Tyndale-Biscoe and Mallinson Society

Senior Department
Tutorial Unit-2 (Session 2020-21)

CLASS: 10 SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

Topic: Respiration
Respiration: Respiration can be broadly defined as "the breakdown of organic compounds into simpler
compounds accompanied by the release of energy in the form of ATP". Since most often the substrate is
glucose, the general equation for respiration can be written as follows:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2+6H2O +38ATP

Or, C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 +6H2O + 2830 kJ

(glucose) . (energy)
Types of respiration:
i. Aerobic respiration: The respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen is called as aerobic
respiration. It brings about the complete oxidation of respiratory substrates to form H2O and CO2 as
the end products with release of energy. It takes place partly in cytoplasm and partly in mitochondria.
i.e. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
ii. Anaerobic respiration: The respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen is called as
anaerobic respiration. It results in the partial (incomplete) oxidation of the respiratory substrates and
produce ethyl alcohol and CO2 or lactic acid with the release of small amount of energy. It usually
occurs in bacteria, yeasts, muscle cells of the body etc. The equation of anaerobic respiration in yeast
is given as :
i.e. C6H12O6 2C2H5 OH + 2CO2 + very small amount of energy
Respiratory system in human beings: In human beings air is taken by the body through nostrils. The air
passing through the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs. Then the air passes through wind pipe (trachea)) into
lungs. The cartilage rings of the throat ensure that air passage will not collapse. Within the lungs, the
passage divides into smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon like structures which are called
alveoli.
The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place. During inhalation, the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles attached to the ribs contract due to which the chest cavity expands and
the volume inside the chest cavity increases this leads to the decrease in air pressure inside the lungs and
causes the air to rush into the lungs. The oxygen reaches the alveoli and defuses into the blood capillaries
surrounding the alveoli. The haemoglobin of the red blood cells carries this oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin to
all the parts of the body where it gets defused into each and every cell of the body. This oxygen oxidises
the glucose present in the cells and releases CO2 and H2O as by-products and energy is released. This
carbon dioxide defuses out of the cells into the blood and is carried to the lungs where it defuses into the
alveoli. During exhalation The diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax and the chest cavity comes back to
its original place. This causes exhalation of CO2 from the lungs.

Significance of Respiration: Respiration is an important process in nature. It is a process by which the

solar energy trapped by the plants in the food can be utilised. The organic compounds are broken down to
release energy. This energy is in the form of ATP molecules and is made available for all the vital activities
of the organism. ATP can also be stored.
Photosynthesis utilises carbon dioxide and releases oxygen whereas respiration makes use of this oxygen
and releases carbon dioxide, which is then used by plants. Respiration and photosynthesis are
complementary to each other and together maintain the delicate oxygen-carbon dioxide balance in nature.
Some of the energy is released in the form of heat. This heat energy contributes significantly in the warm-
blooded animals towards the body.
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Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1. It occurs in presence of O2. 1. It takes place in absence or limited
2. In this process complete oxidation of supply of O2.
glucose takes place. 2. It causes incomplete oxidation of food
3. It releases maximum amount of energy. or glucose.
4. Glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle occurs in it. 3. It releases a small amount of energy.
5. It starts in cytoplasm and completes in 4. It has no Kreb’s cycle but Glycolysis
mitochondria. only.
5. It is completed in cytoplasm only.
Transportation :- The movement of molecules or substances from the region of their production or
availability to the region of their use, storage or elimination.
Transport of materials: The food synthesized or absorbed by living organisms needs to be carried to other
parts of the plants or animal body. Similarly, the water, the wastes etc. are also to carried to their site of
elimination.

