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2.008 Design & Manufacturing

Ask “Dave and Pat”
II „
„ Joining & Welding
„ PP 771-861, Kalpakjian
Spring 2004 „ Quiz 1 on March 17th, 12:30 PM
„ Closed book, calculator
„ Lecture notes, HWs
Welding & Joining „ Q&A session? March 15th, Monday, 5-6PM ?
„ HW# 4, due next Monday

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Joining Joining processes

„ Cost:
' &
„ Cheap, but expensive engine
fasteners
labor
door
„ Quality: & ECUs
emission controller plastic fans
„ Wide range
windshield
„ Flexibility: ' &
„ Manual vs automated
Body
„ Rate: ' & non muffler
„ Slow in general door hinges

Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) Laser welding

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Mechanical Fastening Rivets

„ Any shape and material almost „ Cheap, light weight, don’t get loose
„ Disassemblable (except Rivets, etc.) „ Permanent, less strong than bolts
„ Least expensive for low volume (standardized) „ Rule of thumb
„ Problems: strength, seal, insertion, loosening „ Minimum spacing = 3 x d
„ Maximum spacing = 16 x thickness of the outer plate

Rivets

Threaded Bolted Rivets Snap fit

Figures, B. Benhabib 5 6
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 Mechanical fastening Mechanical Joining
„ Crimping „ Hemming, seaming
„ Embossed protrusions „Bend edge of one component
„ Plastic deformation / interference over another
„ Appliance
„ Automobile door stampings and
„ Automotive trunk lids

Lego assembly, elastic averaging

M. Culpepper, MIT 7 8
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Adhesive Bonding Stefan Equation

„ Quick and non-invasive
a
„ Squeeze a drop of liquid
„ Most materials with high surface to volume ratio y

„ Insulation (thermal, electrical), conducting h/2

adhesives available
u r h/2 „ hf goes down, and
„ Good damping „ Viscosity goes up (curing)
„ Clean surface preparation F
„ Long curing, hold time, low service T p=
3µ dh 2
h 3 dt
(
r − a2 ) „ Ft goes up (to separate)
„ Reliability, quality?
3µπa4 ⎡ 1 1⎤
„ Disassembly? Ft = ⎢ − ⎥
4 ⎢⎣ hf 2 hi 2 ⎥⎦

When pullin apart?

3µµπ4 ⎡ 1 1⎤
Ft = ⎢ − ⎥
4 ⎣ hf 2 hi2 ⎦
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DFA for bonding Solid-Liquid: Brazing and Soldering

„ In brazing, the filler material (silver, brass, bronze) has a melting
„ Weak to tensile loading, strong to shear and point above 425 ºC; and, in soldering, the filler material (lead, tin)
compressive has a melting point well below 425 ºC.
„ Organic „ Capillary forces for the wetting and flow of the liquid metal into the
„ Epoxy, acrylic, etc..
gaps.

„ Inorganic „ Proper fluxes for lowering surface tension, remove oxides, and
prevent oxidation.
„ solder, cement, etc..

Do Do not Do Do not γL Liquid Solid

θ
γS γSL θ
θ

o o
(a) Contact angle, θ (b)θ < 90, wetting (c) θ> 90, no-wetting
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 Wave soldering Welding
„ Exposed metal joints are passed over a wave in a continuous
motion, where liquid solder penetrates into the joint by capillary „ Solid-state welding
forces: „ No liquid, electrical, chemical, mechanical
Enlarged area Enlarged area „ Resistance, diffusion, ultrasonic
Circuit
Fusion welding
board Solder
fountain Molten „
solder Copper lead
wires „ Chemical: Oxyfuel
„ Electrical: Arc welding
Solder
wave „ Consumable electrode
„ Non-consumable electrode

Heater Pump

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Fusion Welding Underfill and undercut

„ Heat source: chemical, electrical underfill
„ Heat intensity
„ Control:

„ Incomplete fusion, penetration

„ Underfilling, undercutting, cracks undercut
„ Heat affected zone (HAZ)
„ Feed rate Good weld

