7.

2 Sampling in Qualitative Research

LEA RN IN G OBJ ECTIV ES

1. Define nonprobability sampling, and describe instances in which a researcher might

choose a nonprobability sampling technique.
2. Describe the different types of nonprobability samples.

Qualitative researchers typically make sampling choices that enable them to deepen understanding

of whatever phenomenon it is that they are studying. In this section we’ll examine the strategies that

qualitative researchers typically employ when sampling as well as the various types of samples that

qualitative researchers are most likely to use in their work.

Nonprobability Sampling

Nonprobability sampling refers to sampling techniques for which a person’s (or event’s

or researcher’s focus’s) likelihood of being selected for membership in the sample is
unknown. Because we don’t know the likelihood of selection, we don’t know with
nonprobability samples whether a sample represents a larger population or not. But
that’s OK, because representing the population is not the goal with nonprobability
samples. That said, the fact that nonprobability samples do not represent a larger
population does not mean that they are drawn arbitrarily or without any specific
purpose in mind (once again, that would mean committing one of the errors of informal
inquiry discussed in Chapter 1 "Introduction"). In the following subsection, “Types of
Nonprobability Samples,” we’ll take a closer look at the process of selecting
research elements when drawing a nonprobability sample. But first, let’s consider why a
researcher might choose to use a nonprobability sample.

So when are nonprobability samples ideal? One instance might be when we’re designing
a research project. For example, if we’re conducting survey research, we may want to
administer our survey to a few people who seem to resemble the folks we’re interested in
studying in order to help work out kinks in the survey. We might also use a
nonprobability sample at the early stages of a research project, if we’re conducting a
pilot study or some exploratory research. This can be a quick way to gather some initial
data and help us get some idea of the lay of the land before conducting a more extensive
study. From these examples, we can see that nonprobability samples can be useful for
setting up, framing, or beginning research. But it isn’t just early stage research that
relies on and benefits from nonprobability sampling techniques.

Researchers also use nonprobability samples in full-blown research projects. These

projects are usually qualitative in nature, where the researcher’s goal is in-depth,
idiographic understanding rather than more general, nomothetic understanding.
Evaluation researchers whose aim is to describe some very specific small group might
use nonprobability sampling techniques, for example. Researchers interested in
contributing to our theoretical understanding of some phenomenon might also collect
data from nonprobability samples. Maren Klawiter (1999)Klawiter, M. (1999). Racing
for the cure, walking women, and toxic touring: Mapping cultures of action within the
Bay Area terrain of breast cancer. Social Problems, 46, 104–126. relied on a
nonprobability sample for her study of the role that culture plays in shaping social
change. Klawiter conducted participant observation in three very different breast cancer
organizations to understand “the bodily dimensions of cultural production and
collective action.” Her intensive study of these three organizations allowed Klawiter to
deeply understand each organization’s “culture of action” and, subsequently, to critique
and contribute to broader theories of social change and social movement organization.
Thus researchers interested in contributing to social theories, by either expanding on
them, modifying them, or poking holes in their propositions, may use nonprobability
sampling techniques to seek out cases that seem anomalous in order to understand how
theories can be improved.
In sum, there are a number and variety of instances in which the use of nonprobability
samples makes sense. We’ll examine several specific types of nonprobability samples in
the next subsection.

Types of Nonprobability Samples

There are several types of nonprobability samples that researchers use. These include
purposive samples, snowball samples, quota samples, and convenience samples. While
the latter two strategies may be used by quantitative researchers from time to time, they
are more typically employed in qualitative research, and because they are both
nonprobability methods, we include them in this section of the chapter.

To draw a purposive sample, a researcher begins with specific perspectives in mind that
he or she wishes to examine and then seeks out research participants who cover that full
range of perspectives. For example, if you are studying students’ satisfaction with their
living quarters on campus, you’ll want to be sure to include students who stay in each of
the different types or locations of on-campus housing in your study. If you only include
students from 1 of 10 dorms on campus, you may miss important details about the
experiences of students who live in the 9 dorms you didn’t include in your study. In my
own interviews of young people about their workplace sexual harassment experiences, I
and my coauthors used a purposive sampling strategy; we used participants’ prior
responses on a survey to ensure that we included both men and women in the interviews
and that we included participants who’d had a range of harassment experiences, from
relatively minor experiences to much more severe harassment.

