BUILDING STONES
INTRODUCTION
- refers to natural rocks after their removal
from the earth’s crust
- An aggregate or combination of minerals,
each of which is composed of inorganic
chemical substances.
Qualification of stones as construction material:
Strength – most have move than adequate
compressive strength. Shear strength is usually
about 1/10 of its compressive strength.
Hardness – important when used for flooring,
paving and stair treads
Durability – resistance to the weathering effects
of rain, wind, heat for exterior stonework
Workability – hardness and grain texture must
allow to be quarried, cut and shaped
Density – porosity affects its ability frost action
and staining
Appearance – color, grain, and texture
- As load bearing material, stone is similar to
modular unit masonry. Almost all stone is
affected by sudden changes in temperature
and should not be used where high degree of
fire resistance is required
CONSTRUCTION USE
Rubble – consists of rough fragments of
broken stone that have at least one good face
for exposure in a wall
Dimension stone – quarried and squared stone
2’ (610mm) or more in length and width and of
specified thickness, used commonly for wall
panels, cornices, copings, lintels and flooring.
TYPES OF STONES

Flagstone – refers to flat stone slabs used Crush stone – used as aggregate in
for floorings and horizontal surfacing concrete products.
 TYPES OF STONES
Igneous rocks - oldest, having been formed by the Cast basalt - fine-grained stone nearly as hard as
solidification of the molten core of the earth or magma. granite. - can be melted at 2400◦C and cast into tile
units which are deep steel grey in colour. - Larger cast
Granites - hard and dense, and thus form highly durable units for worktops, in either a honed or a polished
building materials, virtually impermeable to water, resistant finish, can be cut to size.
to impact damage and stable within industrial environments.
- Because of the high cost of quarrying and finishing granite,
it is frequently used as a cladding material
 TYPES OF STONES
Obsidian – a volcanic glass similar in composition
to granite, usually black with a bright luster, and
transparent in thin pieces
Malachite – a green to nearly black mineral, copper
carbonate, used as a highly polished veneer and for
making ornamental articles
 TYPES OF STONES
Serpentine – a mineral or rock consisting of
hydrous magnesium silicate usually green in color
and having a mottled appearance
Metamorphic Rock – a class of rock that has gone a
change in structure, texture or composition due to natural
agencies, as heat and pressure especially when the rock
becomes harder and more crystalline
Verd Antique – a dark-green mottled serpentine that
takes a high polish and is sold as a marble . – Verde
antique
 TYPES OF STONES
Marble – a metamorphic rock of crystalized limestone, Slate – a dense, fine-grained metamorphic rock
consisting mainly of calcite or dolomite, capable of formed by the compression of various sediments, as
taking a high polish, and used especially in architecture clay or shale, having good cleavage along parallel
and sculpture. The presence and distribution of planes
numerous minerals account for the distinctive
variegated appearance that many marbles have. The
commercial term includes many dense limestone and
some coarse-grained dolomites
TYPES OF STONES

