RENAISSANCE WRITERS AND THEIR WORKS

Contrary to popular misconception, the Middle Ages were not a “dark age” in our collective
history. Not only is that term a Western-centric view of the world, it’s also inaccurate. The popular image
of ignorant peasants and sequestered monks living in ignorance and superstition while the world fell into
darkness is largely fiction.
What marked the Middle Ages in Europe more than anything else was the dominance of the
Catholic Church and political instability. The Church, viewing Greek and traditional Roman philosophy
and literature as Pagan and a threat, discouraged their study and teaching, and the disintegration of a
unified political world into many small kingdoms and duchies. One result of these factors was a shift
from a human-centered intellectual focus to one that celebrated the things that held society together:
shared religious and cultural beliefs.
The Renaissance was a period beginning in the later 14th century and lasting until the 17th
century. Far from a sudden lurch back towards scientific and artistic achievement, it was really a
rediscovery of the human-centric philosophies and art of the ancient world, coupled with cultural forces
driving Europe towards social and intellectual revolutions that celebrated the human body and reveled in
near-nostalgia for Roman and Greek works that suddenly seemed modern and revolutionary again.
1. William Shakespeare
Hamlet by William Shakespeare
One does not discuss literature without mentioning Shakespeare. His influence simply cannot be
overstated. He created many words still in common English usage today (including bedazzled, which
might be his greatest achievement), he coined many of the phrases and idioms we still use today (every
time you try to break the ice, say a short prayer to Bill), and he codified certain stories and plot devices
that have become the invisible vocabulary of every story composed. Heck, they still adapt his plays into
films and other media on a yearly basis. There is literally no other writer who has had a bigger influence
on the English language.
2. Geoffrey Chaucer
The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer
Chaucer’s influence can be summarized in one sentence: Without him, Shakespeare wouldn’t be
Shakespeare. Not only did Chaucer’s "Canterbury Tales" mark the first time English was used for a
serious work of literary ambition (English being considered a "common" language for the uneducated at
the time when the royal family of England still considered themselves in many ways French and in fact
French was the official language of the court), but Chaucer’s technique of using five stresses in a line was
a direct ancestor of the iambic pentameter used by Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
3. Nicholas Machiavelli
The Prince, by Nicholas Machiavelli
There are only a handful of writers whose names have adjectives (see Shakespearean), and
Machiavelli is one of them thanks to his most famous work, "The Prince."
Machiavelli’s focus on terrestrial instead of heavenly power is indicative of the general shift
going on in his lifetime as the Renaissance gained steam. His concept that there was a division between
public and private morality, and his endorsement of violence, murder, and political trickery to gain and
maintain power is where we get the term Machiavellian when describing brilliant if evil politicians or
schemers.
Some have tried to recast "The Prince" as a work of satire or even a sort of revolutionary
handbook (arguing that the intended audience was actually the oppressed masses in an effort to show
them how to overthrow their rulers), but it almost doesn’t matter; Machiavelli’s influence is inarguable.
4. Miguel de Cervantes
Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes
The things you consider to be novels are a relatively new invention, and Miguel de Cervantes’
"Don Quixote" is generally considered to be one of the first examples, if not the first.

