Ecology: Greek oikos (house) + logos (study)

Interactions of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of the environment

 Ecology of communities

Community: assemblage of populations (of species) interacting with one another

and with the non-living components of their common or shared habitat
 Ecology of communities: why some species are found in a community

Individualistic model (HA Gleason): a chance assemblage of populations of

various species in the same habitat due to similar abiotic (non-living)
requirements of each population

Interactive model (RE Clements): an assemblage of closely linked species

bound into association by mandatory biotic interactions; that is, the entire
community functions as one whole integrated unit or super-organism.
 Ecology of communities: natural selection

Biological interactions in a community (intra- and inter-species interactions) and abiotic

(non-living) factors act as natural selection mechanisms to initiate traits or
characteristics among individuals of populations in a community.

That is, these interactions will translate into evolutionary adaptations.

PREDATION: predator-prey interaction

Herbivory

Parasitism
 PREDATION: predator-prey interaction

Predator adaptations Anti-predator

adaptations

cryptic
coloration

aposematic
coloration
Predator-prey interactions act as a
natural selection factor to result in
co-evolution of adaptive traits.
PREDATION: predator-prey interaction: mimicry
PREDATION: predator-prey interaction: unforeseen consequence(s) of
predation as a biological pest control
 COMPETITION: inter- and intra-species interaction
Like other biological interactions in a community, competition influences
the abundance and distribution of populations (i.e.,carrying capacity)

Increasing competition may result in:

a) lower population growth rates;
b) increased death rates and reduced birth rates; and
c) direct physical contact.

aggressive behavior

ritualistic behavior
 COMPETITION: : other outcomes
dominance hierarchy

emigration and dispersal

territoriality
Q. What is gained from these outcomes?
A. Competition level is reduced.
COMPETITION: : competitive exclusion among various species

Competitive exclusion principle:

two or more species competing
for common resources cannot
co-exist (i.e., “complete
competitors cannot co-exist”)

Natural selection favors

individuals with phenotypes
(i.e., traits, adaptations)
which are able to reduce
or eliminate competition.

Therefore, the evolution of

species is, in part, shaped
by competition.
 COMPETITION: : character displacement

Species competing long enough may result in character displacement.

That is. present-day characteristics of species are the result of past

species interactions!!

sympatric (co-existing) populations

allopatric (not co-existing)

populations
 COMPETITION: : resource partitioning

Resource partitioning among co-existing

Anolis lizards

Q. What is gained from these outcomes (i.e., competitive exclusion, character

displacement, resource partitioning)?
A. Competition level is reduced. Species which have traits to
effectively reduce competition will survive. “Survival of the fittest”
 SYMBIOSIS

commensalism
SYMBIOSIS: mutual symbiosis

“One cannot exist without the other”