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 SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

UDC 796.011 VOLUME 20 – ISSUE 1 – JUNE, 2018.

FACULTY OF SPORT AND

PHYSICAL EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SARAJEVO
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 1
 ISSN: 1512 – 8822 (print)
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2 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

 Volume 20 – Issue 1 – June, 2018.

Contents

Miroljub Ivanović and Uglješa Ivanović

THE MOST IMPORTANT SELF-EVALUATION AND SELF-EFFICACY IN CHOOSING A VOCATION 5
AS DETERMINANTS OF VOCATIONAL OUTCOMES OF JUNIOR KARATEKAS

Nikola Utvić, Aleksandar Pejčić, Radenko Arsenijević and Ljubiša Lilić

THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE-ASSOCIATED FLEXIBILITY IN ELDERLY PERSONS: 11
SYSTEMATICALLY EXAMINED RESEARCH

Eldan Kapur, Anel Dračić, Edinela Gračić and Maida Šahinović

INTERCONDYLAR NOTCH MORPHOLOGY IN REGARD TO ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT 20
INJURIES

Slavenko Likić, Izet Bajramović, Rasim Lakota, Damira Vranešić-Hadžimehmedović, Dženana

Imamović, Ivor Doder and Denis Čaušević
DIFFERENCES IN MOTOR-FUNCTIONAL STATUS IN STUDENTS TESTED THROUGH ATHLETIC 25
DISCIPLINES

Mensur Vrcić, Erol Kovačević, Denis Čaušević, Amila Hodžić and Ensar Abazović
THE EFFECTS OF POST-ACTIVATION POTENTIATION ON UPPER-BODY POWER 31
PERFORMANCE IN RECREATIONALLY TRAINED MEN

Edin Mirvić, Eldan Kapur, Faris Rasidagić, Nermin Nurković and Milomir Trivun
ACUTE DECREASE IN LUNG CAPACITY CAUSED BY INTENSIVE SWIMMING IN STUDENTS 37

Arzija Pašalić, Amel Mekić, Bakir Katana, Jasmina Mahmutović and Amra Mačak-Hadžiomerović
ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TOP LEVEL ATHLETES 42

Izet Bajramović, Ćamil Habul, Munir Talović, Slavenko Likić, Nermin Nurković and Amel Mekić
EFFECTS OF 8-WEEKS LONG MUSCULAR ENDURANCE TRAINING WITH BODY WEIGHT IN 47
CASE OF RECREATIONAL ATHLETES

Dženana Imamović and Faris Rašidagić

INFLUENCE OF LATIN AMERICAN DANCES TO BALANCE, REPETITIVE STRENGTH AND 52
COORDINATION TRANSFORMATION

Hodžić Amila, Damira Vranešić-Hadžimehmedović, Lejla Šebić, Berina Turković, Ivor Doder,
Semir Mašić and Šemso Ormanović
ANALAYSIS OF BODY DIFFICULTIES AT INDIVIDUAL 2016 OLYMPIC GAMES FINALS IN ELITE 57
RHYTHMIC GYMNASTS

Instructions for autors 64

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 3

4 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
Miroljub Ivanović1and Uglješa Ivanović2

THE MOST IMPORTANT SELF-

EVALUATION AND SELF-EFFICACY
IN CHOOSING A VOCATION AS
DETERMINANTS OF VOCATIONAL
OUTCOMES OF JUNIOR KARATEKAS
1
College of vocational studies for teachers and professional computer scientists – 1Sirmium, Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia
2
Telecom Serbia. Ltd., Belgrade, Serbia

Original scientific paper

UDC: 796.853.26-053.6(497.11)