Published in 1605, it’s a late-Renaissance work that is also credited with shaping much of what is now the
modern Spanish language; in that sense, Cervantes must be regarded as an equal to Shakespeare in terms
of cultural influence.
Cervantes played with language, using puns and contradictions for humorous effect, and the
image of the loyal Sancho miserably following his deluded master as he literally tilts at windmills has
endured through the centuries. Novels ranging from Dostoyevsky’s The Idiot to Rushdie’s "The Moor’s
Last Sigh" are explicitly influenced by "Don Quixote," establishing its ongoing literary influence.
5. Dante Alighieri
The Divine Comedy, by Dante Alighieri
Even if you know nothing else about Dante or the Renaissance, you have heard of Dante’s
greatest work, "The Divine Comedy," which still gets name-checked by a variety of modern-day works
such as Dan Brown’s "Inferno"; in fact, any time you refer to a “circle of hell” you are referencing
Dante’s vision of Satan’s kingdom.
"The Divine Comedy" is a poem that follows Dante himself as he travels through hell, purgatory,
and heaven. It’s extremely complex in its structure and references, and quite beautiful in its language
even in translation. While concerned with many theological and religious themes, it shows its
Renaissance trappings in the many ways Dante critiques and comments on contemporary Florentine
politics, society, and culture. Understanding all the jokes, insults, and commentary is difficult for the
modern reader, but the poem's influence is felt throughout all of modern culture. Besides, how many
writers get to be known by solely their first name?
6. John Donne
Collected Poetry, by John Donne
Donne isn’t a household name outside of English and literature majors, but his influence on
literature in the ensuing years is epic. Considered one of the earliest “metaphysical” writers, Donne more
or less invented several literary techniques in his complex works, most notably the trick of using two
seemingly opposite concepts to construct powerful metaphors. His use of irony and the often cynical and
snarky tone of his work surprises many who think of older writing as flowery and pretentious.
Donne’s work also represents the shift in focus from writing that almost exclusively dealt with
religious themes to work that was much more personal, a trend begun in the Renaissance that continues
today. His abandonment of the stiff, heavily regulated forms of previous literature in favor of more casual
rhythms that closely resembled actual speech was revolutionary, and the ripples from his innovations are
still lapping against modern lit.
7. Edmund Spenser
The Faerie Queen, by Edmund Spenser
Spenser isn’t as much of a household name as Shakespeare, but his influence in the realm of
poetry is as epic as his best-known work, "The Faerie Queen." That lengthy (and technically unfinished)
poem is actually a pretty blatantly sycophantic attempt to flatter then-Queen Elizabeth I; Spenser wanted
desperately to be ennobled, a goal he never achieved, and a poem linking Queen Elizabeth with all the
virtues in the world seemed like a good way to go. Along the way, Spenser developed a poetic structure
still known as the Spenserian Stanza and a style of sonnet known as the Spenserian Sonnet, both of which
have been copied by later poets such as Coleridge and Shakespeare.
8. Giovanni Boccaccio
The Decameron, by Giovanni Boccaccio
Boccaccio lived and worked during the early Renaissance in Florence, producing a huge volume
of work that set down some of the basic roots of the newly-humanist focus of the era.
He worked both in “vernacular” Italian (meaning the everyday language people actually used) as
well as more formal Latin compositions, and his work directly influenced both Chaucer and Shakespeare,
not to mention just about every writer who ever lived.

His most famous work, "The Decameron," is a clear model for "The Canterbury Tales" as it features a
frame story of people fleeing to a remote villa to escape the Black Death and entertaining themselves by
telling stories. One of Boccaccio’s most influential techniques was to render dialogue in a naturalistic
manner instead of the overly formal style of tradition. Every time you read a line of dialogue in a novel
that feels real, you can thank Boccaccio in some small way.
9. Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch)
Petrarch's Lyric Poems
One of the earliest Renaissance poets, Petrarch was forced to study law by his father, but
abandoned that work as soon as his father died, choosing to pursue Latin studies and writing.
He popularized the poetic form of the sonnet and was one of the first writers to eschew the
formal, structured style of traditional poetry in favor of a more casual, realistic approach to language.
Petrarch became extremely popular in England, and thus has an outsize influence on our modern
literature; Chaucer incorporated many of Petrarch’s concepts and techniques into his own writing, and
Petrarch remained one of the most influential poets in the English language well into the 19th century,
ensuring that our modern concept of literature could in large part be attributed to this 14th century writer.
10. John Milton
Paradise Lost, by John Milton
The fact that even people who regard poetry as something to run away from as quickly as
possible are familiar with the title of Milton’s most famous work, "Paradise Lost," tells you all you need
to know about this late-Renaissance genius.
Milton, who made some poor political decisions in his life and who wrote many of his best-
known works after going completely blind, composed "Paradise Lost" in blank verse, one of the earliest
and most influential uses of the technique. He also told a traditional religious-themed story (the fall of
man) in a startlingly personal way, casting the story of Adam and Eve as a realistic domestic story, and
giving all the characters (even God and Satan) clear and unique personalities. These innovations may
seem obvious today, but that in itself is a testament to Milton’s influence.
11. Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (Molière)
The Misanthrope, by Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (Molière)
Molière was one of the first major comedy writers of the Renaissance. Humorous writing had
always existed, of course, but Molière reinvented it as a form of social satire that had an incredible
influence on French culture and literature in general. His satirical plays often read as flat or thin on the
page, but come alive when performed by skilled actors who can interpret his lines as they were intended.
His willingness to satirize political, religious, and cultural icons and power centers was daring and
dangerous (only the fact that King Louis XIV favored him explains his survival) set the mark for comedy
writing that remains the standard in many ways today.
Everything's Connected
Literature is not a series of isolated islands of achievement; every new book, play, or poem is the
culmination of all that has gone before. Influence is handed down from work to work, diluted,
alchemically altered, and re-purposed. These eleven Renaissance writers may seem dated and alien to the
modern reader, but their influence can be felt in just about everything you read today.

