PC-EE-504-Module 1 & 2

Power Electronics

Concept, Application, Systems for

Power Electronic Conversion
Semiconductor switches
Losses, Series & Parallel Operation
Diodes, Thyristors, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT

1
Concept of Power Electronics
• Power Electronics is the study of conversion of electrical power
from one frequency and voltage to another.
• It is to be noted that the change in frequency is spectral and not
in cycle (the time period).
• The transformer which has the same spectral frequency in
output as in input is not a power electronic converter.
• An electronic fan regulator which has the same cycle frequency
in output (50 Hz) as in input is a power electronic converter as it
has harmonics (wide frequency spectrum) in the output.
• Briefly, Power Electronics may be considered as conversion
from (the technical names are given in parentheses below):
• AC to DC (Rectifiers, Controlled Converters)
• DC to DC (Choppers, Regulators)
• DC to AC (Inverters)
• AC to AC (AC Voltage Regulators, DC link Inverters)
2
 Power Electronic Applications
• Applications of AC to DC conversion include rectifiers used for
battery charging, electroplating, driving DC motors from AC
supplies (single or poly-phase) as in cranes, electric traction etc.
• Applications of DC to DC conversion include power supplies from
a fixed dc voltage (usually battery) to variable dc loads as in
electric vehicles (toto), LED lamps in cars, power supplies in
battery powered electronic gadgets etc.
• Application of DC to AC conversion include all types of Inverters,
as used in homes, UPS, battery powered fluorescent lamps etc.
The AC output may be single or poly-phase.
• Application of AC to AC conversion can be direct as in the case of
AC voltage regulators as fan and furnace controllers for single or
poly-phase systems or may be multiple-stage conversion through
a DC link. Multiple-stage conversions are described further in
Power Electronic Systems.
• Another common application of Power Electronics is Static
Switches where semiconductor devices are used to replace
electro-mechanical switches. The major advantage is that these
switches can be controlled from remote (often by Internet) and
require negligible control power.

3
 Power Electronic Systems-I
• In many cases the conversion is not direct but in multiple stages. The
commonly used charger for cell-phones has AC input and DC output
but the chain of conversion is actually AC (power
frequency)>DC>AC(high frequency)>DC to battery. Hence these
conversions comprise of a system.
• The same principle of conversion is used in modern welding. The
advantage of using an intermediate high frequency is that the
dimensions of magnetic circuits reduce with frequency as governed
by Emf=4.44*frequency*flux density*turns*core area. Even if the flux
density at high frequency reduces by a factor of five, by increasing the
frequency thousand times (50 kHz instead of 50 Hz) the product of
core area and turns (factors that determine the dimensions) reduce by
200 times. Hence modern welding sets can be carried by hand instead
of being pulled by trolleys. The high frequency for conversion in
typical cell phone chargers is 500 kHz. So one can understand that
phone chargers with direct conversion would not be easily portable.
• Apart from passive inductive (magnetic) components, Power
Electronic Systems also use capacitors. The current in a capacitor is
proportional to the product of frequency*capacitance and hence the
size of this passive component also reduces with higher frequency.
4
 Power Electronic Systems-II
• All DC to DC conversions are actually DC>AC>DC. The higher
the frequency of the intermediate AC, the lesser is the size.
• Inversion, that is DC to AC conversion is always direct. The
frequency must suit the needed application as in the case of all
types of inverters used in power systems starting from fraction
kW domestic ones to solar powered MW range, both single or
three phase types, must operate at power frequency (in our
country 50 Hz). Fluorescent lamps operating from AC supply
have AC>DC>AC conversion with inversion at frequency
ranging from 30 kHz to 50 kHz. Induction furnaces have
frequencies up to few hundred kHz; dielectric heaters up to 100
MHz at low power.
• AC to AC conversion is direct for AC voltage regulators, both
single and three phase, with the cycle frequency remaining
unaltered (50 Hz).
• The other type of AC to AC conversion is via a DC link,
AC>DC>AC. The DC link has a capacitor to store energy for
inversion during each cycle. In some cases there is a battery
back-up as in UPS systems.

5
 Power Electronic Systems-III
• A special case of AC to AC conversion via DC link is for the
speed control of three phase AC induction motors. The air-
gap flux and hence the torque of the motor depends on the
ratio Voltage/frequency and has to be controlled according
to torque requirement. This is called V/f control where the
output frequency of the inverter is variable. This type of
inverter has found wide application in traction, both railway
and automobile and has been possible with the recent
developments in IGBT and micro-processor technologies.
• Another application of multiple conversion is HVDC
transmission which has HVAC at power frequency converted
to HVDC for transmission and at the receiving end
converted back to AC at power frequency. Transmission by
DC reduces the number of conductors and can be great
saving over long distance. Also, no matter the length of the
conductor, there can be no dimensional resonance. A line
from Phuntshillong to Agra is 1500 km long and at 50 Hz this
becomes l/4 and will start radiating the power instead of
transmitting.

6
 Power Electronic Systems-IV
• Power Electronic Systems essentially comprise of the following
parts which are configured according to the type of conversion.
• Semi-conductor Switches: these are semi-conductor devices
used in either OFF (non-conducting) or ON (conducting) state.
• Passive components: Inductors and capacitors. Resistors are
generally avoided as the aim of any conversion is to achieve
high efficiency and resistors being dissipative elements will
always reduce efficiency.
• Protection circuits (generally called snubbers) for the semi-
conductor switches against damaging rises in voltage and
currents and thermal protection against junction temperature
overshoot by proper hat sinking.
• Electronic control circuits to control the semi-conductor
switches to suit the needs of the conversion by feedback.
These are also called Logic and Gate firing circuits and with the
rapid development in processors are becoming more digital
replacing the previous analogue circuits. 7
 Small Signal versus Large Signal

In Fig1a the BJT operates in small signal mode between points x and
y but in large signal mode between P and Q as a switch.
In Fig. 1b the inductor in small signal mode operates on a region very
close to the origin but in large signal mode over expanded B-H curve.
All power electronic components only operate in large signal mode.
A cell-phone charger delivering few mW or a loco-converter in MW
both will have all components operating in large signal mode over
8
their ranges which will vary with the power rating of the converter.
Role of Switches in Conversions

The above circuit diagrams and waveforms clearly show how by

sequentially controlling switches AC>DC (basic rectifier) and
DC>AC (basic Inverter) conversion can be achieved. 9
 Controlled Switches
• The switches used in Power Electronic circuits are not mechanical but
semi-conductors. Mechanical switches are controlled by pressure, but
semiconductor switches are controlled by electronic signals.
• Semiconductor switches can be controlled or uncontrolled. The Diode
is an uncontrolled switch; when the Anode is at a higher potential than
the Kathode the Diode turns ON and when the Kathode is at a higher
potential than the Anode the Diode turns OFF. Hence the switches S1,
S2, S3, S4 in Fig 2a can be four diodes which are naturally commuted
(change state) by the input alternating voltage.
• In Fig. 2b, the switches S1, S2, S3. S4 are not naturally commuted but
must change state at definite times 1/(2f), 1/f periodically as shown.
Such switches are controlled switches by electronic signals.
• The Thyristor is ON controlled and naturally commuted OFF. Hence for
dc input the Thyristor needs special circuits for OFF commutation.
• The GTO, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT are both ON and OFF controlled by
electronic signals.
• The control may be a trigger or a level signal. The Thyristor and GTO
are trigger controlled; that is a trigger can change the state of the
switch. The BJT, MOSFET and IGBT are level controlled; that is the
switch remains on as long as a control pulse is active.