While purposive sampling is often used when one’s goal is to include participants who
represent a broad range of perspectives, purposive sampling may also be used when a
researcher wishes to include only people who meet very narrow or specific criteria. For
example, in their study of Japanese women’s perceptions of intimate partner violence,
Miyoko Nagae and Barbara L. Dancy (2010)Nagae, M., & Dancy, B. L. (2010). Japanese
women’s perceptions of intimate partner violence (IPV). Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 25, 753–766. limited their study only to participants who had experienced
intimate partner violence themselves, were at least 18 years old, had been married and
living with their spouse at the time that the violence occurred, were heterosexual, and
were willing to be interviewed. In this case, the researchers’ goal was to find participants
who had had very specific experiences rather than finding those who had had quite
diverse experiences, as in the preceding example. In both cases, the researchers involved
shared the goal of understanding the topic at hand in as much depth as possible.

Qualitative researchers sometimes rely on snowball sampling techniques to identify

study participants. In this case, a researcher might know of one or two people she’d like
to include in her study but then relies on those initial participants to help identify
additional study participants. Thus the researcher’s sample builds and becomes larger
as the study continues, much as a snowball builds and becomes larger as it rolls through
the snow.

Snowball sampling is an especially useful strategy when a researcher wishes to study

some stigmatized group or behavior. For example, a researcher who wanted to study
how people with genital herpes cope with their medical condition would be unlikely to
find many participants by posting a call for interviewees in the newspaper or making an
announcement about the study at some large social gathering. Instead, the researcher
might know someone with the condition, interview that person, and then be referred by
the first interviewee to another potential subject. Having a previous participant vouch
for the trustworthiness of the researcher may help new potential participants feel more
comfortable about being included in the study.

Snowball sampling is sometimes referred to as chain referral sampling. One research

participant refers another, and that person refers another, and that person refers
another—thus a chain of potential participants is identified. In addition to using this
sampling strategy for potentially stigmatized populations, it is also a useful strategy to
use when the researcher’s group of interest is likely to be difficult to find, not only
because of some stigma associated with the group, but also because the group may be
relatively rare. This was the case for Steven M. Kogan and colleagues (Kogan, Wejnert,
Chen, Brody, & Slater, 2011)Kogan, S. M., Wejnert, C., Chen, Y., Brody, G. H., & Slater,
L. M. (2011). Respondent-driven sampling with hard-to-reach emerging adults: An
introduction and case study with rural African Americans. Journal of Adolescent
Research, 26, 30–60. who wished to study the sexual behaviors of non-college-bound
African American young adults who lived in high-poverty rural areas. The researchers
first relied on their own networks to identify study participants, but because members of
the study’s target population were not easy to find, access to the networks of initial study
participants was very important for identifying additional participants. Initial
participants were given coupons to pass on to others they knew who qualified for the
study. Participants were given an added incentive for referring eligible study
participants; they received not only $50.00 for participating in the study but also
$20.00 for each person they recruited who also participated in the study. Using this
strategy, Kogan and colleagues succeeded in recruiting 292 study participants.

Quota sampling is another nonprobability sampling strategy. This type of sampling is

actually employed by both qualitative and quantitative researchers, but because it is a
nonprobability method, we’ll discuss it in this section. When conducting quota
sampling, a researcher identifies categories that are important to the study and for
which there is likely to be some variation. Subgroups are created based on each category
and the researcher decides how many people (or documents or whatever element
happens to be the focus of the research) to include from each subgroup and collects data
from that number for each subgroup.

Let’s go back to the example we considered previously of student satisfaction with on-
campus housing. Perhaps there are two types of housing on your campus: apartments
that include full kitchens and dorm rooms where residents do not cook for themselves
but eat in a dorm cafeteria. As a researcher, you might wish to understand how
satisfaction varies across these two types of housing arrangements. Perhaps you have
the time and resources to interview 20 campus residents, so you decide to interview 10
from each housing type. It is possible as well that your review of literature on the topic
suggests that campus housing experiences vary by gender. If that is that case, perhaps
you’ll decide on four important subgroups: men who live in apartments, women who
live in apartments, men who live in dorm rooms, and women who live in dorm rooms.
Your quota sample would include five people from each subgroup.