Abstract
The aim of this research was to examine the predictions of vocational outcomes of junior karatekas based on the constructs of the
most important self-evaluation and self-efficacy in expectations regarding their vocational outcomes. This research included 204
karatekas from Serbia (AM = 16.42, SD = 1.06). Three measuring instruments were applied on this pertinent sample: Core Self-
Evaluations Scale, Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale (CDSES-SF) and Vocational Outcome Expectations Scale (VOE). The internal
consistency and reliability of the used scales was in accordance with the theoretical statistical reliability criteria. The values of Crom-
bach alpha coefficients were (α = 0.82, α = 0.90, α = 0.88), which points to homogeneity among the items. The conducted model
of hierarchical regression analysis determined that the variables: a) the most important self-evaluation and b) self-perceived career
decision self-efficacy, are statistically significant predictors of the criterion of karatekas’ vocational outcome expectations, which ac-
counted for 66% of the variance of criterion variable (R2 = 66%, p < 0.01). At the same time, the partial contribution of the construct
of core self-evaluation was mediated by the participants’ perceived career decision self-efficacy. The obtained results were discussed
within theoretical and practical context.

Key words: karatekas, core self-evaluation, career decision self-efficacy, vocational outcome expectations

Introduction
Even though the constructs of the most important self-
evaluation and career decision self-efficacy as predictors
of vocational outcomes among adolescent athletes have
been for a while now important to researchers and theo-
reticians, the deficit in the research of this phenomenon
is evident, especially in Serbia. The way in which athletes
make career decisions, and the behavior they chose to
realize their vocational goals, is significantly conditioned
by their expectations or evaluation of the real possibility
of goal realization. The significance of the athletes’ expec-
tations regarding possible consequences to their actions
is identified within the context of socio-cognitive theory
where such expectations are considered one of the main
determinants of career decision making (Ingrell, John-
son & Ivarsson, 2018). Based on this career theory, the
individual activity and professional accomplishments of
athletes, apart from the individual expectations of future
achievements, are linked with the beliefs about personal
competences for achieving desired goals. Such beliefs
i.e. self-efficacy of athletes in choosing the career, greatly
contribute defining the vocational goals and behavior they
chose to realize vocational goals (Tim Rees et al., 2016).
Also, the construct of career decision self-efficacy sig-
nificantly correlates with vocational abilities, persistence
in trying to achieve vocational goals and vocational suc-
cess (Romann & Cobley, 2015). In that way, the method
of career decision self-efficacy can be compared to other
types of self-efficacy which are codependent with the goal
choice, persistence and investing effort to achieve suc-
cess in sport (Vandendriessche et al., 2012).
It can be expected that self-experienced career decision
self-efficacy of athletes is, to a certain degree, based on