THE RENAISSANCE
Renaissance is a French word meaning “rebirth.”
Focus on Man - The Renaissance emphasized human individuality, ability, and dignity. The ideal man
was perceived as one with diverse interests and talents.
Humanism - This is a movement that glorified man and his works
Renaissance Humanism - Renaissance humanism did not abandon belief in God. Still, the Renaissance
movement led to the false assumption that man is basically good.
Revival of Learning
Renewed interest in classical literature prompted men to collect and study the writings of Cicero
and other Latin authors. The humanities (liberal art) became a new course of study that included history,
science, grammar, classical literature, and philosophy. Those who studied the liberal arts were known as
humanists. Most Renaissance humanists prepared themselves for life in the secular world, rather than for
service in the Roman Church. The goal of Renaissance education was to develop well–rounded
individuals.
Characteristics of Humanists:
 looked to education as a remedy for sin
 became more critical
 admired the classical age of ancient Greece and Rome
 believed they could reshape their own age according to classical values
 intently searched for ancient manuscripts
The Medici Family
During the Renaissance, artists were no longer dependent solely on the Roman Catholic Church
for support.
Affluent bankers and merchants also became sponsors or PATRONS of artists. The most famous
of the Renaissance patrons were the MEDICI FAMILY (prominent Italians who became enormously
wealthy through commerce and banking).
 promoted learning and the arts
 sponsored searches for ancient manuscripts
 established a public library ( one of the first in Europe )
 commissioned great works of painting, sculpture, and architecture
Lorenzo de Medici ( Il Magnifico ) ( The Magnificent )
     The most notable and most generous patron of the Medici family. During his rule, the city of Florence
became the most influential city of the Renaissance movement.
Francesco Petrarch
Francesco Petrarch was a pioneer of Renaissance humanism and one of the most important
figures in Italian literature. Petrarch wrote about nature, his pride in his homeland, and his love for Laura
(the woman he idealized).  His love of poetry had an immense influence on later writers.
He is known as the FATHER OF HUMANISM.
Baldassare Castiglione
Castiglione wrote one of the most famous books on etiquette (social behavior) published during
the Renaissance that quickly became a bestseller.
In his book The Courtier, he presents the Renaissance gentleman as a man of character, well-
educated, courageous, and courteous.
Niccolo Machiavelli
 Machiavelli worked as a diplomat for the Florentine Republic; as such, he was able to observe
firsthand various political developments in Europe.
Machiavelli’s essay titled The Prince reflected on the political conditions of his day and tells
readers that the successful ruler must do what is expedient and not be governed by principles of right and
wrong.  Such a man uses force when necessary since “it is much safer to be feared than loved.”
NORTHERN HUMANIST WRITERS
Erasmus ( of Rotterdam )
The Prince of Humanists. In his most famous work, In Praise of Folly, Erasmus uses satire to
point out the evils and follies of Renaissance society.
Erasmus became a leading advocate of church reform and was an outspoken critic of
monasticism, the ignorance and worldliness of many of the clergy, and the Roman Church’s empty
ritualism.
Sir Thomas More
More’s work entitled Utopia (meaning “nowhere”), is the story of an imaginary state built on
Christian principles and Plato’s philosophy.
According to More, the three deadliest sins of the English community were laziness, greed, and
pride.In Utopia, all men would be compelled to work.  Thus, everyone would have economic security,
eliminating all laziness and greed.  All pride would be centered in the state.
Miguel de Cervantes
His novel Don Quixote is one of the most enduring works in all of literature.  It satirizes chivalry
and the chivalric literature that was popular in Cervantes’s day. Cervantes pokes fun at outdated medieval
ideas while presenting a vivid picture of life in 16th century Spain.
Don Quixote is a novel by Miguel de Cervantes. The book, published in two parts (1605 and
1615) is considered to be the first modern novel. It was first written in Spanish, and soon afterwards was
translated to English by Thomas Shelton.
It is considered by many scholars to be the first modern novel. The main character, Don Quixote,
is a paragon of chivalry, but in a deeply flawed and impractical way. Don Quixote is so influential as a
character that the description of his behavior has entered the common vernacular as "quixotic."
William Shakespeare
Generally considered the greatest playwright of all time and the finest poet in the English
language. Shakespeare’s lifework includes 154 sonnets and at least 37 plays.  His dramatic works are
classified into histories, comedies, and tragedies.
The tragedies include Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth ( generally recognized as his
greatest works ). Shakespeare’s poems and plays have been the object of careful study by scholars in
every generation since his death. His literary genius enriched the English language and influenced its
development.  Many of the phrases and expressions that he coined are part of everyday speech in modern
society. 
Shakespearean Phrases and Expressions
“It’s Greek to me” ( Julius Caesar )
  - you do not know or understand something 
“Fair play” ( The Tempest )
  - follow rules
“All that glitters isn’t gold” ( Merchant of Venice )
  - something that looks good turns out not to   be that great
“Wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve”
  ( Othello )
  - to be open and honest about how you   feel
“A laughing stock” ( The Merry Wives of Windsor )
  - to be considered a joke by many   people
“In a pickle” ( The Tempest )
  - to be in trouble or a situation that you   cannot easily get out of
“come full circle”
  - to end up right where you started at   some point
“eaten me out of house and home”
  - expressed to someone who has made himself/herself just a little too   comfortable at your place
“elbow room”
  - space to move