Transport of Water and Mineral

There is a continuous system of dead conducting channels (vessels and tracheids) from near the root tips to
leaves and shoot tips. It transports water and minerals. The two are obtained from soil by the roots. The
various steps involved in transport of water and minerals are as follows: -
1. Mineral Absorption: It occurs in the growing parts of the root. Both the surface of epidermal cells
well as root hairs take part in mineral absorption. Mineral absorption is an active process which
involves expenditure of energy. Active absorption creates a higher concentration of minerals in the
root as compared to soil solution.
2. Absorption of Water. Root hair zone is the region of water absorption. The inside of the root has
higher osmotic concentration than the soil solution. The root hairs pick up water which is
transferred inwardly due to higher osmotic concentration. It reaches the cells surrounding the xylem
channel. Due to higher osmotic concentration in the root hairs, the force called root pressure causes
the water to rise up in the xylem vessel.
3. Ascent of Sap. It is upward movement of absorbed water or sap from root to the top of the plant.
The mechanism of ascent of sap was given by Dixon and Joly (1894). It is called transpiration pull
theory of ascent of sap. According to this theory, transpiration is the force responsible for
transportation of water from roots to the aerial parts of the plant.
Translocation or Transport of Food and Other Substances
Food materials are translocated from the region of their manufacture or storage to the region of their
utilisation The food manufactured by leaves passes into the storage region and other non-photosynthetic
parts in the downward direction as well as towards growing points and developing fruits in the upward
direction. The translocating nutrients consists of soluble carbohydrates (mostly sucrose), amino acids,
organic acids, hormones and other organic solutes. Translocation occurs thorough phloem. The
channels of transport are sieve tubes (sieve cells in non-flowering plants). Sieve tubes are specialised
for this purpose. They are devoid of nuclei and internal membranes. The cytoplasm of one tube cell is
continuous with that of adjacent sieve tube cells through sieve plates. The translocation activity of sieve
tubes is controlled by companion cells which lie adjacent to sieve tube cells.

Excretion: The process of elimination of metabolic wasted, toxic substances and excess water and salts
from the body. Since all the organisms show different metabolic activities, which results in the formation of
different types of unwanted and toxic substances called waste products. The process of excretion takes
place mainly through kidneys. The liquid wastes are urea, uric acid, ammonia etc. which are eliminated as
urine or sweat from the body. The sweat is eliminated through skin. It contains excess of minerals and
excess of water. The chief excretory organs are kidneys which eliminate liquid excretory wastes from the
body in the form of urine. There are ureters, urinary bladder and a urethra associated with kidney. These
organs all together constitute excretory system in man.

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Structure of kidney: Kidneys are two reddish brown coloured and bean shaped organs found dorsal to the
abdominal cavity in man, one on either side of vertebral column. Each kidney has a convex outer surface
and concave inner surface. The outer covering of kidney is called tunica fibrosa. Internally each kidney is
differentiated into peripheral cortex and central medulla region. Each kidney contains about one million of
coiled, tubular microscopic structures called nephron or urineferous tubules. A nephron consists of a cup
like structure known as Bowman’s capsule and a coiled tubular convoluted tubule attached to Bowman’s
capsule. A branch of renal arteriole or afferent arteriole enters the Bowman’s capsule and forms a bunch of
capillaries there called as glomerulus. A small branch called efferent arteriole, leaves the glomerulus and
again divide into many capillaries called peritubules which surrounded the convoluted tubule. Each kidney
is attached to the urinary bladder through a duct known as ureter.

Ureters: They are a pair of narrow distensible muscular tubes of about 30cms length. These tubes move
downwardly and open into urinary bladder. They carry urine from kidneys to the urinary bladder through
peristalsis.

Urinary bladder: it is a pear shaped distensible sac that occurs in the pelvic part of the abdomen. It
temporarily stores urine.

Urethra: It is a tube that takes urine from urinary bladder to outside. The opening of urinary bladder is
guarded by a ring of muscles or sphincter.

Process of excretion through kidney: The process of excretion through kidney has three main steps i.e
ultra filtration, selective re-absorption and tubular secretion. Ultra filtration is the filtration of blood plasma
into the glomerulus. The glomerular filtrate thus formed contains both useful as well as harmful substances
into it. Selective or useful substances from this filtrate are re-absorbed into the convoluted tubule by
diffusion or active transportation under the control of hormones and the harmful substances are rejected.
The filtrate in the urinary tubules is made concentrated by the secretion of wastes products by the blood
capillaries. Thus the wastes (urine) pass from urinary tubules into the collecting duct. Urine contains urea,
uric acid, excess of water and mineral wastes. The urine drains into urinary bladder through ureters and
finally passes out through the urethra.
Dialysis: The process of separating the large solute molecules from the small ones by means of artificial
kidney in place of a non functional damaged kidney is called as dialysis. Through dialysis minerals and
nitrogenous wastes are removed from the blood but proteins and other amino molecules are retained in the
blood.

