Universe

Q1. Briefly describe the most popular and accepted theory about the origin of the Universe. 2021
Q2. Describe different methods to estimate the age of the Universe 2018

Table of Contents
 The Big Bang Theory
o Big Crunch
 Doppler-shift or Redshift and Blueshift
 Cosmic microwave background (CMD)
 Accelerating expansion of the universe
 Dark energy
 Dark matter
 Anti-Matter
 Gravitational waves
o Einstein’s theory of general relativity
 Gravitational lensing
 Importance of gravitational waves

Cosmos: another word for the universe.

Cosmic: relating to the universe or cosmos.

Cosmic rays: highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particle travelling through

space at speed approaching that of light. Direct exposure to cosmic rays can
cause gene mutations resulting in cancer.

Cosmology: the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe as a

whole ― NASA

Cosmological: relating to the origin and development of the universe.

Astronomy: the scientific study of celestial objects (stars, planets, comets, etc.)
and phenomena that originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere (such as the solar
wind, gravitational waves, etc.) ― Sciencedaily.com

 The Universe is all existing matter & space. It is incomprehensively large

(beyond mental grasp).
 The Universe consists of both physical (subatomic particles like electrons,
protons to galactic super-clusters) and non-physical (light, gravitation, space
etc.) components.
 Most cosmologists believe that the universe was born about 13.8 billion
years ago in an event called as Big Bang (a gigantic explosion that caused
matter to expand in all directions to form galaxies, stars, etc.)
 The universe, at present, is said to possess about 100 billion galaxies,
each comprising an average of 100 billion stars.
 In comparison, Milky Way Galaxy is believed to possess 100 billion to 400
billion stars.

1,000,000 = 1 Million = 10 Lakhs; 1,000,000,000 = 1 Billion = 100 Crores;

1000,000,000,000 = 1 Trillion

The Big Bang Theory

Time T in ◦c Event
The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding
10-43Sec 1032 from the size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny
fraction of a second.
Post-inflation, the universe is a seething, hot soup
10-32Sec 1027
of electrons, quarks and other particles.
A rapidly cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump
10-6 Sec 1013
into protons and neutrons.
Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and
3 min 108
protons prevent light from shining: the universe is a
superhot fog.
3,00,000 10,00 Electrons combine with protons and neutrons to form atoms,
years 0 mostly hydrogen and helium. Light can finally shine.
Gravity makes hydrogen and helium gas coalesce to form
1 billion
-200 the giant clouds that will become galaxies: smaller clumps of
years
gas collapse to form the first stars.
As galaxies cluster together under gravity, the first stars die
15 billion
-270 and spew heavy elements into space: those will eventually
years
turn into new stars and planets.

 The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the birth of
the universe.
 It states that at some moment all of space was contained in a single
point of very high-density and high-temperature state from which the
universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.
 Modern measurements place this moment at approximately 13.8 billion
years ago.
 After the initial expansion (inflation), the universe cooled sufficiently to
allow the formation of subatomic particles and later simple atoms.
 The majority of atoms produced by the Big Bang
were hydrogen and helium along with trace amounts
of lithium and beryllium.
 Giant clouds of these primordial elements (hydrogen and helium) later
coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies.
 According to this theory, the universe, ever since its birth, is expanding in
all directions.
 By en:User: Fredrik [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

 In 1964, the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered,

which was crucial evidence in favour of the Big Bang model.
 Other evidence such as cosmological redshift, gravitational waves, etc.
have added weight to the big bang theory.

Big Crunch

 At some point of times, the universe would reach a maximum size and then
begin to collapse.
 It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to
that in which it started — a Big Crunch, the death of the universe.
Doppler-shift or Redshift and Blueshift

 Redshift and Blueshift describe how light changes as objects in space (such
as stars or galaxies) move closer or farther away from us. The concept is key
to charting the universe’s expansion.

 Visible light is a spectrum of colours, which is clear to anyone who has

looked at a rainbow.
 When an object moves away from us (Doppler-shifted to lower
frequencies), the light is shifted to the red end of the spectrum, as its
wavelengths get longer.
 If an object moves closer (Doppler-shifted to higher frequencies), the
light moves to the blue end of the spectrum, as its wavelength gets
shorter.
 American astronomer Edwin Hubble was the first to describe the redshift
phenomenon (galactic redshift) and tie it to an expanding
universe (galaxies are drifting apart).
 Hubble’s law: the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving
away from Earth ― also known as accelerating the expansion of the
universe.

Cosmic microwave background (CMD)

 With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies is
completely dark.
 However, a sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background glow. This
glow is strongest in the microwave region of the radio spectrum, and hence
it is called a cosmic microwave background.

Electromagnetic Spectrum (Inductiveload, via Wikimedia Commons)

 CMB has gone from high energy photons (gamma photons or X-ray
photons) to low microwave photons today due to the redshift from the
expanding Universe.
 CMD, also known as relic radiation, is almost the same in all directions
and it is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other objects. It is
the thermal radiation left over from the “Big Bang”.
 The CMB is fundamental to observational cosmology because it is
the oldest light in the Universe and can be found in all directions.
 As CMB is the radiation left over from an early stage in the development of
the Universe, its discovery is considered a landmark test for the Big Bang
model of the Universe.