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 5

their principles and constant evaluations of individual com-
petences and values, which on the core self-evaluation
scale (Gucciardi, Peeling, Ducker & Dawson, 2015) im-
plies integrative latent dimension which includes self-re-
spect, locus of control, general self-respect and emotional
stability. The evaluation of the latent dimension the most
important self-evaluation is first prompted by the intensive
correlation of the aforementioned characteristic personality
traits (Abraham et al., 2014). At the same time, the re-
search of Chang et al. (2015) shows that the construct the
most important self-evaluation correlates with satisfactory
life, methods of dealing with various forms of stress, as
well as the measurements characteristic for the processes
of athletes’ professional life. Therefore, the study of Kaisel-
er, Polman & Nicholls (2012) revealed the relevance of the
core self-evaluation in making professional decisions and
in athletes’ behavior, where the higher level of this dimen-
sion correlates with the lower level of stress, higher per-
sistence, higher motivation to win and better professional
success. It is interesting to point out that in the earlier re-
search, the core self-evaluation has proven itself multiple
times to be the more significant determinant of the used
criteria, such as the competition success or life satisfac-
tion than the lower level dimension, so it was extracted
during multivariate procedure as the additional determinant
even after including individual variables in the further steps
of hierarchical regression analysis (Kong, Wang & Zhao,
2014; McSherry, 2012). The presented results indicate
that the core beliefs of athletes in themselves and their
abilities in characteristic situations correlate with deciding
on a career.
Considering the indubitable importance of the problem dis-
cussed in this research, and that these kinds of research
have not been conducted in the area, the main aim of this
research was to examine the significance of the constructs
the most important self-evaluation and self-perceived
career decision self-efficacy in explaining the variance of
vocational outcome expectations of junior karatekas, and
to examine the contribution of the control variable of ka-
ratekas’ school success in predicting their vocational out-
come expectations. Based on the theoretical framework
and findings of previous researches, two hypotheses have
been tested: (H1) postulates that the perceived latent di-
mensions (the most important self-evaluation and sport
career decision self-efficacy) are relevant predictors of vo-
cational outcome expectations of junior karatekas and (H2)
postulates that the variable (school success of karatekas)
is the determinant of vocational outcome expectations of
karatekas in the period of mid-adolescence.
Methods
Sample and participants
The research included 204 junior karatekas (16.42 ± 1.06
years of age). The pertinent sample included karatekas
from Kolubara district, Serbia, coming from seven karate
clubs: KC „Shodan“(Valjevo), KC „014 Valjevo“ (Valjevo),
6 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
KC „Kizame“ (Valjevo), KC „Sveti Sava“(Mionica), KC
„Železničar” (Lajkovac), KC „Kaminari“ (Osečina) i KC „Ljig“
(Ljig). All participants had at least two years of systematic
and organized karate training, at least three times a week.
Working with professional associates – psychologists,
the research was conducted during January 2018. Before
starting the survey process, the participants were given
detailed instructions on answering the questions of the
measuring instruments (example questions were shown),
as well as the written short list of information about the aim
of the research, and that the data would be analyzed pri-
marily on the group level. The participation in the research
was fully voluntary and anonymous and was conducted
in groups of 30 participants using pen-and-paper method.
The participants were answering by circling the number
which represented the level of their agreement with each of
the items on a scale. Before starting the survey, the coach-
es and parents of the participants gave written consent to
their participation in the research, in accordance with the
ethical norms of conducting the psychological research.
Karatekas were told that they can quit the research any
time they want. No participant quit or refused to take part
in research. It took approximately 20 minutes to fill in the
questionnaires, and after they were done, the participants
sealed the questionnaires in envelopes and handed them to
the head researcher.
Measuring instruments
General data and school success survey enabled the
collection of general data regarding grade and education
variable – general school success (average grade in each
subject at the end of the half-term).
Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES; Judge, Erez, Bono &
Thoresen, 2003) includes 12 items, six of them are reverse
scored (for example, “I sometimes feel worthless when I
experience failure”, “I sometimes feel depressed”), and six
are positive (for example, “I believe that I get the success in