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Excretion in Plants: In plants, breakdown of substances is much slower than in animals. Hence
accumulation of waste is much slower and there are no special organs of excretion. Green plants in
darkness or plants that do not contain chlorophyll produce carbon dioxide and water as respiratory waste
products. Carbon dioxide released during respiration gets utilized during photosynthesis.
Oxygen itself can be thought of as a waste product generated during photosynthesis. Plants can get rid of
excess water by transpiration. Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off. Other waste materials
that are exuded by some plants — resins, saps, latexes, etc. are forced from the interior of the plant by
hydrostatic pressures inside the plant and by absorptive forces of plant cells. Plants also excrete some waste
substances into the soil around them.

CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Control: it is the power of restrain and regulation by which something can be started, slowed down,
expedited or stopped.
Coordination: it is an orderly or harmonious working of different but interrelated parts so as to perform
activities smoothly.
All the organisms have different organs for different functions. Each organ is meant for specific function.
All organs functions independently but in a coordinated manner. e.g. During feeding eyes locate the food,
nose registers its smell, hands pick up the food and take it to the mouth, the mouth opens to receive the
food, teeth and muscles masticate the food, saliva moistens it, tongue perceives its taste and pushes the
masticated food into the pharynx. All this is possible through a system of coordination..
Importance of control and coordination: Control and coordination helps in maintaining the rate of
stability and uniformity in the body. It also helps the organism to respond to the internal and external
environmental conditions. Without control and coordination our body cannot do many functions at the
same time. Without coordination there will be chaos and confusion in one’s body and it may lead to
abnormal functioning etc.
Nervous coordination in animals (Nervous system): In animals, besides chemical coordination, there is
nervous control for the coordination of different life processes. It is faster than chemical control. The basic
unit of structure and function of nervous control is the specialized cells called neurons or nerve cells. The
neurons have been bundled together as nerves to connect the nervous centre to the specific organs, the
nervous control or system controls both internal functions as well as responses to the external stimulus.
The main components of the nervous system in animals are
i. Receptor organs: The organs which receive the stimulus from outside to convey it to brain. e.g. eyes,
skin, ears, etc.
ii. Sensory pathways: It comprises of sensory nerves which carry the messages from receptor organs to
brain.
iii. Modulators: These organs receive messages and issue the corresponding instructions to effectors.
iv. Neurons: A neuron is the basic unit of structure and function of a nervous system. It consists of two
main types- cytons and axons. Cyton is generally oval shaped, uninucleated and bears many small
branches called dendrites through which cyton receives messages. Axon is a long process arising
from the cyton and ends in small branches. It is through these axons that neurons transmit their
messages.
Central nervous system in human beings: The central nervous system of man consists of brain and spinal
cord which are located at the centre of longitudinal axis of the body.
1) Brain: It is the part of the central nervous system that is present in the head and protected by the
skull, dorsally and laterally. The box that houses the brain within the skull is called the cranium. It has
three main regions - the fore brain, the mid brain and the hind brain. Forebrain is made up of
cerebrum, hypothalamus and thalamus. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is made up of
two hemispheres called the cerebral hemispheres. Cerebrum is responsible for the intelligence,
thinking, memory, consciousness and will power. Thalamus an area which coordinates the sensory
impulses from the various sense organs- eyes, ears and skin and then relays it to the cerebrum.
Hypothalamus, though a small region situated below the thalamus, is an important region of the brain.
It receives the taste and smell, impulses, coordinates messages from the autonomous nervous system,
controls the heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and peristalsis.
Mid brain is a small portion of the brain that serves as a relay centre for sensory information from
the ears to the cerebrum. It also controls the reflex movements of the head, neck and eye muscles. It
provides a passage for the different neurons going in and coming out of the cerebrum. Hind
brain consists of cerebellum, Pons and medulla oblongata. Cerebellum is like cerebrum. It consists of
outer grey cortex and inner white medulla. It is responsible for maintaining the balance while
walking, swimming, riding, etc. Pons literally means bridge. It serves as a relay station between the
lower cerebellum and spinal cord and higher parts of the brain like the cerebrum and mid brain.
Medulla oblongata is a small region of the brain. It is hidden as it is well protected because of its
importance. It has the cardiovascular centre and the breathing centre. It also controls activities such as
sneezing, coughing, swallowing, salivation and vomiting.