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Heat Intensity Laser for Razor

„ A measure of radiation intensity, W/cm2

Oxyacetylene Resistance Welding

Thermit (Oxygen Cutting)
Arc
Air/Fuel
Gas Flame
Friction
Welding
Electron Beam,
Laser Beam
-500 µm spots
-3 million spots per hour

102 103 104 105 106 107

„ High intensity, high heat flux, the faster the melting
„ Automation needed to prevent overmelting, vaporizing
„ For a planar heat source on steel,
tm= (5000/H.I.)2
Oxy: 20-30 sec, E-beam: µ sec
How fast the welding speed is required?
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 Melting front speed
2D simplification Welding speed
„ tm = (sm)2 / (2 α Ja),
(T − T ) Any longer, over-melt!
The Jacob number, J a = c p melt initial . „

h fs
Weld pool size d
k
The thermal diffusivity is given by α = .
ρc p
The melt front moves as : s = 2αJ a t Vmin = d / tmax

„ If the weld pool size is d in diameter, then you must feed at a

rate that exceeds d/tmax.
„ HI increases, welding speed must go up
„ α Ja increases, interaction time must go up
s

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Weld Pool – Heat Source

Interaction Time HAZ(Heat Affected Zone)
„ Bad microstructure, course grains, weak to corrosion
103 10-3
„ Plastic vs. Metal
102 10-2
Interaction Time (Seconds)

Interaction Rate (Seconds-1)

101 10-1
Base metal
100 100
HAZ
10-1 101
Copper, Weld metal
10-2 Aluminum 102
10-3 103 Temp Molten metal
Higher α, Ja

10-4 Steels, 104 Melting point

10-5 Nickels 105
10-6 106
10-7
Uranium,
Ceramics 107 Microstructure change temperature
10-8 108
103 104 105 106 107 108 Base metal temperature
Heat Intensity (Watts/cm2)
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Heat Affected Zone Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Region near the weld pool is affected by heat.
Heat Affected Zone Width (cm)

Microstructure changes.
10 2
higher α

„ s ~ (α t)0.5 10 1

10 0

s Grain structure
10 -1
Weld line
Intergranular corrosion
10 -2
„ The size of the heat affected zone is controlled by the recrystallization
thermal diffusivity, α: Al, Cu 10 -3
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7
„ HI, time (speed) Heat Intensity (Watts/cm2)

„ Metal vs. Plastic

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 Oxyfuel Gas Welding Arc fusion welding
„ Temperature up to 30000oC
„ Low cost, manual „ Heat travels with the electrons!
„ Oxyfuel: Oxygen + Fuel (Acetylene, methyacetylene- „ Straight polarity: workpiece +, electrode –
propediene, etc): can reach 3300oC Shallow penetration, sheet metal, wide gaps
CNT „

„ Stoichiometry: neutral flame „ reverse polarity

„ C2H2+O2 ⇒2CO+H2+Heat ⇑ „ Deeper penetration
„ 2CO+H2+1.5O2 ⇒ 2CO2+H20+Heat ⇑

„ More oxygen will cause oxidization (Oxidizing flame): bad for Heat generated at anode is
about 15% of the heat
steels, OK for copper +
e- generated at cathode.
„ More fuel will cause carburization (carburizing flame): Low heat
for brazing, soldering, flame hardening - Eelectron at cathode is given by
three components:
2100oC I(φ + Va + Vthomson)
1300oC Arrangement for Kinetic energy
consumable electrodes Drop across cool gas boundary
Work function(heat of condensation)
Inner cone: 3300oC
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Consumable electrode processes Fusion Arc Welding

„ Shielded metal arc welding „ Preventing oxidation is the most important problem.
„ Coated electrodes to provide shielding gas
„ Cheapest and most basic process < $1,500
„ Coatings: fluorides, silicate binders(clay), cellulose,
„ 50A-300A, <10KW carbonates
„ Workpiece thickness 3-20mm „ Electrodes: different materials such as mild steel.