Renaissance Period: Visual Arts

The Visual Arts
Renaissance art, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and literature produced during the 14th,
15th, and 16th centuries in Europe under the combined influences of increased awareness of nature, a
revival of classical learning, and a more individualistic view of man. From a biblical perspective,
Renaissance art was superior to medieval art because it recognized the goodness of God’s creation.
Renaissance artists drew their inspiration and ideas from the classical world.  They broke with the
artistic traditions of the Middle Ages in the following ways:
RENAISSANCE MIDDLE AGES
- emphasized the present physical world - emphasized the spiritual realm and the life to
come
- secular patrons supported the Renaissance artists - the Church of Rome had almost exclusively
patronized the artists 
- Renaissance artists wanted their names known - Medieval artists did not gain any personal
and their works praised recognition
- Renaissance artists gave a realistic, three- - Medieval art was flat and two-dimensional
dimensional aspect to their works
- Most Renaissance portrait painters frequently - Medieval painters usually portrayed church
painted kings, merchants, and other important leaders, biblical characters, or saints of the Roman
secular individuals Church
- Painting and sculpture were the most popular - the glory of medieval art was its architecture 
media
 
Early Italian Painters
1. Giotto di Bondone - Giotto di Bondone is often called the Father of Renaissance Painting. He is the
most famous painter of the early Italian Renaissance. Giotto is most famous for his frescoes on the
walls of the town church at Padua.  His figures were more realistic and exhibited human feelings.  He
also tried to add a three-dimensional look to his paintings by making greater use of backgrounds.
2. Masaccio- Masaccio added new techniques to paint by means of shading  ( contrasting light and
dark ) that created a three-dimensional effect. This technique enabled him to portray human figures
with a realism that had been missing in the works of previous painters.
3. Sandro Botticelli - Botticelli added another dimension to Renaissance art: movement. He depicted
forms with bold lines and gave clarity and a sense of activity to his characters. Botticelli was
probably the first artist to depict the Adoration of the Magi with the holy family at the center, set
back "deep" into the painting, with the other characters arranged symmetrically on either side.
Previously, the scene had always been depicted as a linear narrative flowing across the space of the
canvas, as in the Gothic painting by Gentile da Fabbriano (1420) or Benozzo Gozzoli's famous
fresco in the Palazzo Medici (1459).
The Birth of Venus
This painting is one of the best-loved works of art in the world. Although Botticelli lost
favor after his death, his reputation was revived in the late 19th century and since then The Birth of
Venus has risen to international fame. The painting depicts the goddess of love, Venus, sailing to
shore from the sea on a giant shell. She is blown into land by Zephyr, the god of the west wind,
while a female attendant waits with a cloak.
 