In 1936, up-and-coming pollster George Gallup made history when he successfully

predicted the outcome of the presidential election using quota sampling methods. The
leading polling entity at the time, The Literary Digest, predicted that Alfred Landon
would beat Franklin Roosevelt in the presidential election by a landslide. When Gallup’s
prediction that Roosevelt would win, turned out to be correct, “the Gallup Poll was
suddenly on the map” (Van Allen, 2011).Van Allen, S. (2011). Gallup corporate history.
Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/corporate/1357/Corporate-
History.aspx#2 Gallup successfully predicted subsequent elections based on quota
samples, but in 1948, Gallup incorrectly predicted that Dewey would beat Truman in the
US presidential election.For more information about the 1948 election and other
historically significant dates related to measurement, see the PBS timeline of “The first
measured century” at http://www.pbs.org/fmc/timeline/e1948election.htm. Among
other problems, the fact that Gallup’s quota categories did not represent those who
actually voted (Neuman, 2007)Neuman, W. L. (2007). Basics of social research:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. underscores
the point that one should avoid attempting to make statistical generalizations from data
collected using quota sampling methods.If you are interested in the history of polling, I
recommend a recent book: Fried, A. (2011). Pathways to polling: Crisis, cooperation,
and the making of public opinion professions. New York, NY: Routledge. While quota
sampling offers the strength of helping the researcher account for potentially relevant
variation across study elements, it would be a mistake to think of this strategy as
yielding statistically representative findings.

Finally, convenience sampling is another nonprobability sampling strategy that is

employed by both qualitative and quantitative researchers. To draw a convenience
sample, a researcher simply collects data from those people or other relevant elements
to which he or she has most convenient access. This method, also sometimes referred to
as haphazard sampling, is most useful in exploratory research. It is also often used by
journalists who need quick and easy access to people from their population of interest. If
you’ve ever seen brief interviews of people on the street on the news, you’ve probably
seen a haphazard sample being interviewed. While convenience samples offer one major
benefit—convenience—we should be cautious about generalizing from research that
relies on convenience samples.

Table 7.1 Types of Nonprobability Samples

Sample
Description
type
Purposive Researcher seeks out elements that meet specific criteria.
Snowball Researcher relies on participant referrals to recruit new participants.
Quota Researcher selects cases from within several different subgroups.
Convenience Researcher gathers data from whatever cases happen to be convenient.

KEY TA KEA WA YS

Sampling for Qualitative Research

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Presentation transcript:
1  Sampling for Qualitative Research
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şehnaz Şahinkarakaş

2  SamplingSample: any part of a population of individuals on whom information is obtained:

students, teachers, young learners, etc.Sampling: the process of selecting these individuals

3  Sample SizeWhat is an appropriate sample size for qualitative research?It depends: the size that
adequately answers the research questionFor single questions or detailed studies: single sampleFor
complex questions: larger samples

4  Sample Strategies to be used in qualitative research

Three broad approaches:Theoretical samplingConvenience samplingPurposive sampling

5  Theoretical SamplingThe process of data collection for generating theoryThe researcher jointly
collects, codes, and analyzes data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, in
order to develop his/her theory as it emerges.i.e., it is an ongoing process rather than a distinct and
single stage

7  Convenience Sampling Selecting the most accessible subjects

The least costy to the researcherMay result in poor quality data and lacks intellectual credibilityTry to
avoid; the least desirable method. If you have to, give explicit reasons why you are using this
sampling method

8  Purposive Sampling The most common in qualitative studies

Selection of units (people, organizations, documents, departments, etc) is done with direct reference
to the research questions.Research questions provide guidelines as to what categories of people (or
whatever the unit of analysis is) need to be the focus of attention and therefore sampled.Researcher
selects the most productive sample to answer the research questionSampling of context and
sampling of participants/cases are to be considered

9  Different Strategies in Purposive Sampling

Extreme or deviant case sampling (outliers): Sampling cases that are unusual or that are unusually
at the far end(s) of a particular dimension of interest.Generally used to develop a richer, more in-
depth understanding of a phenomenon and to lend credibility to one's research account by showing
extreme casesTypical case sampling: Sampling a case because it exemplifies a dimension of
interest.Generally used to develop a profile about what is normal or average for a particular
phenomenon.

10  

Sample
Description
type
Purposive Researcher seeks out elements that meet specific criteria.
 Sample
Description
type
Snowball Researcher relies on participant referrals to recruit new participants.
Quota Researcher selects cases from within several different subgroups.
Convenience Researcher gathers data from whatever cases happen to be convenient.