Selection of Italian Marbles

TYPES OF STONES
Quartzite – a compact, granular metamorphic Gneiss – a banded or foliated metamorphic rock
rock consisting essentially of quartz, derived corresponding in composition to granite, in
from sandstone which the minerals are arranged in layers
 TYPES OF STONES
Sedimentary rock – a class of rock formed by the
deposition of sediments, as limestone, sandstone or
shale
Dolomite – a limestone rich in magnesium carbonate
Limestone – a sedimentary rock formed chiefly by the
accumulation of organic remains, as shells and coral,
consisting mainly of calcium carbonate, and used as a
building stone and in the manufacture of lime
TYPES OF STONES
Travertine – a variety of limestone deposited Oolite – a limestone composed of small,
by spring waters, esp. hot springs, sold as a round, cancerous grains resembling fish roe.
marble in the building trade Also called egg stone.
 TYPES OF STONES
Sandstone – a sedimentary rock consisting of sand,
usually quartz, cemented together by various
substances. As silica, clay, or calcium carbonate
Bluestone – a dense, fine-grained, argillaceous sandstone
that splits easily upon bedding planes to form thin slabs
- a cultural or commercial name for a number of
dimension or building stone varieties
TYPES OF STONES
Brownstone – a reddish-brown sandstone
quarried and used extensively as a building
material
Soapstone – a massive, soft rock containing a high
proportion of talc, used as dimension stone for
hearths, table tops, and curved ornaments. Also
called steatite
STONEWORK
Gabions - wire cages filled with crushed rocks or recycled
Traditional Walling concrete rubble. They are frequently used in civil
engineering applications as retaining walls, and are
simply stacked to the required height either vertically or
to an appropriate incline.
 STONE CLADDING
Concrete-backed stone cladding - the use of an integral
stone veneer on concrete cladding panels. Stone is fixed
to the concrete with a series of non-corroding dowels
inclined in opposite directions, creating a mechanical
fixing, not dependent on the bond between stone and
cast concrete.
Stone-faced masonry blocks - manufactured to the
standard size of 440 × 215 mm, and faced with a 10
mm veneer of polished marble or granite, fixed with a
frost-resistant adhesive. A range of matching special
shapes including quoins, end blocks and lintels is
available, formed with mitered-stone corner joints.
 STONE CLADDING
Lightweight stone cladding - Thin-section stone
(approximately 6 mm) can be bonded to lightweight
backing materials to reduce the dead weight of stone
cladding
Rainscreen stone cladding - Ventilated rainscreen
stone cladding systems usually incorporate natural
stone backed with lightweight concrete and/or
insulation and fixed to an aluminum support system.
Stone of 8–10 mm is typically bonded to 19 mm
lightweight concrete. External and internal corner
special units are prefabricated to match the facade.
 DETERIORATION OF STONE
Soluble Salt Action - If moisture containing soluble
salts evaporates from the surface of stonework, then
the salts will be left on the surface either as white
efflorescence or as crystals within the porous surface
layer. If the wetting and drying cycles continue, the
crystalline material builds up within the pores to the
point at which the pressure produced may exceed the
tensile strength of the stone, causing it to crumble.
Atmospheric pollution - Stones based on calcium
carbonate are particularly vulnerable to attack by acid
atmospheric pollutants. Sulphur dioxide in the
presence of water and oxygen from the air produces
sulphuric acid, which attacks calcium carbonate to
produce calcium sulphate.
 DETERIORATION OF STONE
Corrosion of Metals - Rainwater
run-off from copper and its alloys
can cause green color staining on
limestone. Iron and steel pro-
duce rust staining which is
difficult to remove from porous
stones. Considerable damage is
caused by the expansion of iron
and steel in stonework caused by
corrosion.
Fire - Fire rarely causes the complete
destruction of stonework. In the case of
granite, marble and most sandstones,
the surfaces may be blackened or spall.
Limestone are generally unaffected by
fire, although the paler colors may turn
permanently pink due to the oxidation
of iron oxides within the stone. Reigate
stone, a calcareous sandstone, is also
resistant to heat, but it is not a durable
stone for exterior use.
Plants - large plants including ivy
should be removed from old
stonework however, Virginia creeper
and similar species are not considered
harmful. Lichens may contribute to
deterioration of limestones, and
affected stonework should be treated.
Damp north-facing walls and sloping
sandstone surfaces are vulnerable to
developing algae and lichen growth.
 MAINTENANCE OF STONEWORK
Cleaning:
 External granite, marble and slate claddings
require regular washing with a mild detergent
solution. Particularly, highly polished external
marble should be washed at least twice per
year to prevent permanent dulling of the
surface.
 Limestone should be cleaned with a fine water
spray and brushing, removing only deposit and
not the gypsum-encrusted surface. However,
the washing of limestone may cause a ginger
staining or efflorescence as the stone dries out
and risk the possible corrosion of embedded
ferrous cramps
 Sandstone is usually cleaned mechanically by
abrasive blasting or chemical cleaning.
Stone preservation:
 Silicone water repellents should only be applied
to stonework following expert advice and
testing. Silicone treatment may in certain cases
cause a build-up of salt deposits behind the
treated layer, eventually causing failure.
Silicone treatment should not be applied to
already decayed stone surfaces.
 Polymeric silanes can be used to consolidate
decaying stone. The silane is absorbed up to 50
mm into the stone, where it polymerises
stabilizing the stone but without significantly
changing its external appearance.
 REFERENCES:

Arthur Lyons 2010: Materials for Architects

and Builders: Elsevier Ltd.: Burlington, MA
01803, USA
D.K. Ching 2008: Building Construction
Illustrated, John Wiley and Sons: New
Jersey
D. K. Ching 1995: Visual Dictionary of
Architecture: John Wiley and Sons: New
York
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