High Renaissance Painters
1. Leonardo da Vinci - Da Vinci is probably the best example of the so-called Renaissance man. Da
Vinci was an accomplished sculptor, architect, painter, and musician.  He also studied anatomy,
botany, geology, astronomy, engineering, and mathematics. His famous mural The Last Supper
illustrates his mastery of perspective and exemplifies the Renaissance love for balance.
The Last Supper
The Last Supper depicts Jesus, surrounded by his 12 apostles at a table celebrating the
Jewish holiday of Passover and it is Da Vinci’s mastering of the composition which contributes to
the painting’s reputation. With Jesus in the center, his turned right cheek is the vanishing point for
the perspective lines of the composition and his hands trace the lines of the golden ratio at the
midway point of the composition. 
Mona Lisa
The Mona Lisa or Gioconda is one of the most enigmatic paintings in the history of art. This
work of the sixteenth century of Leonardo Da Vinci has been the subject of many theories and
unknowns such as the identity of the model, whether she was pregnant or not, and finally, whether he
was smiling or not and if that gesture denoted joy or bitterness. The smile of Leonardo Da
Vinci'sMona Lisa’ depends on the mood of the person looking at it according to studies.
Vitruvian Man
The Vitruvian Man, a late 15th-century drawing, is a prime example of such work. Intended
to explore the idea of proportion, the piece is part work of art and part mathematical diagram,
conveying the Old Master‘s belief that “everything connects to everything else.” Leonardo drew the
 Vitruvian Man, known also as “The proportions of the human body according to Vitruvius,” in 1492.
Rendered in pen, ink, and metal point on paper, the piece depicts an idealized nude male standing
within a square and a circle. Ingeniously, Leonardo chose to depict the man with four legs and four
arms, allowing him to strike 16 poses simultaneously.
The Vitruvian Man Today
Since 1822, the Vitruvian Man has been a part of the permanent collection of the Gallerie
dell'Accademia in Venice, Italy. As it's too fragile to be on display, the piece is rarely exhibited.
However, even while concealed, the drawing remains a key part of their collection and, ultimately,
one of the most important works of the Italian Renaissance.
2. Raffaello Sanzio ( Raphael ) - Raphael completed an enormous number of paintings and frescoes in
his short lifetime. Raphael is famous for his paintings of sweet-faced Madonnas in which he
idealized motherhood.  He sought to express the peace and quiet joy of life rather than its anguish
and strain.
Madonna and Child
(The Small Cowper Madonna) is a (59.5 cm × 44 cm) oil on panel painting by the Italian
High Renaissance artist Raphael, depicting Mary and Child, in a typical Italian countryside. Sitting
in the center of the work in a bright red dress is the Madonna. She is fair-skinned with blond hair.
She sits comfortably on a wooden bench. Across her lap is a dark drapery upon which her right hand
delicately sits. Interestingly, there appears to be a sheer translucent ribbon elegantly flowing across
the top of her dress and behind her head. The faintest golden halo miraculously surrounds her head.
In her left hand, she holds the baby Christ, who embraces her with one arm around her back, the
other around her neck. The School of Athens (1509-11)
At the center of the image, the gestures of Plato and Aristotle seem to reveal what they are
arguing about: “ideas” versus “forms,” according to a widely shared interpretation of their respective
philosophical systems. Around them, flanked by the figures of Athena and Apollo, are some of the
most relevant philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians of classical antiquity (and maybe,
according to some, some medieval and Renaissance characters as well) gathered together, yet
properly placed in different spaces in order to give the composition the rhythm and balance that
characterizes it. This is Rafael Sanzio’s “School of Athens,” commissioned by Pope Julius II to
decorate the Stanza Della Segnatura, which is a library nowadays.
3. Michelangelo Buonarroti - Michelangelo is one of the most famous artists in history. His
contemporaries praised his artistic masterpieces. His father apprenticed him to a leading Florentine
artist; while an apprentice, the talented youth caught the eye of Lorenzo de Medici, who took
Michelangelo into his household as his adopted son. In 1508, Pope Julius II commissioned
Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel
ceiling is one of the most influential artworks of all time and a foundational work of Renaissance
Art. Painted directly on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, the masterpiece depicts key
scenes from the Book of Genesis. The complex narratives and skillfully painted human figures
stunned viewers when the painting was first unveiled to the public in 1512 and continues to impress
the thousands of pilgrims and tourists from around the world who visit the chapel every day.
The Last Judgement
Pope Paul III summoned Michelangelo to paint The Last Judgment -- the moment of
judgment when your life ends. The pope wanted to give the faithful a warning of sorts as they left the
chapel.
A terrifying vision of The Last Judgment with nearly 300 dynamic figures. The fresco was a
waterfall of figures, a massive mountain of twisting bodies. On the left, bodies ascend to heaven,
while on the right the naughty folk is falling down.
An Adonis-like Christ stands, majestically, at the center of a vortex. Imperiously, he waves,
appearing to invite souls to join him in heaven. Departing from established convention,
Michelangelo depicted Christ as excessively youthful, muscular, and heroic -- floating on clouds. He
looks like Apollo, rather than the suffering bearded savior one expects.
Hidden Symbols in the Painting
Within the overall scheme of the painting, Michelangelo inserted several hidden symbols
that have come to delight the public over time—though they weren’t always appreciated in his day. 
The first is a rather gruesome self-portrait painted into the saint sitting just below Christ’s
left foot. He sits on a cloud with skin in his hand. This is Saint Bartholomew, who was martyred
after being skinned alive. Therefore, he’s not only holding the knife used to flay him but his own
flesh, too. It’s widely believed that the face on the skin is actually a self-portrait of Michelangelo.
Pieta
The scene of the Pieta shows the Virgin Mary holding the dead body of Christ after his
crucifixion, death, and removal from the cross, but before he was placed in the tomb.   This is one of
the key events from the life of the Virgin, known as the Seven Sorrows of Mary, which were the
 subject of Catholic devotional prayers.  The subject matter was one that would have probably been
known by many people, but in the late fifteenth century, it was depicted in artworks more commonly
in France and Germany than in Italy. This was a special work of art even in the Renaissance because,
at the time, multi-figured sculptures were rare.  These two figures are carved so as to appear in a
unified composition which forms the shape of a pyramid, something that other Renaissance artists
(e.g. Leonardo) also favored.
David
David is one of Michelangelo’s most-recognizable works and has become one of the most
recognizable statues in the entire world of art.  Standing 13’5″ tall, the double life-sized David is
depicted patiently waiting for battle, prepped with a slingshot in one hand and stone in the other. 
The twentysomething-Michelangelo carved the David after he had already carved the Pieta in Rome
in the late 1490s and returned to Florence in 1501.  Knowledge of his talent as a sculptor, therefore,
was growing, and his career was accelerating when he was commissioned to carve the biblical David
for the outside of the Florence Cathedral.  Because the statue was intended to be placed in a high
location on the church, it had to be large enough to be seen from below.  Today, it resides not outside
the cathedral, but inside the comfortable confines of the Accademia Museum in Florence.
 