10
The Semiconductor Diode Switch-I

The V-I characteristics of an ideal and an actual diode are

compared to a typical switch in the Figs 3 and 4 above. The
switch can block voltage and conduct current in both
directions but the diode blocks voltage in the negative
direction (Anode positive) and conducts in the positive
direction. Thus the diode is an Unidirectional Switch.
VT is the threshold voltage above which the diode conducts.
11
The Semiconductor Diode Switch-II

The semiconductor diode is a p-n junction as shown in Fig. 5.The p

layer has positively charged free holes and the n layer has negatively
charged free electrons. The p layer is the Anode and the n layer the
Kathode. The negative charge of the acceptor ions in the Anode and
the positive charge of the donor ions in the Kathode create an
electric field that does not allow flow of the free charges. If an
external voltage is so connected as in Fig 6a, (VAK<0) this field is
reinforced and only an intrinsic current in the order of microamperes
can flow. This is the reverse current IS in Fig. 4 and the diode is
reverse biased. If the external voltage is connected as in Fig. 6b and
VAK>0 exceeds the threshold voltage Vg (typically 0.7 V) in Fig. 4, the
diode is forward biased and free charges are set in motion and the
diode conducts a current IA in Fig. 4 as determined by the resistor. 12
 The Diode equation
• The diode characteristics in red shown in Fig. 4 is expressed by the
Schockley equation: IA=IS*[exp{VAK/(h*VT)}-1] - - - - (1)
IA= current from anode to kathode
IS= anode current (mA) under reverse bias, temperature dependant
VAK= anode to kathode voltage
h= emission coefficient, a material dependant constant between 1 & 2
VT=thermal voltage=k*T/q where T=junction temperature in Kelvin,
k=Boltzmann constant, q=electronic charge, at 25oC, VT=26 mV.
• In reverse bias VAK<0 and IA=-IS approximately as long as |VAK|<VBR
where VBR is the breakdown voltage of the diode. If the reverse bias
voltage exceeds this limit, the diode becomes a short circuit as shown
in Fig. 4 which has a breakdown voltage 400 V.
• In forward bias when VAK exceeds the threshold voltage Vg, the anode
current IA increases exponentially as in Fig. 4 with exp{VAK/(h*VT)}>1.
• Diodes have a limit on the peak forward current which is determined
by the physical and thermal constraints of the junction. In Fig. 4 this is
shown as 25 A.
13
 Reverse Recovery of Diode-I

When the diode is forward biased free carriers from p layer enter the
N layer and vice-versa. The instant a reverse voltage is applied the
carriers are forced back to their own layers and the forward current
IF drops to zero and continues in the reverse direction as shown in
the Figs. 7a and 7b above till a peak reverse current IRR is reached.
The time needed to reach the peak reverse current from the zero
crossing is ta and after that the carriers recombine and the reverse
current becomes zero after time tb as shown in the Figs. above. For
Soft Recovery the carriers remain in their own layers and the current
decays to zero as in Fig. 7a. If the carriers cross over during this phase
the recovery becomes Abrupt with an oscillatory decay of current as 14
shown in Fig. 7b.
 Reverse Recovery of Diode-II
• Abrupt recovery is avoided by keeping the forward current within the
specified limit of peak current.
• The Softness Factor SF=tb/ta and generally SF<<1.
• The reverse recovery time trr= ta+tb = (1+SF)*ta - - - (2)
• This is the time the instant the reverse current becomes 25% of IRR.
• The rate of fall of current is di/dt and from Fig. 7a IRR = ta*di/dt - - -(3)
• The shaded area in Fig. 7a is the total reverse recovery charge QRR.
• From Fig. 7a and (3): QRR = trr*IRR/2 = ta*trr*di/dt/2 - - -(4)
• For SF<<1, (4) can be expressed as trr = [2*QRR/di/dt]1/2 - - -(5)
• Combining (2), (3) and (5) for SF<<1, IRR = [2*QRR*di/dt]1/2 - - - (6)
• Diodes will need a definite time as given from trr known as turn-off
time (tOFF) to change from ON to OFF state and this limits the
frequency of its operation.
• Similarly diodes will need a definite turn on time (tON) to reach the
desired forward current from OFF state. This is limited by the junction
capacitance and rate of rise of current; too fast a rate of rise may
damage the junction.
• All semiconductor switches are characterized by tON and tOFF and the
sum of these two limits the frequency of application of the switch.
15
 Types of Diodes
• Diodes are classified by their recovery time as that determines the
frequency of operation. The types are:
• General Purpose Diodes: have high recovery time in the range above 25 ms
and are used commonly in power frequency applications with voltage
ratings up to 5 kV and current ratings up to 5 kA.
• Fast Recovery Diodes: have recovery time within 5 ms using gold or
platinum diffusion in p layer. The voltage rating is up to 3 kV and current
rating within 1 kA.
• Schottky Diodes: are metal to n junction to avoid space charge and these
diodes have tOFF in the range of nanoseconds. The voltage rating is limited
to 100 V and current 500 A. The principle of operation of the Schottky
Diode is shown in Fig. 8 below. A barrier potential in the order of 0.1 V is
set up between the metal and n layer. A reverse bias reinforces the barrier
potential and a forward bias overcomes it causing electron flow and hence
current. Schottky diodes have lower forward voltage drop compared to the
p-n junction diodes.

16
 Types of Diodes by Construction
• Diodes are also classified by their method of construction.
• Diffusion Diodes are manufactured in diffusion chambers with
the silicon substrate diffused by dopants to create the p and n
layers. General Purpose Diodes are diffused types. Fast
Recovery diodes use noble metals as dopants when
manufactured by diffusion process.
• A special type is the Alloy Junction Diode: the contact leads are
soldered to the semiconductor layers and the joints may fail at
high peak currents, particularly in welding applications at
power frequency. A special metal alloy is deposited for contact
in these diodes to withstand high peak currents.
• Epitaxial Diodes: the junction is created by vapour state
deposition on silicon wafer. These diodes have low voltage
withstand capability and low recovery time. Schottky diodes
are manufactured in this process.