„ Submerged arc welding: covered by granular flux

e
od

„ Flat surfaces, high throughput, good quality

ctr
ele

Coating deoxidizes weld and

Slag Inert gas from external source
/
ler

Shielding gas provides shielding gas „

Fil

„ Gas metal arc welding (MIG)

Weld Base metal „ Flux-cored arc welding, etc. (very versatile with proper

Multiple pass fluxes)

Slag removal

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Non-consumable electrode welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gas metal arc welding is a
special variation on arc welding „ Gas tungsten arc welding, formerly known as TIG welding
in which the electrode filler
metal is fed directly through the
„ Tungsten electrode + filler wire.
torch tip. As arcing occurs the „ Good for thin materials, better control, Al, Mg,Ti, etc
electrode instantly melts,
forming molten droplets that fall „ High quality and finish
Tungsten electrode contamination
into the weld pool. Shielding gas
„
is supplied through the torch tip
to prevent chemical interactions „ 200A DC-500A AC, 8kW-50kW
with the surrounding
atmosphere

Metal transfer
- Spray transfer Travel

- Globular transfer Shielding gas

Tungsten
electrode

- Short circuiting Filler wire

Solidified weld
Arc metal

Molten metal
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 Other non-consumable electrode
processes Resistance Welding
„ Spot, seam, projection welding
„ Plasma arc welding:
„ High current through the weld, 3000A-100,000A (0.5 – 10 V)
„ very higher energy concentration (33000oC),
high feed rate
120-1000 mm/min, arc stablility, less thermal distortion, Weld nugget
deep penetration (keyhole technology)
„ Laser beam welding, electron beam welding, etc
plasma gas
Electrode

„ Extremely high heat flux (105 W/cm2)

Shielding gas

Shielding „ Heat generated: H=i2Rt K (K=efficiency)

Ex: 5000 A, 5 mm dia elctrodes, two 1mm thick steel plates
gas
nozzle „
Orifice
Work
Arc plasma
„ Effective resistance 200 Ω, Then H= 500 J
„ Nugget volume, 30 mm3, mass 0.24 g, 1400 J/g needed to melt
Plasma Arc Welding „ 336 J for melting < 500 J
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Resistance welding Solid-state: interatomic bonding

„ Spot welding Sequence Weld nugget „ Ultrasonic
„ Pressure on „ Oscillating tangential shear + static normal forces
„ 10KHz to 75 KHz
„ Current on
„ Shear Æ plastic deformationÆ breaking up top layer
„ Current off (contaminated) Æ inter-atomic bond
„ Pressure off indentation separation „ Friction
Rotational part (at least one), flash
„ Projection welding „

„ Diffusion
„ Goldsmiths bonded gold over copper
„ Diffusion T > 0.5 Tm
„ Interface is the same as the bulk.
„ Fuselage frames

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Weld quality and defects Weld quality and defects

„ Porosity „ Incomplete fusion/penetration
„ Trapped gases, contaminants „ Preheat and clean joint
„ Preheat or increase rate of heat input „ Clean weld area, enough shielding gas
„ Reduce speed allowing gas to escape, cleaning
„ Change joint design or type of electrode
„ Slag inclusions
„ Oxides, fluxes, electrode coating trapped in weld zone
„ Clean weld bead during multi-weld processes
„ Provide enough shielding gas

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 Weld quality and defects DFA - Welding
„ Cracks, residual stresses
„ Temperature gradients, embrittlement of grain boundaries
„ Inability of weld metal to contract during cooling

Loading conditions

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DFM welding Welding accessibility, DFM

Electrode must be held close to
45° when making these fillers

Try to avoid placing pipe joints near

wall so that one or two sides are
inaccesible. These welds must be
made with bent electrodes and mirror
Easy to specify
“weld all
around” but …..
Easy to draw, but the 2nd weld
will be hard to make

Too close to side to allow

proper electrode positioning. Pipe
May be OK for average work but
bad for leakproof welding

Easy
Wall
Very difficult
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