Accelerating expansion of the universe

 It is the observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the
velocity at which a galaxy is moving away from the observer is
continuously increasing with time (Hubble’s law).
 It implies that the universe will get increasingly colder as matter spreads
across in space.
 The accelerated expansion of the universe is thought to have begun since
the universe entered its dark-energy-dominated era roughly 5 billion years
ago.
 The accelerated expansion was discovered in 1998 using distant type Ia
supernovae to measure the acceleration.

A type Ia supernova is a type of supernova that occurs in  binary systems  (two
stars orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a  white dwarf. The other
star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.

 All Type Ia supernovae are thought to have nearly the same maximum
brightness when they explode.
 Such consistency allows them to be used as beacons to measure the rate
of expansion of the universe. The weaker the light, the farther away the star
is (cosmological redshift).

Dark energy
 Dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesised to
permeate (spread throughout) all of space, tending to accelerate the
expansion of the universe.

Dark matter

 The velocity of rotation for spiral galaxies depends on the amount of

mass contained in them.
 But the outer arms of the Milky Way are rotating much too fast to be
consistent with the amount of matter that we know exists in them.
 Such fast rotation is possible only when there is more mass, and that
extra mass is believed to come from the dark matter.
 Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that is thought to account
for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe.
 Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes 95.1% of the total content
of the universe (the rest in the normal matter). In short, we are unsure
about what’s there in 95% of the universe!
 The majority of dark matter is thought to be composed of some as-yet-
undiscovered subatomic particles.
 The name dark matter refers to the fact that it does not appear to
interact with observable electromagnetic radiation, such as light.
 It is thus invisible (or ‘dark’) to the entire electromagnetic spectrum,
making it extremely difficult to detect.
 Dark matter interacts with the rest of the universe only through
its gravity (that’s how we know it exists).

Anti-Matter

 It is hypothesized that every elementary particle in the Universe has a

partner particle, known as an ‘antiparticle’.
 The particle and its antiparticle share many similar characteristics, but
many other properties are the exact opposite.
 The electron, for example, has as its antiparticle the antielectron. They
 both have the same masses, but they have exactly opposite electrical
charges.
 Most of the human understanding of the antimatter comes from high
energy accelerator experiments.
 When a matter particle meets its antimatter particle, they destroy each
other completely (i.e. annihilation), releasing the energy equivalent of
their rest masses (following Einstein’s E = mc2).
 For instance, when an electron meets an antielectron, the two annihilate
and produce a burst of light which produces a corresponding energy level
equivalent to the masses of the two particles.

Gravitational waves

 Gravitational waves are ‘ripples’ in the fabric of space-time caused by

some of the most violent and energetic processes in the Universe.
(Spacetime: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sryrZwYguRQ)
 These ripples travel at the speed of light through the Universe, carrying
with them information about their origins.
 Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in
his general theory of relativity.
 He observed that massive accelerating objects (such as neutron stars or
black holes orbiting each other) would disrupt space-time in such a way
that ‘waves’ of distorted space would radiate from the source (like the
movement of waves away from a stone thrown into a pond).
 In 2015, LIGO (The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory,
USA) physically sensed the distortions in spacetime caused by passing
gravitational waves generated by two colliding black holes nearly 1.3 billion
light-years away!
 Gravitational waves (NASA)

 While the processes that generate gravitational waves can be extremely

violent and destructive, by the time the waves reach Earth, they are billions of
times smaller.

Einstein’s theory of general relativity

 In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the

same for all non-accelerating observers and that the speed of light in a
vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers.
 As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single
continuum known as space-time.
 Events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at
different times for another. This was the theory of special relativity.
 In 1915, Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In it, he
determined that massive objects distort space-time, which is felt
as gravity.
 Gravitational lensing and gravitational waves are strong evidence for
Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

Gravitational lensing

 Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing

it to act as a lens for the things that lie behind it.
Source: space.com

Importance of gravitational waves

 The gravitational waves can work as sirens to measure the expansion rate
of the universe and to understand the origin and the future of the
universe.
 Hubble’s Law: the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving
away from Earth ― accelerating expansion of the universe).
 Hubble constant: a unit of measurement that describes the rate at which
the universe is expanding.
 Two parameters that are essential to estimating the Hubble constant are
the distance of the stars from Earth and how fast they are moving away from
us (their velocity).
 But to date, the most precise efforts have landed on very different values of
the Hubble constant.
 Scientists have proposed a more accurate and independent way
to measure the Hubble constant, using gravitational waves.
 A flash of light would give an estimate of the system’s velocity (system:
neutron stars or black holes orbiting each other), or how fast it is moving
away from the Earth.
 The emitted gravitational waves, if detected on Earth, should provide a
precise measurement of the system’s distance.
 By knowing the system’s velocity and distance, a precise calculation of
Hubble constant is possible.

Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the
continued expansion of universe?

1. Detection of microwaves in space

2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
3. Movement of asteroids in space
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space