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 Functions brain:

i. It receives messages and then accordingly sends instructions to the different parts of the body.
ii. It correlates the stimuli from different sense organs and coordinates the body activities effectively.
iii.Olfactory lobes of brain are concerned with the sense of smell.
iv. Optic lobes deal with the sense of sight. Cerebrum is the seat of thinking ability, memory, emotions
and experience.
v. Medulla oblongata controls heart beating, respiration, swallowing, digestion, peristaltic movements
etc.
vi. Cerebellum maintains body movements.

2) Spinal cord: It is a narrow cylindrical lower part of central nervous system which is 43 to 45 cms in
length. It lies inside vertebral column. Spinal cord gives off 31 pair of spinal nerves which run
parallel to spinal cord for some distance before coming out from their intervertebral discs. Ascending
tracts carry sensory impulses to brain while descending tracts pass motor impulses from brains

Functions of spinal cord:

i. Coordinating reflex actions.
ii. Coordinating autonomic reflexes like the contraction of the bladder.
iii. Conducting messages from muscles and skin to the brain.
iv. Conducting messages from brain to the trunk and limbs.

Structure of Neuron: A neuron is the structural and functional unit of nervous system. It consists of three
main parts. i.e. Cyton (cell body), Dendrites and Axon.
i. Cyton: The cell body or cyton of a neuron is also known as soma. It has a large spherical nucleus. The
cytoplasm of cyton consist the granules like mitochondria Golgi apparatus, neurofibrils, neurotubules,
and special granules known as nissl’s granules. The cyton is concerned with metabolic maintenance
and growth.
ii. Dendrites: The short and tapering with branched protoplasmic processes coming out from the cell
body of a neuron. They are responsible for getting nerve impulses towards the cell body.
iii. Axon: A single long cylindrical protoplasmic process of uniform diameter arising from the cell body.
The axon conducts nerve impulses arising from cell body (cyton). It is protected by sheath of myelin
around it which is insulating in nature

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Reflex Action: When the stimulation of a receptor results in a spontaneous, involuntary reaction without
the will it is called reflex action or simply reflex. e.g. blinking of eyes, withdrawal of hand when it is
suddenly pinched, yawning, sneezing etc. During a reflex action, the fine tips of receptors quickly relay a
message through sensory nerves to effectors.

The path taken by the nerve impulses in a reflex action is known as reflex arc. The components of reflex
are stimulus

Stimulus Receptor organ Sensory neurons CNS Motor neurons Effector organ

Response

Hormones: The secretions of the endocrine (ductless) glands are called hormones. Hormones can be
defined as secretions that are poured into blood in order to reach a specific target organ. e.g. thyroid gland
produces thyroxin, pancreas produces insulin, pituitary gland produces ADH, ACTH, FSH and TSH
hormones etc. The various characteristics of hormones are
i. They may be proteinaceous or non-proteinaceous (amino acids or steroids).
ii. They are secreted as per need and not stored, only excreted.
iii. Their secretion may be regulated by nerves or by feedback effect.
iv. They are transported by blood.
v. They mostly cause long-term effects like growth, change in behaviour, etc.
vi. They do not catalyze any reactions.
vii. They function by stimulating or inhibiting the target organs.