17
 Diode Applications in Power Electronic Circuits-I
• The diode applications in power electronic circuits are:
• Rectification (Fig. 9): the incoming alternating voltage with zero average value
is converted to a voltage with non-zero average (dc).
• Free-wheeling (Fig. 10): S1 is a controlled semi-conductor switch and its duty
cycle of operation (ratio of ON time to total time period) is k. With the switch
ON the current i1(t) flows into the load through the inductor and the diode
remains OFF. When the switch is OFF, the inductor current continues through
the diode as i2(t) as shown. This is known as freewheeling current as it is
provided by the inductor without any source.
• Capacitor charge reversal (Fig. 11): S1 is a semiconductor switch that is turned
ON at t=0. The capacitor C is charged to –VS at t=0 as shown in black polarity.
The L-C circuit gives a resonant current iC(t) = VS*(L/C)1/2*sinwt and voltage
vC(t) = -VS*cos wt as shown. At t = p/w the diode stops conducting and current
becomes zero and the capacitor is left charged to +VS as shown in red polarity.
• Energy feedback to source (Fig. 12): the load is a back emf load E (motor) and
when semiconductor switch S2 is turned ON the current flows into it. The
moment S2 is made OFF under the condition E + L*di/dt>VS, the current flows
through diode D2 into the source.
• Blocker Diodes (Fig. 13): Different active loads are connected in parallel to a
common dc source (usually a battery) VS. The diodes prevent current from one
active load to flow into another.
• Polarity reversal protection (Fig. 14) : Many sensitive loads, particularly
electronic gadgets, which work on dc source may be damaged by input polarity
reversal. Many have polarized mechanical connection as cell-phones but a
general method of preventing input polarity reversal is by a diode as shown
which will allow unidirectional flow of current only.
18
Diode Applications in Power Electronic Circuits-II

19
Diode Applications in Power Electronic Circuits-III

20
Thyristor- Construction, Characteristics
• The Thyristor (Silicon Controlled Rectifier or SCR) is an ON
controlled switch. The ON control is achieved by trigger signal
and it is naturally commuted OFF by an alternating voltage.
• The Thyristor needs special circuits for forced commutation for
dc source voltages.
• The Thyristor is a p-n-p-n junction as shown in Fig. 15. It has
three terminals as shown in Fig. 16: Anode, Kathode and Gate.
• When the anode is at a higher potential than kathode (VAK>0)
the junctions J1 and J3 in Fig. 15 are forward biased and J2 is
reverse biased. For VAK<0, J2 is forward biased and the other
two reverse biased.
• The Thyristor can block voltages in both directions but as we
shall see conduct current in one direction only. The ideal
thyristor characteristic is shown in Fig. 21.
• The ON control trigger is applied to the gate of the thyristor as
shown in Fig. 17.
21
Thyristor- Construction, Triggering

22
Two Transistor Model of Thyristor-I

The turn on of a thyristor by gate trigger is best explained by the

two transistor model as shown in Figs 18 & 19. The transistor Q1 is
PNP and Q2 is NPN. The emitter to collector current gain of
transistors is denoted by a which varies with the magnitude of the
emitter current as shown in Fig. 20 reaching a maximum close to
unity. The value of a is also temperature dependant. A temperature
dependant reverse leakage current ICBO also flows out from the base
to the collector.
23
Two Transistor Model of Thyristor-II
• Applying the collector current equations to Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 19
IC1 =a1*IE1 + ICBO1 = a1*IA + ICBO1 - - - (7)
IC2 =a2*IE2 + ICBO2 = a2*IK + ICBO2 - - - (8)
Applying KCL to the three terminals of thyristor: IK= IA+ IG - - -(9)
• Applying KCL to Q1 and from (7), (8) and (9):
IC1 + IC2 = IA = (a1 + a2)*IA + a2*IG +ICBO1 + ICBO2 - - - (10)
IA = [a2*IG + ICBO1 + ICBO2] / (1-a1-a2) - - - (11)
• With the application of a positive gate signal, electrons in the
kathode region are attracted into the narrow gate region which
shrinks and the junction J2 collapses causing a flow of current
from anode to kathode as J1 and J3 are forward biased from
Fig. 17. Hence a1 and a2 increase as shown in Fig. 20 and the
denominator in (11) vanishes as the gate region merges into the
kathode and the structure becomes a forward biased p-n
junction and the anode current is limited by the resistance
(load).
24
 Thyristor Characteristics-I

The ideal thyristor characteristic has been discussed. From the

practical characteristics in Fig. 22 we find a temperature dependant.
reverse leakage current both in reverse and forward blocking mode.
The thyristor shall breakdown when the voltage exceeds the limit in
either mode. In reverse breakdown the current shoots up at the
breakdown voltage but in forward breakdown the voltage is reduced
to normal forward conduction voltage. 25
 Thyristor Characteristics-II
• Referring to Fig. 22, we know that the thyristor can turn on by gate
triggering when forward biased (VAK>0) and a positive gate pulse is
applied. The anode to kathode VAK voltage falls to about 1 V, called the
forward voltage and the anode current IA is increased as determined
by the connected load. Hence this region of the characteristic is called
negative resistance as the current increases with voltage reducing and
is unstable. If the anode current exceeds a limit called the Latching
Current then the thyristor comes to a stable operating point.
Physically this means the gate p region has merged into the kathode n
region and the thyristor has become a p-n diode in conduction. If the
Latching current is not reached, the thyristor goes back to forward
blocking state for stable operation. For highly inductive loads the
anode current builds up gradually and a series of gate trigger pulses
are needed to latch the thyristor to a stable operating point in
conduction out of the forward blocking state.
• In case the anode current falls below a limit known as Holding Current
as shown in Fig. 22, the gate p region reappears between the two n
regions and J2 is reverse biased and the thyristor goes into forward
blocking mode. It is clear from Fig. 22 that Latching current > Holding
current of a thyristor.

26
 Thyristor Turn-on and Turn-off
• Thyristor turn-on is achieved by various conditions.
1) At very high temperature the sum a1+ a2 (emitter current gains) may
become unity thus turning on the thyristor.
2) By light activation: a lens focuses light radiation on the gate region for the
same effect as in 1) above. These are called Light Activated Thyristors and
find application in security purposes.
3) By application of high forward voltage causing forward breakdown.
4) All semi-conductor junctions have associated junction capacitance and
the capacitive current is given by C*dv/dt which can turn on a thyristor if
the value exceeds latching current. Hence it is important to keep the
thyristor dv/dt (rate of rise of VAK) within specified limit to avoid spurious
turn-on.
5) Application of gate trigger: the normal and desired method.
• The Thyristor can be turned off by:
1) Voltage commutation: Applying a reverse voltage between anode and
kathode (VAK<0) which is natural for ac input and has to forced for dc.
2) Current commutaion: Reducing the anode current below the holding
current limit which is also used for forced commutation with dc input.
• The turn-on time of thyristors is few microseconds and the turn-off (also
called commutation time) ranges from few to hundreds of microseconds.