Venetian Painters
During the late Renaissance, the city of Venice became a leading center of culture.  The beautiful,
wealthy, and proud city of Venice became known as the Queen of the Adriatic. The people of Venice,
however, were wicked and materialistic.  They eagerly sought after luxury, pleasure, and prestige.
1. Titian ( Tiziano Vecelli ) - ranks with Michelangelo as one of the foremost painters of the
Renaissance; he was a prolific painter known for his rich use of color.  Titian is especially
remembered for his portraits.
A Man With A Quilted Sleeve (Titian)
It is unclear who the man with the blue quilted sleeve is, making this painting all the more
intriguing. A number of possibilities have been suggested by art historians and critics throughout the
centuries.
Man with a Glove (Titian)
The painting portrays a three-quarters view of a male figure set against a flat black
background. He appears to be looking at an indefinite point to the left of the canvas, with his left arm
laid on his knee. He could be pointing at his gloves, which were a fashion statement at the time. He
is dressed in a wide jacket and a white shirt, in the fashion of the period.
The man's gloved left-hand holds a second leather glove; an accessory used by the most
refined gentlemen of the time. His right hand is adorned with a golden ring, a symbol of richness,
and a necklace decorated with a sapphire and a pearl. The use of a parapet in portraits was a common
device of the young Titian.
2. Jacopo Robusti (Tintoretto )
Tintoretto’s paintings sought to combine the bright colors of Titian and the masterful
drawing of Michelangelo. 
Miracle of the Slave
It tells the story of a man who would worship by looking at the statue of St. Mark. However,
the townspeople believed him to be involved in icon worship and took him out to have his legs
broken and his eyes put out. At this time, St. Mark came from the heavens and put a blessing on him
that nothing could break the slave. St. Mark to the rescue!