life I deserve”). The construct includes for latent personality
dimensions: self-respect, general self-efficacy, neuroticism
and locus of control. The participants’ task was to evaluate
their level of agreement with each item on a five-point Likert
type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree).
The range varies from 12 to 60, and the total score is mani-
fested as the total of all values divided with the number of
items. The higher score on the scale indicates more positive
individual self-evaluation. The coefficient of internal consis-
tency (Cronbach’s alpha) was α = 0.82, which points to
satisfactory reliability of the measuring instrument.
Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale (CDSES-SF; Betz,
Klein & Taylor, 1996) is an instrument for examining par-
ticipants’ belief regarding their own ability to perform tasks
necessary for successful career management. The short
version of the instrument was applied on the sample. It
consists of 25 items which concern the individual’s abil-
ity to successfully perform several tasks concerning ca-
reer building (for example, “How certain are you that you
could are chose a career that suits your interests?”). The
participant’s task was to evaluate, on a five-point scale,
the level of certainty in their ability to perform the tasks
given of a five-point scale (1 = completely uncertain, 5 =
completely certain. For example: “To make a plan of your
goals for the next five years”). The higher total score on
this measuring instrument means the higher level of career
decision self-efficacy. Our sample confirmed good scale
reliability (α = 0.90). This points to the fact that the metric
characteristic (reliability) of this measuring instrument has
been measured correctly.
Vocational Outcome Expectations Scale (VOE; Betz, Klein
& Taylor, 1996) examines the individual’s expectations
which represent their competence to realize their desired
vocational outcome. The measuring instrument consists of
six items (for example, “I will be successful in my chosen
career”), in which the participant’s task is to evaluate their
level of agreement with each item on this four-point scale
(1 = strongly disagree; 4 = strongly agree). The higher
score on the scale indicates more positive vocational out-
come expectations. The reliability (internal consistency)
is expressed with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of internal
consistency, and it was α = 0.88, which points to relevant
satisfactory reliability of the scale.
Statistical analysis
Standard descriptive methods (arithmetic mean, standard
deviation, minimum, maximum, and the parameters of nor-
mal distribution skewness and kurtosis) were used for sta-
tistical data analysis. The reliability – internal consistency
of scales, was determined using Cronbach’s alpha coeffi-
cient for each of the scales, with the criterion for asymme-
try and skewness from -1 to 1 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
The linear link between the examined variables in this re-
search was evaluated using Pearson correlation coefficient
(p < 0.01), and hierarchical linear model (HLM) was used
to determine the intensity between predictor variables and
criterion variables. The obtained data was processed using
statistical software IMB SPSS 23.
Results
Table 1 shows the core central and dispersive parameters
for individual items of CSES, CDSES-SF and VOE as well
as the indicators of normal distribution of skewness and
kurtosis. The obtained values of asymmetry and skewness
coefficients revealed that the variable distribution did not
deviate from Gaussian (normal) distribution, which means
that all variables are suitable for further multivariate para-
metric statistical processing.
Following the standard descriptive statistical analysis, us-
ing the Pearson correlation coefficient, Table 2 shows the
analysis of the correlation between the used scales of the
most important self-evaluation, career decision self-effica-
cy and vocational outcome expectations (Table 2).
The obtained results in the inter-correlation matrix showed
that there is a statistically significant correlation of mid in-
tensity and positive direction between the examined vari-
ables academic success and career decision self-efficacy
(r = 0.41, p < 0.01), the most important self-evaluation
and career decision self-efficacy (r = 0.50, p < 0.01), the
most important self-evaluation and vocational outcome
expectations (r = 0.54, p < 0.01), and career decision
self-efficacy and vocational outcome expectations (r =
0.62, p < 0.01). The obtained values of correlation co-
efficient point to the fact that the higher the score of the
karatekas on the academic success, the most important
self-evaluation and career decision self-efficacy, the higher
the score on constructs of career decision self-efficacy
and vocational outcome expectations is.
With the aim of identifying partial relevant contributions of
predictor variables (the most important self-evaluation and
sport career decision self-efficacy) in explaining the vari-
ability of karatekas’ vocational outcome, two hierarchical
regression analyses, shown in Table 3, were conducted.