27
 Principle of Phase Control
• The main application of the thyristor is in phase control which is
controlled rectification of an alternating voltage to provide desired
average value in desired polarity. These circuits are generally known as
converters and shall be studied later in details for single and three phase
ac inputs. A brief introduction for a single phase half-wave control is
shown in Fig. 23.
• The peak ac voltage is Vm and the
plots of input and output voltages
are rationalized to peak as shown
in the plots.
• The thyristor is triggered (usually
called fired) at wt=a in each positive
half-cycle. The dc (average) voltage
to the load depends on the shaded area
under the curve of the output voltage
which depends on a. Hence by controlling
the firing angle a, the dc load voltage
can be controlled, usually in a feedback
loop employing electronic circuits.

28
 Thyristor Firing Circuits
• The direct firing circuits are the resistive (R-firing) in Fig. 24a and
resistive-capacitive (RC-firing) in Fig. 24b. The variable resistance
changes the gate current in R-firing and the range of firing angle is
0<a<90o. The gate current is controlled by the phase of the voltage VX
that is changed by the variable resistance in RC firing and 0<a<180o.

29
 Ramp and Pedestal Control
• The main objective of thyristor converters is to achieve control of dc voltage
and current in a load from ac source by feedback. The firing of thyristors is
synchronized to the ac supply by ramp generation and the error amplifier in the
feedback loop generates a pedestal voltage. The ramp and pedestal are
compared and gate firing pulses are generated in sequence by a phase
detector synchronized to the incoming single or three phase ac supply. A
single phase version is shown in Fig. 25.

30
 Gate Isolation in Firing Circuits
The firing pulse to a thyristor is between the Gate and Kathode
terminals. The Anode and Kathode of the thyristor are usually
connected to high voltages in the range of hundred to thousands
of volts. As seen in the gate control and firing circuits, these are
electronic circuits working at power supplies in the range of 5 V to
15 V. These circuits must be galvanically isolated from the high
voltages at the kathode as the integrated circuits and other active
and passive components used in the control and gate firing
circuits cannot withstand such high voltages. The two techniques
used for gate isolation from the control and firing circuits are the
use of Pulse Transformers shown in Fig. 26a and the use of Opto-
couplers shown in Fig. 26b. In both cases, the gate and kathode
terminals are galvanically isolated from the firing circuits.

31
The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) - I

32
 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) -II
The UJT is a three terminal device as shown in Fig. 27 and finds wide use
as a gate trigger source for thyristors. The three terminals are named as
Base1 (B1), Base2 (B2) and Emitter (E). The characteristics of the emitter
current IE versus the emitter to Base1 voltage VE are shown in Fig. 27. At
the Peak point the voltage is around 15 V and the current in mA. And at
The Valley point the voltage drops to below 10 V and the current is in mA.
Hence the region between the Peak and Valley is a negative resistance
region and cannot allow any stable operating point.
A typical UJT circuit is shown in Fig. 28 with VS>VP. The capacitor charges
from VS and when the voltage reaches VP and the resistance R allows a
current more than IP, the operating point jumps to the valley. If the choice
of the resistance R is such that the current is less than IV, the capacitor
discharges into Base1 providing a sharp pulse to the pulse transformer
for gate firing and then starts recharging from VS to the peak point as
shown in Fig. 29. Hence the UJT can provide a sustained train of gate
firing pulses. The resistance RB2 on Base2 is provided to compensate for
the decrease in peak voltage with temperature which may damage the
device permanently by thermal runaway.
In feedback controlled circuits the capacitor is charged by a controlled
current source instead of a physical resistor.

33
 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT)-III
• The design equations for the circuit in Fig. 28 listed below:
VP = h*VS + VD - - - (12)
(VS-VV)/IV < R < (VS-VP)/IP- - - (13)
T = 1/f = R*C*ln [1/(1-h)] - - -(14) h = 1 – exp{-1/(f*R*C)} - - -(14a)
tp = C*RB1 - - - (15) RB2 = 104 / (h*VS) - - -(16)
VD = 0.5 V typ. and h = material constant 0<h<1 (0.5 typ.)
f is the frequency of the pulse train
tp is the desired width of the gate firing pulse
• The values of IP (peak current), IV (valley current), VV (valley
voltage), (some cases peak voltage VP is given instead of VD), h
for the UJT and the supply dc voltage VS must be known to find
the limiting values of R from (13). It is customary to consider
the geometric mean of the two limits for R.
• Knowing the frequency, C can be then found from (14) and RB1
from (15). In (16) VS is in Volts and RB2 in Ohms.
34
The Gate Trigger Off Thyristor (GTO)-I

The Gate Trigger OFF Thyristor (GTO) as the name suggests, can
be turned OFF by a gate pulse as well as ON. Hence the GTO can
be used in dc circuits without circuits needed for forced
commutation as for thyristors. The symbol of the GTO shows a bi-
directional current flow; that is a positive trigger is needed for turn
on and a negative trigger for turn off.
GTOs have reduced turn on and turn off time compared to those of
thyristors and hence can work up to higher frequencies.
The two transistor model for turn on being identical to thyristor,
35
the model for turn off is only discussed.
 The Gate Trigger Off Thyristor (GTO)-II
• The collector to base current gain b is used along with the
collector to emitter current gain a. For turn off the collector to
base reverse currents are neglected as the device is already on.
• Applying the collector current equations to Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 31
IC1 = a1*IE1 = b1*I B1- - - (17)
IC2 = a2*IE2 = b2*IB2 - - - (18)
IB2 = IC1-IG = a1*IA- IG - - - (19)
IC2 = IB1 = IA – IC1 = (1- a1)*IA - - -(20)
For turn off : IB2 < IC2 / b2 - - -(21)
From (19), (20) and (21):
(a1*IA – IG) < (1 – a1)*IA/b2 - - - (22) Using b2 = a2 / (1-a2) in (22)
a2*(a1*IA – IG) < (1 – a1)*(1 – a2)*IA - - - (23)
IG > (1 + a1/a2 – 1/a2)*IA - - - (24)
• That gives the magnitude of gate current needed for turn off.
• The anode (load) current should be reduced for turn off.
36
 TRIAC, DIAC

The TRIAC is a combination of two back to back thyristors with a common

gate terminal and can conduct current or block voltages in both directions.
The gate pulse is applied between gate and MT1. As seen from Figs 32 & 33
in Quadrant I the pulse is between gate and kathode and in Quadrant III it is
between gate and anode. Hence the gate current needed is higher in
Quadrant III. The DIAC is a two terminal bidirectional switch that conducts
current in mA once subject to voltage about 20 V in either direction.
A typical application of the TRIAC-DIAC pair is the domestic fan regulator.
37
 Series and Parallel Connection of Switches-I