Renaissance Period: Visual Arts 2

Northern European Artists
1. Albrecht Durer 
 Known as the Leonardo of the North
 His paintings illustrate his love for both classical and religious themes
 Although Durer is a celebrated painter, he is best remembered for his woodcarvings and
engravings, which were used to illustrate printed books.
The Four Horsemen, from The Apocalypse
This is the third woodcut in Dürer's terrifying Apocalypse series, which contains altogether
fifteen scenes from the Book of Revelations. It depicts the four Apocalyptic Riders as they are
described in the Old Testament. From left to right we see Death, Famine, War, and Plague on their
horses, trampling on a group of helpless people. An angel oversees the scene, with dramatic clouds
and rays of light in the background.
The Knight, Death and the Devil, 1513
This incredibly intricate engraving, Knight, Death, & Devil, 1513 is a fine example of
Albrecht Dürer's exquisite line work. His attention to detail, especially of light, breathes life into the
 fantastical scene so that the viewer is transported to a time long ago. The robust and handsome
Knight is muscular and confident against the haunting foes that he dismisses. Miniscule
crosshatching highlights the strength of his horse and the gleaming fur of his faithful dog. Behind
him emerge looming, and dark creature and to his side an emaciated, watchful figure of death seated
upon his own ghostly horse that bows to the Knight's presence. The scene is encompassed in the
romantically luminous grandeur of the German countryside, rich with vegetation and ridden with
mystery.
 
Architects and Sculptors
1. Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi entered the competition to design a set of bronze doors
for one of the entrances to the baptistery of Florence. According to Michelangelo, Ghiberti designed
the ten panels on these doors “so fine that they might fittingly stand at the Gates of Paradise.”
Disgusted with losing the competition to design the doors of the baptistery in Florence, Brunelleschi
turned from sculpture to architecture.  He later returned to Florence and defeated Ghiberti in a
competition to design and construct a dome for the cathedral of Florence. 
2. Donatello
He was the leading sculptor of the early Renaissance who served as an assistant to Ghiberti.
He mastered the art of sculpting freestanding statues that later inspired Michelangelo.
In the work of the early Renaissance sculptor Donatello (born Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi) life
seems to burst out of the metal and stone. His greatest masterpieces include the vigilant marble Saint
George (ca. 1417) in the Orsanmichele museum, Florence; the graceful figure of young David (ca.
1440); and the impressive bronze equestrian statue of Gattamelata (erected 1453) that harked back to
ancient Roman art. Donatello’s use of sinuous forms, which encourage the eye to move around the
figure, influenced generations of Italian sculptors, mostly notably Michelangelo, well into the 16th
century.