: Sampling a crucial case that permits a logical inference about the phenomenon of interest. i.e., It is
where you collect samples that are most likely to give you the information you’re looking for--They
are particularly important cases or ones that highlight vital information.For example, a case might be
chosen precisely because it is anticipated that it might allow a theory to be tested.Maximum variation
sample: to ensure as wide a variation as possible in terms of the dimension ofinterest.Used whenyou
want to understand how different groups of people view a specific topic.You know little about the
population (and so find it difficult or impossible to get a random sample).Random sampling is
otherwise not practical (because of logistics or a small population).You want your sample to be as
representative as possible; by sampling the extremes, together they may represent an “average”
respondent.

11  Criterion sampling: Selecting cases that meet some predetermined criterion of

importance
Can be usedfor identifying and understanding cases that are information rich.to provide an important
qualitative component to quantitative data.for identifying cases from a standardized questionnaire
that might be useful for follow-up.Snowball sampling: Selecting cases by asking other participants to
call other cases. It is used where potential participants are hard to find. It’s called snowball sampling
because (in theory) once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the way and
becomes larger and larger.

12  Stratified purposive (quota) sampling: Sampling of usually typical cases or individuals within
subgroups of interest.Generally used in mixed methodsKey informant sampling: Selecting people
who know about a population of interest rather than from members of that population
themselves.May reduce the participant’s reluctance to report unusual behaviours

13  Opportunistic sampling: gathering additional information when opportunities arise.

Confirming/Disconfirming sampling: sampling to verify the accuracy of preliminary findings.To get
additional examples that lend further support, richness and depth to patterns emerging from data
analysis (confirming cases)To get examples that do not fit emergent patterns and allow the research
team to evaluate rival explanations (discSampling for Qualitative Research

Published byLouisa GoodmanModified over 3 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "Sampling for Qualitative Research"— Presentation transcript:

1 Sampling for Qualitative Research
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şehnaz Şahinkarakaş

2 SamplingSample: any part of a population of individuals on whom information is obtained:

students, teachers, young learners, etc.Sampling: the process of selecting these individuals

3 Sample SizeWhat is an appropriate sample size for qualitative research?It depends: the size that
adequately answers the research questionFor single questions or detailed studies: single sampleFor
complex questions: larger samples

4 Sample Strategies to be used in qualitative research

Three broad approaches:Theoretical samplingConvenience samplingPurposive sampling

5 Theoretical SamplingThe process of data collection for generating theoryThe researcher jointly
collects, codes, and analyzes data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, in
order to develop his/her theory as it emerges.i.e., it is an ongoing process rather than a distinct and
single stage

7 Convenience Sampling Selecting the most accessible subjects

The least costy to the researcherMay result in poor quality data and lacks intellectual credibilityTry to
avoid; the least desirable method. If you have to, give explicit reasons why you are using this
sampling method

8 Purposive Sampling The most common in qualitative studies

Selection of units (people, organizations, documents, departments, etc) is done with direct reference
to the research questions.Research questions provide guidelines as to what categories of people (or
whatever the unit of analysis is) need to be the focus of attention and therefore sampled.Researcher
selects the most productive sample to answer the research questionSampling of context and
sampling of participants/cases are to be considered

9 Different Strategies in Purposive Sampling

Extreme or deviant case sampling (outliers): Sampling cases that are unusual or that are unusually
at the far end(s) of a particular dimension of interest.Generally used to develop a richer, more in-
depth understanding of a phenomenon and to lend credibility to one's research account by showing
extreme casesTypical case sampling: Sampling a case because it exemplifies a dimension of
interest.Generally used to develop a profile about what is normal or average for a particular
phenomenon.

10 Critical case sampling: Sampling a crucial case that permits a logical inference about the
phenomenon of interest. i.e., It is where you collect samples that are most likely to give you the
information you’re looking for--They are particularly important cases or ones that highlight vital
information.For example, a case might be chosen precisely because it is anticipated that it might
allow a theory to be tested.Maximum variation sample: to ensure as wide a variation as possible in
terms of the dimension ofinterest.Used whenyou want to understand how different groups of people
view a specific topic.You know little about the population (and so find it difficult or impossible to get a
random sample).Random sampling is otherwise not practical (because of logistics or a small
population).You want your sample to be as representative as possible; by sampling the extremes,
together they may represent an “average” respondent.

