are needed to test and refine this inference. The time-­
averaged rate of magma accumulation beneath LdM during the Holo­
cene of 0.0023 km3/year is equivalent to many well-dated plutons
(7, 9, 10, 50, 52) but has likely been punctuated by numerous high-flux
recharge events at rates 20 times faster. Our findings illustrate that the
incremental growth of plutons comprising several hundred cubic kilome-
ters, accompanied by eruption of tens of cubic kilometers of rhyolite, is
not restricted to deep hot crust. Rather, plutons may grow in the upper-
most crust via repeated high-flux additions of hot magma to a gradually
expanding, but mostly frozen, body of plutonic mush (4, 14, 34). Future
explosive eruptions of modest to large volume are to be expected as a con-
sequence of rapid recharge events akin to that observed today at LdM.
Downloaded from http://advances.sciencemag.org/ on June 24, 2021
MATERIALS AND METHODS
36
Cl dating
For 36Cl exposure age determinations, five samples were collected
from horizontal surfaces of the lake highstand shoreline notched into
990 thousand-years-old welded rhyodacite tuff or 1.01-million-years-
old andesite north of LdM, and four samples came from horizontal
surfaces on rhyodacitic or rhyolitic lava flows that exhibit uneroded
morphologically youthful flow structures (Figs. 2 and 3 and table S1A).
Local topographic maxima were selected for sampling to minimize the
effects of shielding, which was evaluated using an inclinometer. Samples
were collected using a hammer and chisel at least 5 cm from adjacent
vertical surfaces to avoid edge effects in calculating ages. Whole-rock
separates, crushed to 125 to 250 m, were prepared from the uppermost
1.75 to 3.0 cm of each sample and ultrasonically cleaned in deionized
water. Cl was extracted in clean laboratory facilities at the University
of New Hampshire following methods developed by Stone et al. (55)
and modified by Licciardi et al. (56). Crushed samples were pretreated
with 2% HNO3 and spiked with an enriched 37Cl tracer and then
dissolved in HF-HNO3 solution. Upon complete digestion, insoluble
fluoride compounds were removed by centrifugation, and Cl was pre-
cipitated as AgCl with the addition of AgNO3. The precipitate was
further purified by redissolution in NH4OH and the addition of BaNO3
to precipitate sulfate as BaSO4. AgCl was then reprecipitated by the ad-
dition of 2 M HNO3 and AgNO3, washed repeatedly in deionized
water, and dried.
The 35Cl/37Cl and 36Cl/37Cl ratios were measured at the Center for
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry at the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL) facility. Procedural blanks contributed 0.1 to 5.0%
error to the 36Cl concentration errors in the unknowns, and appro-
priate blank corrections were made before age calculations. Ages were
calculated using the online CRONUScalc 36Cl exposure age calculator
and the LSDn scaling scheme (57–59). Sensitivity analyses were con-
ducted using the CRONUScalc calculator to isolate the potential impacts
of rock surface erosion rates and pore water content on the apparent
exposure ages (table S1A). A prescribed rock surface erosion rate of
5 mm per thousand years, which represents a plausible value determined
on similar volcanic lithologies in the Quelccaya region of the Peruvian
Andes (60), was seen to have a minimal effect on apparent exposure ages
derived from samples with low native Cl [15-SLM-05, 22.9 parts per
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million (ppm) Cl; SLM-16-28, 25.3 ppm; SLM-16-29, 26.2 ppm], in-
cluding the sample that provides the closely limiting 9.4 thousand
years minimum age of the highstand shoreline. Likewise, a prescribed
0.5 fraction of pore water content had negligible impact on ages derived
from these low-Cl rocks. In contrast, the same prescribed surface ero-
sion rate and pore water content were seen to have variable and signifi-
cant impacts on the apparent exposure ages of surfaces derived from
rocks with moderate to high Cl contents (table S1, A and C).