Southeast Asian Literature

Literature in the South East Asia
Almost all countries in Southeast Asia were ruled by foreigners at some point in their history,
which had a great impact on their cultural heritage.  The exception to this was Thailand, although it was
still touched by external influences.  Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam were all ruled by the French at one
time, and the Malay states were ruled by the Portuguese and British.  Burma was the only country ruled
by the British that retained its own language as the administrative language under foreign rule.
Literature in Southeast Asia is almost a mixture of traditional culture, religion, and other beliefs, all
combined.  As most people couldn’t read, legends and folklore were passed on by word of mouth, by
dance and writing.
Early influences on Southeast Asian literature in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos can be
traced to two main sources: indigenous and Indic. The epic Indian tale of the Ramayana captured the
imagination of many and had a most pervasive impact. The epic has been modified and localized in a
number of Southeast Asian countries and is known by the following names: Yama Zattdaw (Burma),
Ramakian (Th ailand), Ramakerti (Cambodia), Phra Lak Phra Lam (Laos)

Chinese Influences
Within each of the countries of Southeast Asia, there are often different ethnic groupings. For
example, in Vietnam, there are 54 different ethnic groups. All of these groups may speak different
dialects.  Vietnam was governed by China for much of its history, so a lot of the literature is written in
Classical Chinese.  However, these Chinese symbols were modified into what is known as Chu Nom in
the 10th century. Essentially, doing so made them easier to read.  Modern script is written in Chu Quoc
Ngu, into which many ancient texts have been translated.  This is a Romanised script developed in the
16th century by French missionaries.
Indian Influences
Much of Cambodian folklore was not put into writing until the 19th century. Until then, it had
been passed down by word of mouth or as songs.  Many of these tales have been influenced by, or borrow
features from, Indian and Buddhist stories.  They were frequently long, rhyming verses, telling stories of
princes or some sort of god. They were tales of good triumphing over evil, even though the “evil” might
just have been a dispute between different tribes.
Laos
Laos may be the only Southeast Asian country not strongly influenced by India or China, perhaps
because it is a landlocked country. Nevertheless, Buddhism has had a strong influence on the culture. 
Palm leaves, referred to as bai lan, were used to record Buddhist writings.  In places of worship, they are
kept within wooden caskets.  It is also possible to see folded books, illustrated with water colour pictures.
Sanskrit
 The traditional language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and, sometimes, Jainism, many ancient texts
were written in Sanskrit.  In Southeast Asia, it might now be considered as roughly analogous to Latin or
Ancient Greek in the West.  Sanskrit literature encompasses poetry and drama, as well as scientific and
religious texts.  Nowadays, Sanskrit is used mainly as a ceremonial language in Hindu ceremonies,
although there are, in some quarters, attempts to revive the language. Classical Sanskrit dates back to the
5th century BC, but it has been found in the same Indian epics found in Cambodian folklore.  The links
are fascinating.
Try to take in some of the literary culture during your visit to Southeast Asia, as it’s beautiful, fascinating,
captivating, and well worth the visit just for this.
Vietnam
Even though Chinese infl uence in Southeast Asia has been pervasive, the situation in Vietnam is unique
for the region. Th e Vietnamese have a history of struggling against nature. Floods in low-lying areas
surrounding the Red River Delta presented formidable challenges, as did incursions of Chinese neighbors.
Chinese infl uence in Vietnam dates back to over 2,000 years ago, and China began to infl uence its
literature more than 1,000 years ago. Th e Chinese cultural infl uence on this region extends to language
and education. Sino-Vietnamese was the language of literature and government, employing Chinese
characters. Th e romanized script, called quoc-ngu, is a relatively recent invention, becoming established
in the 19th century. Th e early system of education for government offi cials involved primarily the study
of Chinese literature; of secondary nature were documents and forms of communication necessary for
future civil servants. Th e Temple of Literature in Hanoi, founded in 1070, was dedicated to Confucius,
but it also stands as a memorial to graduates of this imperial examination system. Th e form of Buddhism
that reached this region is that of the Northern School of Mahayana and Zen. As in many other parts of
Southeast Asia, however, the religion of everyday people is an entanglement of various threads: animism,
magic, Taoism, cults of ancestors, and Confucianism. All of these elements, while infl uenced by the
Chinese, imbue Vietnamese life and literature with a richness of spirit; and these are values they have
tenaciously wanted to make their own. Th ere has been, therefore, a perennial tension between Chinese
ancestry and a vision for Vietnamese autonomy and integrity.