Table 1 Main descriptive parameters of the results

Variable Min Max M SD Sk SEsk Ku SEku

The most important self-evaluation 16 60 39.25 7.63 0.55 0.16 -0.15 0.35

Career decision self-efficacy 47 124 89.16 9.65 -0.19 0.16 -.032 0.35

Vocational outcome expectations 14 54 40.07 7.12 0.34 0.16 -0.09 0.35

Table 2 Inter-correlations between the examined variables

Variable 1 2 3 4

Academic success – 0.11 0.41** 0.09

The most important self-evaluation – 0.50** 0.54**

Career decision self-efficacy – 0.62**

Vocational outcome expectations –

**p < 0.01.

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 7

Table 3 The results of hierarchical regression analysis: prediction of karatekas’ vocational outcome expectations

Predictor Step 1 Step 2

β SE β SE
Academic success 0.09 1.78 -0.02 1.16

The most important self-evaluation 0.33** 0.23

Sport career decision self-efficacy 0.36** 0.45

R 0.05 0.72
R2 0.01 0.66
ΔR2 0.65
Annotation: β = Standardized partial regression coefficient; SE = standard error for regression; R = Multiple correlation coefficient;
R2= Coefficient of determination or squared multiple correlation; ΔR2= the contribution of individual groups of predictors to the per-
centage of the explained variance; *p < .05; **p < .01

In the first step of the analysis, control variable kara-
tekas’ school success was introduced into the regres-
sion equation, but it did not give significant contribu-
tion to explaining the karatekas’ process of vocational
outcome expectations. In the second step of the linear
regression model, the model which introduced two ad-
ditional variables self-evaluation and career decision self-
efficacy was examined. The results of the hierarchical lin-
ear model conducted on the sample of junior karatekas
indicate that the control variable from the first step of
the analysis (karatekas’ school success) explained very
small and marginally significant part of the criterion vari-
ance (karatekas’ vocational outcome expectations). After
the control of karatekas’ school success, as statistically
significant predictor of participants’ vocational outcome
expectations, it can be seen in the second step of the re-
gression equation that 66% of the variance was explained
by introducing predictor variables (the most important
self-evaluation and career decision self-efficacy), which
indicates that 2/3 of the points lies on the regression line,
meaning that the chosen HLM is reliable and representa-
tive. On the other hand, 34% of the proportion of the re-
sidual variations, or deviations of empirical data from the
regression line of the sample, was not identified because
it is the consequence of the accidental error and cannot
be explained using the examined variables. In addition,
the insight into the relatively small values of standard er-
ror for regression, meaning variability surrounding the
regression line, shows satisfactory representativeness of
the regression model.
Analyzing the data matrix, the most important self-evalua-
tion (β = 0.33, p = 0.01) and career decision self-efficacy
(β = 0.36, p = 0.01) proved themselves to be significant
positive predictors of participants’ vocational outcomes.
Basically, the results of hierarchical analyses are sensible
to predictor inter-correlations, which can cause changes in
the significance of individual predictor due to the introduc-
tion of the new group of variables. The obtained positive
values of standardized partial regression coefficients point
to the higher level of career decision self-efficacy, mean-
ing that the karatekas who have more intensive the most
important self-evaluation and career decision self-efficacy
have better vocational outcomes.
Discussion
This research examined the relative contribution of latent
variables the most important self-evaluation and career
decision self-efficacy in explaining the variance vocational
outcome expectations of junior karatekas. Maximum con-
tribution to vocational outcome expectations showed the
variables the most important self-evaluation and career de-
cision self-efficacy, where the influence of the most impor-
tant self-evaluation on the variability of vocational outcome
expectations of karatekas was somewhat generated by the
career decision self-efficacy.
The results obtained in this research showed linear correla-
tions of mid intensity and positive direction between the con-
structs the most important self-evaluation and sport career
decision self-efficacy, which is in accordance with most of
the previous studies in this area. Variable the most important
self-evaluation correlates with other forms of participants’
belief in themselves, which implies that this latent dimension
is a consequence of the link of self—respect, general self-
efficacy and neuroticism (Cavallo, Zee & Higgins, 2016).
Basically, it can be expected that the person’s core beliefs
in themselves and their abilities can partly be generalized
within the context which implies career decisions (Gustav-
son, Røysamb, Borren, Torvik & Karevold, 2016).
Using the sample of karatekas, this research confirmed the
starting hypothesis (H1). It turned out that the perceived the
most important self-evaluation and sport career decision
self-efficacy are relevant determinants of junior karatekas’
vocational outcome expectations, which is in accordance
with the findings of earlier studies (Mirzaei, Nikbakhsh &
Sharififar, 2013; Talyabee, Moghadam & Salimi, 2013).
Seeing how earlier studies confirmed that belief in per-
sonal abilities, as well as optimism directed towards
future, have positive influence on person’s professional