The reverse leakage current in semi-conductor switches, though in the order

of mA, is temperature and construction dependant and varies from one to
another even for similar type and rating. The typical variation ID1 and ID2 is
shown in Fig. 36. When connected in series under reverse bias, this causes a
variation in the voltage division V1 and V2 as shown in Fig. 36. The reverse
voltage of one may exceed the rated limit causing breakdown. To overcome
this voltage variation resistors are connected parallel to the switches as in
Fig. 37. Applying KCL to Fig. 37: ID1+IR1= ID2+IR2 or ID1+V1/R = ID2+V2/R - - -(25)
Define DID=|ID2-ID1| and DV=|V2-V1|, from (25) : DV = R*DID - - -(26)
Let the voltage variation be p% = DV/VS from (26): R = p*VS /(100*DID) - - -(27)
As V1+V2=VS, from (25): V1, V2 = (VS+/- R*DID)/2 = (1-p/100)*VS/2 - - - (28)
The total losses in the resistors is given by (1-k)*VS2/(2*R) where k is the duty
cycle of the switches. From (27): losses = 50*(1-k)*VS*DID/p - - - (29) 38
 Series and Parallel Connection of Switches-II
The forward voltage drop in semi-conductor switches is temperature and
construction dependant and varies from one to another even for similar type
and rating. When connected in parallel in forward bias, this causes a variation
in the current I1 and I2 as shown in Fig. 38 as the forward voltages VF1 and VF2
are not identical. The forward current of one may exceed the rated limit
causing breakdown. To overcome this current variation resistors are
connected in series to the switches as in Fig. 38. Applying KVL to Fig. 38:
VF1+ R*I1= VF2+ R*I2 - - -(30) and I1+I2=I
Define DVF=|VF2-VF1| and DI = |I2-I1|, from (30) : DI = DVF / R - - -(31)
Let the voltage variation be p% = DI/I from (31): R = 100*DVF/ (p*I) - - -(32)
From (30) and (32) : I1, I2 = (I +/- DVF/R)/2 = (1-p/100)*I/2 - - - (33)
The total losses in the resistors is given by k*R*I2/2 where k is the duty cycle
of the switches. From (32): losses = 50*k*I*DVF/p - - - (33)
Example: Two diodes have reverse currents 6 mA and 8 mA and work from a
2000 V peak source. Find the shunt resistance needed to keep the voltage
variation within 1% and the losses for 180o conduction.
Answer: VS= 2000 V DID= 2 mA p=1 from (27) R= 10 MW for 180o conduction
k=180/360=0.5 from (29) losses = 0.1 W
Example: Two transistors have forward voltages 0.4 V and 0.5 V and are
connected in parallel on 50 A load. Find the series resistance needed to keep
the current variation within 5% and the losses for 40% duty cycle.
39
Answer: I=20 A, DVF=0.1 V p=5 k=0.4 from (32) R=0.04W from (33) losses=20 W
Losses in Semiconductor Switches-I
Losses in any semiconductor switch are classified as:
Reverse loss: that occurs when the switch is OFF and is caused by the reverse
leakage current. As this current remains in mA, reverse losses are generally
neglected for semiconductor switches.
Forward /conduction / ON state loss: as the name suggests, this is the loss in the
switch when it is ON and hence conducting. The general expression is:
f*∫0k*T vF(t)*iF(t)*dt - - - (34)
where f=frequency, T=1/f, k=duty-cycle, vF(t) and iF(t) are the forward voltage and
current expressed as functions of time.
In case the forward voltage and current remain constant as VF and IF then (34)
becomes: forward loss = k*VF*IF - - -(35)
For some switches the ratio VF/IF=RON remains fairly constant and (35) can be
expressed as: forward losses = k*RON*IF2 - - -(36)
From (35) and (36) and for most classes of functions in (34), it is seen that
forward (conduction) losses of a semiconductor switch depends on the duty
cycle of operation and not on frequency.
Examples: the conduction voltage of an IGBT is 1.1V and it carries 100 A at 50%
duty cycle. Hence the conduction loss is 55 W.
A MOSFET has RDSON= 0.1 W and carries 20 A at 60% duty cycle. The on-state loss
is 1.2 W.
A diode with 180o conduction has iF(t)=50*sin(314*t) A and VF(t)=0.7+0.01*iF(t) V.
In the integral in (34) T=2*p, k*T=p, and x=314*t and the integral becomes:
40
Conduction losses= [∫0p 50*sinx*(0.7+0.01*50*sinx)*dx]/(2*p) - - - (37)
 Losses in Semiconductor Switches-II
Switching losses in semiconductor switch:
In an ideal switch there can be no overlap
between the waveforms of current and
voltage as shown. (The ON-state voltage
that causes conduction loss has already
been discussed and is omitted here). In
practical switches the transition from ON
to OFF state and vice-versa are not
instantaneous as shown and there are
regions of overlap of voltage and current
which cause switching loss. The times tON
and tOFF denote the respective transition
times as shown. Switching losses given by
f*[∫0tONv(t)*i(t)*dt+∫0tOFFv(t)*i(t)*dt] - - -(38)
For triangular waveforms of v(t) and i(t)
The integral in (38) reduces to:
Switching loss=f*Vpk*Ipk*(tON+tOFF)/6 - - -(39)
f is the frequency, Vpk and Ipk are the
peak voltage and current. It is seen that
switching loss increases directly with f.
(39) is used to make an estimate of loss. 41
 Protection Circuits for Semiconductor Switches
These circuits are generally called snubbers. They check the rise of current
(current snubber or di/dt suppressor) and the rise of voltage (voltage snubber
or dv/dt suppressor).The current snubber is an inductor in series with the
switch and the voltage snubber a R-C combination parallel to the switch as
shown in Fig. 40. The snubbers serve two purposes: they limit the switching
loss as shown in Fig. 39 by delaying the rise of current or voltage. The use of
snubbers delays the switching actions and reduces the operating frequency.
Secondly, manufacturers specify a limit on the rate of rise of current and
voltage for the switch. A too high di/dt may cause thermal damage; a too high
dv/dt may cause spurious functions leading to breakdown. The design of a
snubber is best explained by an example using Fig. 40. The switch has a limit
(di/dt)max=200 A/ms, (dv/dt)max=400 V/ms max IF=200 A and a safety factor SF =2
and the supply VS=600 V.
At turn on L*di/dt=VS and hence L>VS/(di/dt)max=3 mH
With switch OFF, C charges to VS and discharges into
The switch at turn on. R=(VS/IF)*SF=6 W
At turn on C is discharged hence i(t)*R=v(t) or
R*di/dt=dv/dt or R*VS/L=dv/dt L>R*VS/(dv/dt)max=9 mH
tL=L/R=1.5 ms tC=R*C=4*x2*tL for critical damping
x=0.63 which gives tC=2.38 ms and C=0.4 mF
For only R-C snubber, tC=0.63*VS/(dv/dt)max , R is
42
found from VS, IF and SF and C from tC.
 BJT as Power Electronic Switch-I
The above three types of semi-conductor switches are widely used in
Power Electronics. All three are level controlled; that is they are both
ON and OFF controlled by application of a control pulse signal which
keeps the switch in its ON state. The absence of the pulse keeps the
switch in OFF state. Hence these switches can be easily used in Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) control of power.
Historically, BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) was the first type. Early
transistors were made from Germanium but Silicon soon became the
preferred semi-conductor material owing to its higher voltage and
current (hence power) handling capacity. Also there are two types of
BJT by construction of the semiconductor junctions; namely PNP and
NPN. Among the two, PNP transistors have limited power handling
capacity and hence in practical Power Electronics we study the Silicon
NPN type BJT, the circuit representation as shown in Fig. 41.