Chemical coordination in animals: The chemical coordination in animals takes place through hormones
which are produced in endocrine/ductless glands. The functioning of endocrine is under the control of both
hormones and nervous system. Their increase or decrease of secretion in our body causes different types of
disorders and abnormalities in the body. As far as the chemical nature of hormones is concerned, those
may be proteins, polypeptides, steroids or even amino acids in nature. Hormones are carried from the site
of their secretion to the site of their action through blood. They control moulting, metamorphosis, growth
and development, regulate water content of the body, development of sex organs, flow of digestive
enzymes from digestive glands etc.

i. Thyroid gland: It is a soft butterfly shaped gland and secretes the thyroxin hormone which controls
growth and development. Its excessive secretion causes loss of weight, nervousness while as its less
secretion causes overweight and sluggishness.
ii. Pancreas: Pancreas produces the hormone called insulin, which controls level of sugar in body. Less
secretion of insulin causes diabetes.
iii. Parathyroid: Parathyroid secretes the hormones called as parathormone which controls level of
calcium in body.
iv. Adrenal gland: These are a pair of cap shaped organs lying at the top in each kidney. It secretes the
hormone cortisone, which converts excess of proteins into sugar.
v. Ovary: Ovary produces Oestrogen and Progesterone, which controls the sexual characteristics in
females, maintains pregnancy and child birth.
vi. Testis: Testis produces testosterone, which controls development of secondary and accessory sexual
characteristics in males.
vii. Pituitary gland: These glands secretes growth hormones like ADH, ACTH, FSH and TSH, which
regulates tissues and bones growth, controls the amount of water reabsorbed by the kidney,
stimulates adrenal cortex to male cortisone, stimulates the ovary to produce oestrogen and
stimulates thyroid to make thyroxin respectively.
viii. Thymus: It secretes the hormones thymosine which controls and develops body resistance.
ix. Pineal: It is a small reddish grey vascular solid body lying between the two cerebral hemispheres of
the brain. It secretes melatonin hormone which regulates the working of gonad.

Feedback system: When the target hormone itself controls its secretion by stimulating or inhibiting their
secretion by the endocrine gland, it is called as feedback control. e.g. Hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin
releasing hormone (TRH) which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release thyrotropin or TSH later affects
thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin. If the level of thyroxin increases beyond certain limits in the blood. As a
result, less TSH is released and less thyroxin is produced. It is called as negative feedback control.
If the level of thyroxin is lower than normal in the blood, the negative feedback is removed and
more TRH and TSH are produced and as a result more thyroxin is produced and to raise its level in the
blood. It is called positive feedback.

Chemical coordination in animals: There is no nervous system in plants and it is one of the differences
between plants and animals. Plants coordinate their activities through certain organic substances called as
plant hormones secreted by them. They are also called as phytohormones. They control growth and

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development of plants. There are five types of growth hormones in plants they are auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinins, ethylene and abscissic acid.

i. Auxins: Auxins are phytohormones that are mainly concerned with cell enlargement. They affect the
plasticity of the cell walls and induce them to grow. It is produced by shoot apex, young leaves and
roots (to some extent). They only move in upward direction through phloem or xylem. Their main
functions are
 It causes elongation of stem (high concentration) and root (low concentration).
 It promotes root initiation in cuttings and callus.
 It also promotes root development.
 It causes differentiation of xylem cells in calluses.