Static GPS measurements
GPS data that measure shoreline height were collected during two
survey periods in 2015 and 2016 using two Trimble dual-frequency
receivers: 5700 and NetR9 with Zephyr and Zephyr Geodetic an-
tennas. Each GPS point was occupied for at least 10 min, following
a rapid static method. To obtain precise coordinates for each point,
we followed the GPS differential procedure (61), using, as reference,
five continuous GPS (cGPS) stations operated by the Observatorio
Volcanologico de los Andes del Sur (OVDAS) located around the
lake [Fig. 2; base stations are MAU2, PUEL, LDMP, COLO, and
NIE2 cGPS sites of (31)]. Precise coordinates of continuous stations
were estimated using Trimble postprocessing service (Topcon) rela-
tive to the World Geodetic System 84 (WGS84) ellipsoid. These posi-
tions were reprocessed with Trimble Business Center and compared
with results from long time series processed with GIPSY-OASIS soft-
ware (release 6.3) from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, yielding similar
results. For each campaign, 2015 and 2016, this procedure ensured
that ongoing surface deformation is accounted for. Each GPS point
was processed by calculating baselines with respect to the nearest or
the two nearest permanent-­fixed stations (fig. S2). We processed base-
lines and obtained fixed solutions for 64 GPS points; when two base-
lines were processed for the same point, we adjusted both results for
a robust solution. Results are shown in table S2. Most GPS sites were
chosen at the midpoint of the inclined slope of the paleoshoreline
surface or at the highest break in its slope. The mean difference be-
tween the elevations in the DEM and the GPS sites was 0.27 ± 1.07 m.
Of the 64 GPS sites, 48 (75%) agreed within 1 m with the DEM.
The minimum and maximum differences were 0.02 and 2.62 m, re-
spectively. Thus, we attributed a total uncertainty for each GPS po-
sition of ±3 m (fig. S2).
Digital elevation model
A DEM was constructed using photogrammetric analysis of several
thousand oblique, near-vertical, digital images acquired during
two helicopter survey campaigns in 2017 and methods outlined
in (62, 63). Ground control points used in the modeling include
several purpose-placed markings and several of the seismic instru-
ments deployed to study the LdM magma system. The DEM has a
spatial resolution of 1 m.
Isostatic adjustments to lake-level lowering
and deglaciation
To consider surface displacement due to the sudden drop in lake
level at 9.4 thousand years ago, we applied an elastic formulation (64)
to calculate the unloading due to a 200 m drop in the water table that
followed the current shoreline. Even an extremely low value of crustal
shear modulus (1 GPa) would only account for 14 m of uplift, limited
to the lake basin with a maximum centered within the lake (fig. S3).
Therefore, we conclude that this process does not explain the ob-
served pattern of uplifted shoreline to the SE by 60+ m (Fig. 4A).
Singer et al., Sci. Adv. 2018; 4 : eaat1513 27 June 2018
To calculate the amount of uplift caused by viscoelastic post­
glacial rebound, we considered a model for the European Alps (42).
Their estimate of 2 mm/year in the Alps was likely much faster than
what the same process would produce anywhere at LdM in the Andes.
First, the Alps sustained a larger (800 × 250 km) and much thicker
(~2 km) ice cap. Second, since the Andes comprise a magmatically
active subduction zone, the lithosphere is likely hotter and thus less
viscous than below the Alps. The latter effect would reduce the ef-
fective elastic thickness and thus the contribution to uplift by degla-
ciation relative to mantle flow (42). In the Alps, the observed glacial
uplift spans spatial length scales of hundreds of kilo­meters (42). At
LdM, however, the warping of the LdM highstand paleoshoreline
occurs over a much shorter spatial length scale of the order of ~15 km.
Both of these unloading processes (melting glaciers or draining
lake) would lead to a rate of uplift that is fairly constant over the
time scale of a decade. Neither process can explain the uplift mea-
sured between 2007 and 2017 at LdM. As discussed previously, the
rate of uplift between 2003 and 2004 is 0 ± 10 mm/year (29–31). We
conclude that the doming of >60 m is instead driven by magma in-
Downloaded from http://advances.sciencemag.org/ on June 24, 2021
trusion below the southern lake basin consistent with the eruptive
history (Figs. 1 and 2).
Analytical modeling and interpretation
Before modeling, elevations were referred to a site in the NW as-
sumed to be the original shoreline height. It is the furthest point
from the source and has an elevation of 2372 m. The relative heights
are the input for the analytical models. The horizontal displacement
was unknown and was therefore set to 0 ± 30 m in the model input.
All the models considered in this study assumed the crust to be an
isotropic, homogeneous, elastic half-space. We tested three possible
source geometries: (i) a sphere, implemented using the formulation
of (65); (ii) a prolate spheroid (66); and (iii) a sill or penny-shaped
crack using the three-dimensional Green function proposed by
Fialko et al. (67). The inversion for the three different deformation
sources was implemented in the dMODELS software package
(68). The nonlinear inversion algorithm is a combination of a local
optimization (interior-point method implemented in the MATLAB
function fmincon) and a random search. For each set of parameters,
250 runs were calculated, and the parameter uncertainty estimates
were then computed using a Jackknife resampling method.