43
 BJT as Power Electronic Switch-II
As shown in Fig. 41, the BJT is a three terminal device with the three
terminals Collector C, Emitter E and Base B. The main flow of current is
from Collector to Emitter and the control pulse is applied between Base
and Emitter. The Eber’s Moll model of the BJT, comprising of two
diodes, is shown in Fig. 42 with a table defining the three operating
regions of the BJT shown in its Output Characteristics in Fig. 43. In
Power Electronic application, the BJT functions as a switch and
oscillates between cut-off (point Q) and saturation (point P) as in Fig.
43. The transfer characteristics are shown in Fig. 44. (VCE is the
collector-emitter voltage, IC is the collector current, IB the base current).
The BJT is a current controlled device as the base current decides the
region of operation.

44
 BJT as Power Electronic Switch-III
The base drive circuit of BJT is shown in Fig. 45. In general,
VCE=VCC-IC*RC=VCB+VBE ---(40)
The BJT is said to enter saturation when VCB<0 and hence VCE<VBE in (40).
At this condition, ICM=(VCC-VBE)/RC ---(41) and IBM=ICM/hFE ----(42)
The current gain of the BJT is hFE in (42) and the minimum base drive
current is IBM.
To ensure saturation, an overdrive is given to the base, that is:
IBS=ODF*IBM ---(43)
The base drive for saturation is IBS and ODF stands for Over Drive Factor,
generally taken between 2 and 5 for practical cases. This ensures what is
known as hard saturation as without an overdrive it has been observed
that BJT tends to come out of saturation with the voltage across the
switch increasing at ON state with increased conduction loss. Typical
value of VCEsat of practical BJT varies from 0.3 V to 1.0 V. But the
overdrive stores extra charge in the narrow base region of the BJT as
shown in Fig. 46. The un-shaded region is the normal charge in the base
without overdrive and the shaded region represents the extra stored
charge.
This causes multiple problems in dynamic operation of the device. The
hybrid-pi model of the BJT is shown in Fig. 47 and the dynamic
characteristics in Fig. 48.
45
 BJT as Power Electronic Switch-IV
The extra stored charge delays the response time of the collector
current as shown in Fig. 48 and limits the operating frequency of the
BJT. Additionally, the extra stored charge causes thermal hot spots in
the narrow base region which leads to ‘secondary breakdown’ of the
device after a number of operations, making the circuit inherently
unreliable. Hence the BJT must be operated well below its rated current
and frequency for stable performance as a switch. Also, the saturation
voltage VCEsat decreases with temperature making the BJT unsuitable
for natural parallel operation.
To overcome these problems, additional circuitry may be needed for
BJT switching operation. Fig. 49 shows the Darlington transistor pair
where transistor Q1 drives transistor Q2 and hence the base drive
current needed is reduced by a factor hFEQ1. But from Fig. 49, we find
VCEQ2=VCEQ1 +VBEQ2 ---(44) and the on-state voltage of the switch is
effectively increased causing higher conduction loss. Fig. 50 shows a
typical circuit to improve the response time of the BJT, both during
transitions OFF to ON and ON to OFF. The OFF to ON transition
depends on time constant T1=C*R1*R2/(R1+R) and the ON to OFF
transition depends on the time constant T2=C*R2 (the stored charge is
dissipated in R2).
46
 BJT as Power Electronic Switch- V
The operating frequency is limited by f<1/[5*(T1+T2)] ---(45). Another
technique used to avoid hard saturation is the Baker clamp shown in
Fig. 51. In the circuit, VCE=VBE+VD1-VD2 ---(46). By keeping VD1>VD2 (two
diodes in series may be used for D1 and one for D2) it is ensured
VCE>VBE and thus hard saturation is avoided. The Baker clamp is useful
for low/medium power applications.

47
 MOSFET as Power Electronic Switch- I
The next type of switch is the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor) which gradually started replacing the BJT in the
seventies. The circuit representation and basic power circuit are shown
in Fig. 52. The MOSFET can be made on a p-substrate (n-channel) or n-
substrate (p-channel) semiconductor and there are two possible modes
of operation; namely depletion mode and enhancement mode. The best
performance in terms of power handling and speed is achieved in n-
channel enhancement mode type and these form te focus of study of
the MOSFET in Power Electronics. The MOSFET is a three terminal
device with the terminals named as Drain (D), Source (S) and Gate (G).
As shown in Fig.52, the main current flows from the Drain to the Source
and the Gate is the control terminal. For the n-channel enhancement
mode, a positive voltage at the Gate turns the switch ON and when this
voltage is turned off. Unlike the BJT, the gate control is by voltage and
not current. The input impedance of the Gate terminal is extremely high
and hence negligible control power is needed compared to a BJT. Also
there is no stored charge and the MOSFET has no secondary
breakdown effect and can operate at very high frequencies going up to
few hundred kHz, making it possible to miniaturize associated
components. The present boost in LED lighting has been possible due
to MOSFET switches.
48
 MOSFET as Power Electronic Switch- II
The semiconductor structure of the n-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET is shown in Fig. 53. The metal, oxide and semiconductor
layouts are schematically shown. The metal base plate generally serves
as a heat sink. Once a positive bias is applied at the gate, the electrons
from the source and drain are attracted by the influence of the positive
electric field and a channel of carriers appears between the Source and
the Drain regions as shown.

49
 MOSFET as Power Electronic Switch- III
This takes place after a threshold limit is exceeded by the gate control
voltage as shown in the transfer characteristic in Fig. 54. As the carrier
concentration depends on the electric field due to the gate bias, the
device is called Field Effect Transistor. The slope DID/DVGS is called the
trans-conductance of the MOSFET.