ii. Gibberellins: Gibberellins are plant hormones that are mainly responsible for cell elongation. They
cause the cells to grow in length. They are synthesized in embryos, young leaves, root tips, buds and
seeds. They move up or down in the plant body through xylem or phloem. The main functions of
Gibberellins are:
Gibberellins cause stem elongation by affecting cell elongation.
 It Causes leaf expansion, promotes fruit growth and breaks bud dormancy.
 It breaks seed dormancy and promotes flowering in long-day plants and inhibits the flowering
in short-day plants.
iii. Cytokinins: They are phytohormones that induce cell divisions even in mature tissues. They belong
to a group of compounds called the kinetins. They are found in angiosperms of seed an in the roots.
There are many types of cytokinins present. For example, zeatin, a cytokinin present in maize
grains. The main functions of Cytokinins are
 They promote cell division, in the presence of auxins.
 They delay the process of ageing (senescence) in leaves.
 They promote growth of lateral bud.
 They break bud and seed dormancy
iv. Abscissic acid (ABA): It is a growth inhibitor that results in dormancy and abscission. It was
discovered in the 1960s and was initially called dormin. They are all now commonly called as
abscissic acid. It is synthesized in stem, leaves, fruits and seeds. During drought, it causes growth
suppression that conserves energy. It also controls water loss during dry conditions by causing
closure of stomata. The functions of Abscissic Acid are
 It is a growth inhibitor, causing bud and seed dormancy.
 It results in abscission of leaves and fruits.
 It is produced during stress.
v. Ethene (ethylene): Ethylene is a gaseous growth regulator that speeds up the ripening process. It is
a gas produced by most of the plant organs. Chemically, ethylene (ethene) is an unsaturated
hydrocarbon. The main functions of Ethylene are
 It promotes ripening of fruit.
 It sometimes promotes flowering.
 It inhibits stem growth.
 It promotes abscission of fruits and leaves.

Plant movements: Growth and movements in plants are regulated external (environmental) as well as
internal (hormonal) factors. Plants respond to various stimuli very slowly by revealing growth. Plants
generally show movements at a very slow rate. Since plants cannot move from one place to another.
Therefore, plants show movements in their organs only.
Plant movements are largely brought about by some definite internal and external stimuli. The movements
may be spontaneous or induced in nature. The induced movements are of two types i.e. Nastic movements
and Tropic movements.
1. Nastic movements: The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the
direction of response is not determined by the direction of stimulus.. These movements are induced
by external stimuli such as light, temperature and touch. These movements include the following
movements.
a. Seismonastic movements – response to touch.
b. Nyctinastic movements – these movements are caused due to light stimuli and by the change in
temperature.
2. Tropic movements: Directional movements or orientations of specific part of a plant in response to
external stimuli such as light, force of gravity, chemicals, water etc. These are slow movements, could
be either towards or away from stimulus. If the movement of the plant part is towards the stimulus, it
is known as positive tropism while as the movement of the plant part is away from the stimulus; it is
termed as negative tropism. The tropic movements include the following movements.
i. Phototropism: The directional movement of the plant part in response to light stimulus is known as
phototropism. It could be positive or negative, if the part of plant moves towards or away from the
light.
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 ii. Geotropism: The directional movement of plant part in response to the gravity is known as
geotropism. e.g. roots of a plant moves downwards into the earth and shoot moves upwards away from
earth and it is known as positive and negative geotropism.
iii. Chemotropism: The directional movement of the plant part in response to chemical stimulus is
known as chemotropism. e.g. during fertilization, growth of pollen tube towards the ovule in the ovary
of a flower.
iv. Hydrotropism: The directional movement of the plant part in response to water stimulus is known
as hydrotropism. e.g. the roots of the plants move towards the water is known as positive hydrotropism
while the other parts of plants move upwards away from water resources is known as negative
hydrotropism.

Textual Questions:
Question 1: What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?
Answer: A reflex action is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus. It does not involve any thinking. For
example, we close our eyes immediately when the bright light is focused. Walking, on the other hand, is a
voluntary action. It is under our conscious control.
Question 2: What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
Answer: A very small gap that occurs between the last portion of axon of one neuron and the dendron of
the other neuron is known as a synapse. It acts as a one-way valve to transmit impulses in one direction
only. This uni-direction transfer of impulses occurs as the chemicals are produced in only one side of the
neuron i.e., the axon’s side. From axon, the impulses travel across the synapse to the dendron of the other
neuron. A synapse or neuromuscular junction
Question 3: Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?
Answer: Cerebellum, a part of hindbrain is responsible for maintaining posture and equilibrium of the
body.
Question 4: How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick)?
Answer: The thinking part of our brain is the forebrain. It has separate areas that are specialized for
hearing, smelling, sight, taste, touch, etc. The forebrain also has regions that collect information or
impulses from the various receptors. When the smell of an incense stick reaches us, our forebrain detects it.
Then, the forebrain interprets it by putting it together with the information received from other receptors
and also with the information already stored in the brain.