11 Criterion sampling: Selecting cases that meet some predetermined criterion of importance
Can be usedfor identifying and understanding cases that are information rich.to provide an important
qualitative component to quantitative data.for identifying cases from a standardized questionnaire
that might be useful for follow-up.Snowball sampling: Selecting cases by asking other participants to
call other cases. It is used where potential participants are hard to find. It’s called snowball sampling
because (in theory) once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the way and
becomes larger and larger.

12 Stratified purposive (quota) sampling: Sampling of usually typical cases or individuals within
subgroups of interest.Generally used in mixed methodsKey informant sampling: Selecting people
who know about a population of interest rather than from members of that population
themselves.May reduce the participant’s reluctance to report unusual behaviours

13 Opportunistic sampling: gathering additional information when opportunities arise.

Confirming/Disconfirming sampling: sampling to verify the accuracy of preliminary findings.To get
additional examples that lend further support, richness and depth to patterns emerging from data
analysis (confirming cases)To get examples that do not fit emergent patterns and allow the research
team to evaluate rival explanations (disconfirming cases). This can help the research team
understand and define the limitations of research findings

onfirming cases). This can help the research team understand and define the limitations of research
findings

1. 1. Sampling in qualitative research

2. 2. Plan of presentation  Sampling introduction  Pre requisite of sampling  Types of
sampling  Qualitative research introduction  Sampling strategies  Advantages and
disadvantages  Summary  References
3. 3. Sampling  Sample: A subset of the population being studied from which data is actually
collected.  Sampling frame: This is the actual list of sampling units from which the sample,
or some stage of the sample, is selected. It is simply a list of the study population.
4. 4. Contd.  Sample design: This refers to a set of rules or procedures that specify how a
sample is to be selected.  Sample size: The number of elements in the obtained sample. 
Sampling : The processes by which the subset of the population from which you will collect
data are chosen
5. 5. Pre requisites of sampling  What are the research objectives?  What is the target
population?  Who should be inclusion criteria  Who should be exclusion criteria  What is
the budget?  What is the reporting time period?  How many qualified researchers are
available to work on the project?  What sampling technique(s) should be employed?
6. 6. Contd.  How are the data to be analysed?  What data collection methods should be
employed?  How long will the interview be?  Sample size?  Sampling frame?  How
should potential respondents/participants be recruited?
7. 7. Types of sampling  Probabilistic : A sampling method where the probability of selection of
population elements is known.  Non-probabilistic :The process of selecting a sample from a
population without using (statistical) probability theory.  Mixed
8. 8. What a qualitative researcher worries about
9. 9. Qualitative research  When the paramount objective is “understanding  When variables
cannot be quantified  When variables are best understood in their natural settings  When
studying intimate details of roles, processes, and groups
10. 10. Sampling strategies  Purposive or Judgemental Sampling A. Sampling to Achieve
Representativeness or Comparability B. Sampling Special or Unique Cases C. Sequential
Sampling D. Sampling Using Multiple Purposive Techniques  Convenience Sampling A.
Captive Sample B. Volunteer Sample
11. 11. Others  Stakeholder  Paradigmatic  Purposeful Random Sampling  Stratified
Purposeful Sampling  Expert sampling  Quota sampling
12. 12. I- Sampling to achieve representativeness or comparability  These techniques are used
when the researcher wants to : (a) select a purposive sample that represents a broader
 group of cases as closely as possible or (b) set up comparisons among different types of
cases
13. 13. a)Typical case sampling or modal instance  Focuses on what is typical, normal, and/or
average. This strategy may be adopted when one needs to present a qualitative profile of
one or more typical cases.  When using this strategy you must have a broad consensus
about what is “average.”  Ex:typical voter
14. 14. b)Extreme or deviant case sampling  Looks at highly unusual manifestations of the
phenomenon of interest, such as outstanding success/notable failures, top of the
class/dropouts, exotic events, crises.  This strategy tries to select particular cases that
would glean the most information, given the research question
15. 15. c)Intensity sampling  Chooses information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon
intensely, but not extremely, such as good students/poor students, above average/below
average.  This type of sampling requires that you have prior information on the variation of
the phenomena.  Ex:jeolousy reaction
16. 16. d)Maximum variation sampling  Selects a wide range of variation on dimensions of