50
 MOSFET as Power Electronic Switch- IV
As shown in the output characteristics in Fig. 55, after a certain limit
depending on the Gate bias voltage, the carrier concentration ‘pinches
off” and the drain current becomes invariant. But for switching
application, the operating points must lie in the Cut-off (OFF) and the
Linear (ON) regions. In the linear region, during conduction the switch
exhibits a nearly constant resistance RDSON as shown. This tends to
increase the conduction loss compared to a BJT but the resistance has
a positive coefficient of temperature and that makes the MOSFET
suitable for natural parallel operation. The switching model of the
MOSFET is shown in Fig. 56 with the junction capacitances. These are
extremely low in the range of pieco-farads compared to those of BJT in
nano-farads and hence the MOSFET can operate at considerably higher
frequencies in the range of few hundred kHz compared to BJT which
can reach a hundred kHz at the best. The MOSFET remains the only
choice for high frequency switching of power.

51
 IGBT as Power Electronic Switch- I
The MOSFET had several advantages over the BJT as a Power
Electronic switch but still it had higher conduction loss than the BJT.
Just as the ideal city is a synthesis of Mumbai and Kolkata (the local
trains run on time as in Mumbai and one need not pay the fare as in
Kolkata), the ideal switch should be a combination of the MOSFET and
the BJT; it should have the low control power, higher speed as the
MOSFET with low conduction loss as BJT. It was left to an Indian
Engineer named Jayant Baliga working in the laboratories of GE in the
US to come out with a solution called IGBT (Insulated gate Bipolar
Transistor) in the nineties. Since then it has found wide application in
transportation (electric locomotives and cars) where they form the vital
part for V/f control of three phase squirrel cage induction motors.
IGBTs are also used in power conversion in electric welding and
electric arc furnaces at high frequencies, making possible
miniaturization.
The circuit representation of an IGBT with anti-parallel diode is shown
in Fig. 57. (Generally Power Electronic switches are manufactured with
anti-parallel diode to provide a current path for inductive loads). The
IGBT is also a three terminal device with Collector, Emitter and Gate as
shown in Fig. 57. The semiconductor structure is shown in Fig. 58 with
multiple junctions and various levels of doping to achieve the desired
52
performance. The function is schematically shown in Fig. 59.
IGBT as Power Electronic Switch-II

53
IGBT as Power Electronic Switch-III

54
 IGBT as Power Electronic Switch- IV
The application of a positive gate bias sets up an electric field that
creates a drift current of the majority holes in the Collector region to
the negative pole at the Emitter. The drift current is modulated by the
gate field and is indicated as a variable resistor as shown in Fig. 60 and
hence the conduction loss is limited.. But additionally the p-n-p-n
structure creates a parasitic thyristor as shown in Fig. 60. The
condition for thyristor latch on applies here also and a1+a2<1 has to
be ensured to prevent latch on. In practice the body resistance in Fig.
60 is kept low such that the voltage that appears across it owing to the
current caused by electron flow from the emitter to gate (shown in Fig.
59) is not sufficient to turn on transistor Q2 in Fig. 60.
The basic connection of an IGBT, similar to that of a BJT, is shown in
Fig. 61. The transfer characteristic is similar to a MOSFET as shown in
Fig. 62. The output characteristics shown in Fig. 63 are a combination
of BJT in the saturation region and MOSFET in the active region which
gives the needed advantage as a switch.

55
IGBT as Power Electronic Switch-V

56
 Gate Drive Circuits for MOSFET / IGBT-I
The most preferred gate drive for these switches is the Totempole Drive
circuit shown in Fig. 64 which has low output impedance to the gate for
fast turn on and the p-n-p transistor aids fast turn-off when the gate
signal vanishes. These Totempole drives are available as integrated
circuits which reduces design work load.
Other gate conventional gate drive circuit for fast turn on shown in Fig.
65 is similar to the base drive of BJT. Also gate drive circuits for
MOSFET and IGBT will also need galvanic isolation from the high
voltage power circuits (Drain to Source for MOSFET / Collector to
Emitter for IGBT) and pulse transformers or opto-couplers are used as
shown in Fig. 66 and Fig. 67.
IGBTs are commonly used as a single package of two in series between
a high voltage dc bus as shown in Fig. 68. There are specially designed
integrated circuits to drive both the IGBTs as shown in Fig. 68.

57
Gate Drive Circuits for MOSFET / IGBT -II

58
 BJT-MOSFET-IGBT a Comparison
Parameter BJT MOSFET IGBT

Control Current Voltage (E-field) Voltage (E-field)

Input Low High High

Impedance
Drive power High Negligible Negligible

Stored charge Yes No No

Secondary Possible Not possible Not possible

breakdown
Frequency Few kHz Hundreds of Typical 100 kHz
range kHz
Turn-on & turn- High Very low Low
off times
Conduction loss Low High Low

Temperature Negative Positive Positive to

coefficient extent
Natural Not possible Possible Limited
paralleling Possibility
Vulnerability to Not vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable
static charge
Latch-up Not possible Not possible Possibility
exists 59
 Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class A
Thyristors used in ac circuits are turned off naturally by the alternating
voltage which reverse biases the device. In dc circuits extra circuitry is
needed to turn off or commute a thyristor.
The first type of forced commutation is by load and called Class A
commutation as shown in Fig. 69 below. The voltage source is dc and the
load has a resonant (L-C circuit) either in series or in shunt. Once the
thyristor T is fired a resonant current is set up and after one half-cycle the
current through the thyristor stops as the device will not allow reverse
conduction. The half-cycle period is p/w where w2=1/(L*C). The circuits are
made under-damped (R2/4<L/C). For shunt connection the capacitor
Discharges into the load as shown in dotted line.

60
Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class B-I
This is also called Current / Parallel / Resonant pulse commutation. The
Circuit is shown in Fig. 70 and the waveforms in Fig. 71.

61
 Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class B-II
This is also called Current / Parallel / Resonant pulse commutation. The circuit is
shown in Fig. 70 and the waveforms in Fig. 71. The load current i0 is taken as constant
at I0 as shown and is carried by the main thyrsitor TM fired by the gate pulse IgM at t=0.
The capacitor C is charged in the polarity as shown to the dc supply voltage VS and it
will be seen that it reverts to this condition after one cycle at steady state. The auxiliary
TA is fired at t=t1 to commute TM, A resonant circuit is set up by the capacitor, TA and
the inductor with negative direction of current with peak IP=VS*(C/L)1/2 > I0- - - (47) and
this current reaches zero at t=t2, with w*(t2-t1)=p where w=(L*C)1/2 - - -(48). The capacitor
voltage vC=VS*coswt and at t=t2, vC=-VS - - -(49). After t2, the current direction in the
capacitor becomes positive and TA stops conducting. The current flows from C through
L and D into the load and as the load current remains constant, the main thyristor
current iTM reduces to zero at t=t3 as shown and q=sin-1(I0/IP) - - - (50). The main thyristor
current falls below holding limit and is turned off. The capacitor voltage at t3 is
VR=VS*cosq - (51) and this is the reverse voltage appearing across TM. The capacitor
then charges at a constant positive current I0 from the dc source VS through L, D and
the load till time t5 when the capacitor voltage becomes VS in the original polarity. At t5
the charge in C is neutralized (the shaded areas become equal and opposite) and the
load current vanishes. The commutation time tC is defined as the duration of reverse
bias of the main thyristor and tC=(t4-t3)= C*VR/I0 > tOFF for TM. - - -(52)
As TM is turned off by reducing its current with a parallel source (VS-C-L-D-load), this
is called Parallel or Current Commutation. As gate pulse to the auxiliary thyristor sets
up a resonant current , this is called Resonant Pulse Commutation. The advantage is
that the main thyristor current does not exceed the rated load current. The
disadvantage is that tC depends on load (52) and the load current continues after T62M is
turned OFF; the minimum ON time of the main thyristor is (t5-t1).
Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class C-I
This is also called Complimentary commutation as two thyristors
mutually commute one another. The circuit is shown in Fig. 72 and the
waveforms in Fig. 73.