Question 5: What is the role of the brain in reflex action?

Answer: Reflex actions are sudden responses, which do not involve any thinking. For example, when we
touch a hot object, we withdraw our hand immediately without thinking as thinking may take time which
would be enough to get us burnt. The sensory nerves that detect the heat are connected to the nerves that
move the muscles of the hand. Such a connection of detecting the signal from the nerves (input) and
responding to it quickly (output) is called a reflex arc. The reflex arcs −connections present between the
input and output nerves − meet in a bundle in the spinal cord.

Reflex arc: Reflex arcs are formed in the spinal cord and the information (input) reaches the brain.
The brain is only aware of the signal and the response that has taken place. However, the brain has no role
to play in the creation of the response.

Question 1: What are plant hormones?

Answer: Plant hormones or phytohormones arenaturally-occurring organic substances. These are
synthesized in one part of the plant body (in minute quantities) and are translocated to other parts when
required. The five major types of phytohormones are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and
ethylene.
Question 2: How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a
shoot towards light?
Answer: The movement of leaves of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica or ―touch me not‖, occurs in
response to touch or contact stimuli. This movement is independent of growth. The movement of shoot
towards light is known as phototropism. This type of movement is directional and is growth dependent.
Question 3: Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth.
Answer: Auxin is an example of growth-promoting plant hormone.
Question 4: How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?
Answer: Auxin is synthesized at the shoot tip. It helps the cell grow longer. When a tendril comes in
contact with a support, auxin stimulates faster growth of the cells on the opposite side, so that the tendril
forms a coil around the support. This makes the tendrils appear as a watch spring.
Question 5: Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.
Answer: Take two small beakers and label them as A and B. Fill beaker A with water. Now make a
cylindrical-shaped roll from a filter paper and keep it as a bridge between beaker A and beaker B, as shown
in the figure. Attach few germinating seeds in the middle of the filter paper bridge. Now, cover the entire
set-up with a transparent plastic container so that the moisture is retained.

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Observation: The roots of the germinating seeds will grow towards beaker A. This experiment
demonstrates the phenomenon of hydrotropism.

Question 1: How does chemical coordination take place in animals?

Answer: Chemical coordination takes place in animals with the help of hormones. Hormone is the chemical
messenger that regulates the physiological processes in living organisms. It is secreted by glands. The
regulation of physiological processes, and control and coordination by hormones comes under the
endocrine system. The nervous system along with the endocrine system in our body controls and
coordinates the physiological processes.
Question 2: Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
Answer: Iodine stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxin hormone. It regulates carbohydrate, fat,
and protein metabolism in our body. Deficiency of this hormone results in the enlargement of the thyroid
gland. This can lead to goitre, a disease characterized by swollen neck. Therefore, iodised salt is advised for
normal functioning of the thyroid gland.
Question 3: How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?
Answer: Adrenalin is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands in case of any danger or emergency or any
kinds of stress. It is secreted directly into the blood and is transported to different parts of the body. When
secreted in large amounts, it speeds up the heartbeat and hence supplies more oxygen to the muscles. The
breathing rate also increases due to contractions of diaphragm and rib muscles. It also increases the blood
pressure. All these responses enable the body to deal with any stress or emergency.

Question 4: Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
Answer: Diabetes is a disease in which the level of sugar in the blood is too high. Insulin, a hormone
secreted by the pancreas, helps in regulating the blood sugar levels. This is the reason why diabetic patients
are treated by giving injections of insulin.
Question 1: Which of the following is a plant hormone?
(a) Insulin (b) Thyroxin (c) Oestrogen (d) Cytokinin
Answer: (d) Cytokinin is a plant hormone.
Question 2: The gap between two neurons is called a

(a) dendrite. (b) synapse. (c) axon. (d) impulse.