interest. The purpose is to discover/uncover central themes, core elements, and/or shared
dimensions that cut across a diverse sample while at the same time offering the opportunity
to document unique or diverse variations.  Aka phenomenal variation sampling.
17. 17. e)Homogenous sampling  Brings together people of similar backgrounds and
experiences. It reduces variation, simplifies analysis, and facilitates group interviewing. 
This strategy is used most often when conducting focus groups.
18. 18. f)Reputational case sampling  Variant of snowball sampling  Ease of identifying the
first case.  Example :traffic signal beggars.
19. 19. II- Sampling special or unique cases  Employed when the individual case itself, or a
specific group of cases, is a major focus of the investigation (rather than an issue).
20. 20. a)Revelatory case sampling  It involves identifying and gaining entry to a single case
representing a phenomenon that had previously been ‘inaccessible to scientific
investigation’’.  Such cases are rare and difficult to study, yet yield very valuable information
about heretofore unstudied phenomena.
21. 21. b)Critical case sampling  Looks at cases that will produce critical information. In order to
use this method, you must know what constitutes a critical case.  This method permits
logical generalization and maximum application of information to other cases because if it's
true of this one case, it's likely to be true of all other case.  Ex: federal rules and lawyers
22. 22. c)Sampling politically important cases  Seeks cases that will increase the usefulness
and relevance of information gained based on the politics of the moment.  This strategy
attracts attention to the study (or avoids attracting undesired attention by purposefully
eliminating from the sample politically sensitive cases). This strategy is a variation on critical
case sampling.
23. 23. d)Criterion sampling  Selects all cases that meet some criterion.  This strategy is
typically applied when considering quality assurance issues. In essence, you choose cases
that are information-rich and that might reveal a major system weakness that could be
improved.  Ex:hospital stay.
24. 24. III- Sequential sampling  Uses the gradual selection principle of sampling when (a) the
goal of the research project is the generation of theory (or broadly defined themes) or (b) the
sample evolves of its own accord as data are being collected.
25. 25. a)Theoretical or operational construct sampling  Identifies manifestations of a
theoretical construct of interest so as to elaborate and examine the construct.  This strategy
is used in grounded theory studies.  You would sample people/incidents, etc., based on
whether or not they manifest/represent an important theoretical or operational construct.
26. 26. b)Confirming or disconfirming cases  Seeks cases that are both “expected” and the
“exception” to what is expected. In this way, this strategy deepens initial analysis, seeks
 exceptions, and tests variation.  In this strategy you find both confirming cases (those that
add depth, richness, credibility) as well as disconfirming cases (example that do not fit and
are the source of rival interpretations).  This strategy is typically adopted after initial
fieldwork has established what a confirming case would be. Ex: academics &environment.
27. 27. c)Opportunistic or emergent sampling  Follows new leads during fieldwork, takes
advantage of the unexpected, and is flexible. This strategy takes advantage of whatever
unfolds as it is unfolding, and may be used after fieldwork has begun and as a researcher
becomes open to sampling a group or person they may not have initially planned to
interview.
28. 28. d)Snowball sampling  This is an approach used for locating information-rich cases. 
Used mostly to reach out to “hard to find population”  Nominated ,chain- referral, link
tracing, network sampling
29. 29. Advantages & Disadvantages  Simple,cost-efficient,enables access to hard to find
population.  Works well when members know each other.  Cons:  Fate of study depend
on first recruitment  Cant control number of members recruited  Misses out on the isolated
ones  Representativeness??  Interviewer bias.
30. 30. Solutions  Key informant sampling:  Involves speaking to knowledgeable person.eg.
Rehab centre councellor .  Target sampling: done in 2 stages a) Map the target population
b) Recruit pre-specified numbers of participants from each site identified by ethnomapping.
31. 31. IV- Combination or Mixed Purposeful Sampling  Combines two or more strategies listed
above.  This type of sampling meets multiple interests and needs.
32. 32. Convenient, accidental or haphazard Sampling  A. Captive Sample  B. Volunteer
Sample
33. 33. Convenient sampling  Selects cases based on ease of accessibility.  Argument:
Equivalent to simple random sampling.  Eg :people in street interview.
34. 34. Advantages of convenient sampling  This strategy saves time, money, and
effort(quick,low cost hassle free,no rules)  In pilot studies,gives data and trends of pop.
without complication of using a randomized sample.
35. 35. Disadvantages of convenient sampling  Not representative of the population which
leads to low external validity.  Systematic bias : This refers to a constant difference