63
Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class C-II
The exponential voltages and currents have been shown as triangular in
Fig. 73. Either or both of the two resistors may be the load. Waveforms
for one cycle at steady state have been shown.. The capacitor C serves
as the element for commutation. The voltage vC and current iC are taken
in the polarities as shown. Assume at t=0, T2 is conducting with T1 OFF
and hence VC=-VS and gate trigger is applied to T1 to turn it ON. The
right hand plate of C goes from +VS to 0 and hence the left hand plate
connected to the anode of T2 goes from 0 to –VS thus turning it OFF.
Thus turning ON T1 turns off T2. Similarly with T1 ON when a gate trigger
is applied to T2 to turn it OFF, the left hand plate of C undergoes a
change from 0 to –VS thus turning OFF T1, completing the cycle. The
capacitor voltage oscillates between two polarities of magnitude VS.
The transient capacitor voltage equations: -Vs[1-2*exp{-t/(R1*C)}]- - -(53a)
Vs[1-2*exp{-t/(R1*C)}] - - -(53b)
The commutation times: tC1=R1*C*ln2 - - -(54a) tC2=R2*C*ln2 - - - (54b)
The peak thyristor currents: IPT1=VS*[1/R1+2/R2] - - - (55a)
IPT2=VS*[1/R2+2/R1] - - - (55b)
The advantage of this commutation is the simplicity of circuit with
minimum component count. But generally the load is one resistor and
hence for commutation energy has to be dissipated in another resistor.
64
Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class D-I
This is also called Impulse / Voltage / Series commutation. The circuit
is shown in Fig. 74 and the waveforms in Fig. 75.

65
Forced Commutation of Thyristor-Class D-II
The main thyristor is TM; TA is an auxiliary thyristor. The load current
i0 remains constant at I0. The capacitor is charged to VS in the polarity
as shown at the beginning of the cycle and reverts to same condition
at the end as will be seen. The polarity of the capacitor current is as
marked. The cycle begins with the gate trigger igM to the main thyristor
Which sets a resonant current in the loop C-T1-L-D with w=(L*C)1/2 (56)
and peak current IP=VS*(L/C)1/2 - - (57). This current adds to the load
current in the main thyristor as shown and stops at t1 given by wt1=p
after which the current in TM becomes the load current again.
Meanwhile the capacitor voltage vC=VS*coswt - - -(58) and changes its
polarity at t1 as shown. Now the auxiliary thyristor TA is triggered at t2
by the trigger igA. Immediately a reverse bias VS appears across the
main thyristor and it is turned off. The capacitor now charges back at
constant load current to its original polarity in the loop VS-C-TA-load
and the load current continues till the capacitor charge is neutralized
as shown by the equal and opposite shaded areas. After that the
circuit reverts to the state at the beginning of the cycle. The time for
commutation tC=C*VS/I0 - - - (59). As TM is commuted by series voltage
which is applied as an impulse by the turn on of TA, the names Series,
Voltage and Impulse commutation are used. The commutation time is
load dependant, the load current continues after turn off of main
66
thyristor which has to carry a high peak current.
Forced Commutation of Thyristor- Class E & F
This is called External Pulse Commutation as a resonant circuit is
activated by triggering a thyristor TC connected to an external dc source
V1. The circuit is shown in Fig. 76. The main thyristor is TM which
supplies the load from the dc source VS. The capacitor is uncharged at
the start of the cycle and the instant it is charged the resonant current in
the loop V1-L-C charges the capacitor to a voltage 2*V1 > VS in the
polarity shown after time p/(L*C)1/2. After this calculated half-cycle the
auxiliary thyrsitor TA is fired. This reverse biases the main thyristor TM as
2*V1 > VS and turns it off. The capacitor then discharges into the load
through TA at the end of which TA turns off by holding current effect and
the circuit reverts back to initial state.

Class F is natural commutation of thyristor by zero-crossings of

alternating voltage.
67
 Notes on Forced Commutation of Thyristors
In the circuits for Classes A to E for thyristor commutation for dc source
Voltages, extra components (inductor, capacitor, auxiliary thyristor,
diode etc.) were needed to facilitate the commutation. These
components were bulky, added to cost (in most cases the cost of these
components added up to be more than the thyristor itself). Also the
commutation was never instantaneous and the load current would
continue even after the thyristor had turned off. This slowed down the
speed of the circuit, limiting its frequency of application. The only reason
thyristors were used in forced commutation was that other
semiconductor switches could not match the high voltage and current
ratings of thyristors. The GTO replaced the thyristor in many
applications but it had high mortality rate in production, making it quite
expensive. The invention and subsequent mass production of IGBT
replaced thyristors in high voltage-current applications pushing both
forced commuted thyristors and GTO into gradual obsolescence.
An example to illustrate the above note: the traction supply of Calcutta
Tramways is 550 V dc and the tramcars are controlled by armature
resistors causing dissipation. An attempt had been made in 1980s to
replace the resistance controllers by Impulse commuted thyristor
chopper. The result was that if the commutation network got into the
cabin, there was no space for the driver. 68
 Disadvantages of Power Electronics
The advantages and techniques of Power Electronics have been
discussed. It is quite clear that present human civilization with its
dependence on electrical power cannot exist without Power Electronic
conversions. But there are few associated problems with Power
Electronic conversions which must be taken care of:
The spread of spectral frequency or Harmonic generation: this happens
in any switching and since in Power Electronic conversions the
switching is repetitive, the Harmonic generation is continuous and
sustained. The mathematical model is Fourier analysis of the associated
waveforms. These harmonics cause interference with communication
signals for different uses and extra circuits are needed to suppress these
what is known as EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference). There are strict
regulations and Power Electronic converters must pass recommended
tests for certification (CE marking for example) for consumer use.
Degradation of Power factor: Generation of harmonics cause reduction
in power factor of the mains supply which is generally the fundamental
source to Power Electronic Converters. An LED lamp consumes very low
power but when millions are connected at a low power factor that
becomes a serious hazard to the Power System that supports these
lamps. Hence Power Electronic converters are equipped with power
factor improvement circuits to retain Power System stability. 69