Answer: (b) The gap between two neurons is called a synapse.
Question 3: The brain is responsible for
(a) thinking. (b) regulating the heartbeat. (c) balancing the body. (d) all of the above.
Answer: (d) The brain is responsible for thinking, regulating the heart beat and balancing the
body.
Question 4: What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors do
not work properly. What problems are likely to arise?
Answer: Receptors are sensory structures (organs/tissues or cells) present all over the body. The receptors
are either grouped in case of eye or ear, or scattered in case of skin. Functions of receptors:
i. They sense the external stimuli such as heat or pain.
ii. They also trigger an impulse in the sensory neuron which sends message to the spinal cord.
iii. When the receptors are damaged, the external stimuli transferring signals to the brain are not felt.
For example, in the case of damaged receptors, if we accidentally touch any hot object, then our
hands might get burnt as damaged receptors cannot perceive the external stimuli of heat and pain.
Question 5: Draw the structure of a neuron and explain its function.
Answer: Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system. The three main parts of a neuron are axon,
dendrite, and cell body.

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 Structure of a neuron

Functions of the three parts of a neuron:

Axon: It conducts messages away from the cell body.
Dendrite: It receives information from axon of another cell and conducts the messages towards the cell
body.
Cell body: It contains nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles. It is mainly concerned with the
maintenance and growth.

Question 6: What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?
Answer: Secondary sexual characteristics in girls:
i. Increase in breast size and darkening of skin of the nipples present at the tips of the breasts.
ii. Appearance of hair in the genital area.
iii. Appearance of hair in other areas of skin like underarms, face, hands, and legs.
iv. Increase in the size of uterus and ovary.
v. Beginning of menstrual cycle.
vi. More secretion of oil from the skin, which results in the appearance of pimples.
Question 7: Which signals will get disrupted in case of a spinal cord injury?
Answer: The reflex arc connections between the input and output nerves meet in a bundle in the spinal
cord. In fact, nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on their way to the brain. In
case of any injury to the spinal cord, the signals coming from the nerves as well as the signals coming to
the receptors will be disrupted.
Question 8: How does chemical coordination occur in plants?
Answer: In animals, control and coordination occur with the help of nervous system. However, plants do
not have a nervous system. Plants respond to stimuli by showing movements. The growth, development,
and responses to the environment in plants is controlled and coordinated by a special class of chemical
substances known as hormones. These hormones are produced in one part of the plant body and are
translocated to other needy parts. For example, a hormone produced in roots is translocated to other parts
when required. The five major types of phytohormone are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid,
and ethylene. These phytohormones are either growth promoters (such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins,
and ethylene) or growth inhibitors such as abscisic acid.
Question 9: What is the need for a system of control and coordination in an organism?
Answer: The maintenance of the body functions in response to changes in the body by working together of
various integrated body systems is known as coordination. All the movements that occur in response to
stimuli are carefully coordinated and controlled. In animals, the control and coordination movements are
provided by nervous and muscular systems. The nervous system sends messages to and away from the
brain. The spinal cord plays an important role in the relay of messages. In the absence of this system of
control and coordination, our body will not be able to function properly. For example, when we
accidentally touch a hot utensil, we immediately withdraw our hand. In the absence of nerve transmission,
we will not withdraw our hand and may get burnt.
Question 10: How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other?
Answer: Involuntary actions cannot be consciously controlled. For example, we cannot consciously control
the movement of food in the alimentary canal. These actions are however directly under the control of the
brain. On the other hand, the reflex actions such as closing of eyes immediately when bright light is
focused show sudden response and do not involve any thinking. This means that unlike involuntary actions,
the reflex actions are not under the control of brain.
Question 11: Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control and coordination
in animals.
Answer:
Nervous system mechanism Hormonal system mechanism
i. The information is conveyed in the i. The information is conveyed in the
form of electric impulse. form of chemical messengers.
ii. The axons and dendrites transmit ii. The information is transmitted or
the information through a transported through blood.
coordinated effort. iii. The information travels slowly and
iii. The flow of information is rapid and the response is slow.
the response is quick. iv. It has prolonged effects.
iv. Its effects are short lived.

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