between the results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population.
This stems from over or under representation which leads to skewed results.  Because the
probability of inclusion in the sample is unknown for each respondent, none of the reliability
or sampling precision statistics can be calculated.  This strategy may yield information-poor
cases
36. 36. Volunteer sampling  There is no fixed line of difference  There is no sampling frame 
People are self motivated and volunteer
37. 37. Disadvantages of volunteer sampling  Result of study totally depends on people who
volunteered  Cant compare as it cant be determined that those who did not volunteer , to
what extent differed from those who volunteered.
38. 38. Purposeful Random Sampling  This strategy adds credibility to a sample when the
potential purposeful sample is larger than one can handle.  It uses small sample sizes, thus
the goal is credibility, not representativeness or the ability to generalize.  Ex:select 10 out of
300 drug addicts in rehab.
39. 39. Stratified Purposeful Sampling  Focuses on characteristics of particular subgroups of
interest; facilitates comparisons.  This strategy is similar to stratified random sampling
(samples are taken within samples), except the sample size is typically much smaller.  In
stratified sampling you “stratify” a sample based on a characteristic.  The main goal of this
strategy is to capture major variations (although common themes may emerge).
40. 40. Paradigmatic Case Sampling  A case is “paradigmatic” when it is considered the
exemplar for a certain class.  For example, if one wanted to study the management of
professional sports teams, the paradigmatic case in hockey of a successful franchise would
be the Montreal Canadians; for baseball it would be the New York Yankees.
41. 41. Stakeholder Sampling  Particularly useful in the context of evaluation research and
policy analysis, this strategy involves identifying who the major stakeholders are who are
involved in designing, giving, receiving, or administering the programme or service being
evaluated, and who might otherwise be affected by it.
42. 42. Expert sampling  Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with
known or demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a
sample under the auspices of a "panel of experts." There are actually two reasons you might
do expert sampling.  First, to get the the views of persons who have specific expertise. In
this case, expert sampling is essentially just a specific subcase of purposive sampling. 
Second: Evidence of validity.
43. 43. Contd. Advantage:  The advantage of doing this is that you aren't out on your own
trying to defend your decisions -- you have some acknowledged experts to back you
Disadvantage:  The disadvantage is that even the experts can be, and often are, wrong
44. 44. Quota sampling  Non-probability version of stratified sampling  Characteristics chosen
are mutually exclusive and isolated prior to sampling  A quota is fixed,no randomization,no
list used.  May or may not be representative of population.
45. 45. Quota types  Proportional &non-proportional  Interlocked and non interlocked.
46. 46. Advantages and disadvantages  Pros :  Quick and cheap  Allows study of traits and
characteristics of subgroups and also the relation between them  Cons :  Introduction of
unknown bias  Difficult to choose the variables as some may be highly redundant.
47. 47. Famous mistake of quota sampling
48. 48. How do purposive and quota sampling differ?  Purposive and quota sampling are
similar in that they both seek to identify participants based on selected criteria.  Quota
sampling is more specific with respect to sizes and proportions of subsamples, with
subgroups chosen to reflect corresponding proportions in the population.  Studies employ
purposive rather than quota sampling when the number of participants is more of a target
than a steadfast requirement – that is, an approximate rather than a strict quota.
49. 49. Biases  Sampling bias  Systematic bias  Interviewers bias  Observers bias. 
Ethical consideration .
50. 50. Summary  Sampling: a)Probabilistic b)Non-probabilistic  Non-probabilistic sampling
used in qualitative research .  Broadly categorized into: Purposive convenient
51. 51. References  From Lisa M. Given (Ed.) (2008). The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative
Research Methods. Sage: Thousand Oaks,CA, Vol.2, pp.697‐698.  K. Sabin, HIV
Department, World Health Organisation, 20 avenueAppia, Geneva 27, Switzerland. 
SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS & RESEARCH, Vol. 10 No. 2. November 1981 141-163 
Social Problems, Vol .44,No.2 May 1997  http://hdl.handle.net/10125/227  Ethnobotany
Research & Applications 5:147-158 (2007)  Discussion Draft: Considerations and
Recommendations Regarding the Use of Judgmental Sampling in Soil Investigations  Krista
J. Gile and Mark S. Handcock. Respondent-driven sampling: An assessment of current
methodology. Sociological Methodology, 40:285–327,2010. URL
http://arxiv.org/abs/0904.1855v1.  Journal of Mixed Methods Research 2007; 1; 77Charles
Teddlie and Fen Yu  Respondent driven sampling :A new approch to study hidden
population,Heckathon.
52. 52. s