We used analytical solutions of a simple deformation source in an
elastic half-space to estimate the source volume change at depth from
the cumulative surface uplift. Numerical models of the well-­constrained
temporal evolution of uplift for the ongoing episode of deformation
started in 2007 helped us interpret the results in terms of magma volume
estimates. Note that a magma injection model with a viscoelastic rheol-
ogy for the crust yields up to 4% more displacement than the purely
elastic model (32) and therefore would lead to a smaller estimate of
magma injection volume for each episode. Considering the magma com-
pressibility would, on the other hand, significantly affect the volume
estimates of the magma injection. As shown in (32), the magma injec-
tion volume needed to explain the current uplift is twice as large if
we assume a compressible magma (with B = 2.1 × 10−9 Pa−1). Con-
sequently, the incompressible magma volume estimates, including the
12.7 ± 0.9 km3 prolate spheroid in Fig. 4B, are minimum estimates.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Supplementary material for this article is available at http://advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/
content/full/4/6/eaat1513/DC1
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SCIENCE ADVANCES | RESEARCH ARTICLE
table S1A. Data from cosmogenic 36Cl dating samples.
table S1B. Major element compositions of cosmogenic 36Cl dating samples.
table S1C. Trace element compositions of cosmogenic 36Cl dating samples.
table S2. Static GPS measurements of highstand paleoshoreline.
fig. S1. Histogram of elevation differences between GPS and DEM.
fig. S2. One-meter-resolution DEM and identification of highstand paleoshoreline outcrops.
fig. S3. Estimated vertical displacement in response to crustal unloading from lake draining.
fig. S4. Map of highstand paleoshoreline surface where it intersects the trace of the Troncoso
fault.
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Acknowledgments: We thank our many LdM collaborators for enlightening discussions over
many years, in particular J. Fierstein and W. Hildreth. Comments by an anonymous reviewer,
M. Pritchard, R. Denlinger, and C.-T. Lee helped improve this paper and are much appreciated.
L. Torres, J. Torres, N. Lord, P. Sobol, L. Lara, A. Amigo, A. Alarcon, OVDAS, Servicio Nacional de
Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Volcano Disaster
Assistance Program, and S. Zimmerman and A. Hidy at LLNL are thanked for logistical,
analytical, and computational support. Funding: This research was supported by U.S. NSF
grants EAR-1411779 and EAR-1322595, OVDAS/SERNAGEOMIN, and the USGS Volcano Disaster
Assistance Program via the U.S. Agency for International Development Office of Foreign
Disaster Assistance. Author contributions: B.S.S., H.L.M., and B.T. designed this study. B.S.S.,
H.L.M., B.T., L.C., N.L.A., N.G., and A.K.D. conducted field work including GPS measurements and
Downloaded from http://advances.sciencemag.org/ on June 24, 2021
photogrammetry. H.L.M., J.M.L., L.C., N.L.A., N.G., A.K.D., and K.L.F. conducted the analyses and
modeling. B.S.S. and H.L.M. wrote the paper with input from all other coauthors. All authors
contributed to interpretation and analysis of the data. Competing interests: The authors
declare that they have no competing interests. Data and materials availability: All data
needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper and/or the
Supplementary Materials. Additional data related to this paper may be requested from B.S.S.
Submitted 29 January 2018
Accepted 18 May 2018
Published 27 June 2018
10.1126/sciadv.aat1513
Citation: B. S. Singer, H. Le Mével, J. M. Licciardi, L. Córdova, B. Tikoff, N. Garibaldi, N. L. Andersen,
A. K. Diefenbach, K. L. Feigl, Geomorphic expression of rapid Holocene silicic magma reservoir
growth beneath Laguna del Maule, Chile. Sci. Adv. 4, eaat1513 (2018).
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Geomorphic expression of rapid Holocene silicic magma reservoir growth beneath Laguna del
Maule, Chile
Brad S. Singer, Hélène Le Mével, Joseph M. Licciardi, Loreto Córdova, Basil Tikoff, Nicolas Garibaldi, Nathan L. Andersen,
Angela K. Diefenbach and Kurt L. Feigl

Sci Adv 4 (6), eaat1513.

DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat1513

Downloaded from http://advances.sciencemag.org/ on June 24, 2021

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