8 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

behavior, the findings of this research also emphasized
the significance of karatekas’ belief in personal abilities
and probability for their vocational outcomes (Bergomi,
Tschacher & Kupper, 2013). At the same time, it should
be mentioned that sport career decision self-efficacy and
some types of positive beliefs in personal abilities create
conditions for defining the more positive expectations of
future and better results, such as greater satisfaction with
and quality of sports life.
Unlike the tested hypothesis, the obtained results revealed
that control variable (school success) did not contribute
the explaining the karatekas’ vocational outcome expecta-
tions (H2 is rejected). Such finding can be explained by
relative homogeneity of the participant sample which in-
cluded only the adolescents of similar age and gender.
On the other hand, some results of earlier studies show
the absence of gender differences regarding vocational
outcome expectations (DemulierUniversité Paris-Sud , Le
Scanff Université Paris-Sud & Stephan, 2018; Université
Montpellier 1 Park, Lavallee, & Tod, 2013), although gen-
der can significantly contribute professional development
and making sport career decisions (San, 2015; Wayment,
Bauer & Sylaska, 2015).
In this research, the control variable school success was
evaluated by the mean average grade of karatekas at the
end of previous year’s the half-term, which was gener-
ally relatively high. For this reason, future research should
more fully apply this variable in practice and thus more
precisely examine its relevance in the process of kara-
tekas’ vocational outcomes. At the same time, it should
be emphasized that positive and moderate correlation be-
tween this variable and sport career decision self-efficacy
was found in this research, which implies that the more
successful karatekas have better abilities necessary for
professional success.
All in all, the conducted research confirms a great number
of previous findings regarding various kinds of karatekas
beliefs in their own abilities and dimensions for their profes-
sional ways to handle a sport situation. Actually, the obtained
results give new notions about the contribution of charac-
teristic karatekas’ beliefs and their professional abilities in
explaining the core self-evaluation during adolescence.
The conducted research, despite its numerous advantages,
is characterized by certain methodological limitations. The
first limitation is the participant sample and regionally ho-
mogenous sample, and gender, which diminishes the pos-
sibility for generalizing the results. The second limitation of
this research is using self-evaluation method which, due
to individual differences in introspection ability, can likely
lead to giving socially desirable answers. The third limita-
tion is the correlational draft which does not allow defining
of cause-effect relationship between variables.
To improve the methodology of this transversal research,
future researches need to focus on more heterogeneous
and larger karateka sample of both genders and from other
areas of Serbia as well, and instead of using self-evalu-
ation, independent evaluators should do the evaluations,
which could increase the data reliability. In addition, the
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
obtained parameters be tested with additional longitudinal
and experimental research, based on which the conclu-
sions about the causal link between the variables could be
reached. Such upgraded research methodology can pre-
dict the process located in the core of karatekas’ directed
behavior, which can have significant implications for creat-
ing useful guidelines for improving the process of kara-
tekas’ vocational outcomes.
Conclusion
The results of the research conducted on the pertinent
sample of junior karatekas confirm the theoretical and
statistical reliability criteria of the scales SCES, CDSES-SE
and VOE (Cronbach alfa > 0.70), which implies that the
psychometric measuring instruments are suitable to be
used on the population of adolescent athletes in Serbia.
The empirical data of this transversal type of correlational
research signals that there is statistically significant and
moderate bivariate link between the used variables, which
is in accordance with the identical findings of previous
studies. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis
show that the latent dimensions (the most important self-
evaluation and self-efficacy) are statistically significant,
positive and partial predictors of criterion variance (voca-
tional outcome expectations). Summing up the results, it
can be concluded that the obtained empirical data enables
the more exact insight into the complex relations between
the self-perceived constructs, their relevant interpretation,
as well as the important practical implications for improv-
ing the process of junior karatekas’ vocational outcomes.
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10 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Nikola Utvić¹, Aleksandar Pejčić¹, Radenko Arsenijević² and Ljubiša Lilić³

THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE-

ASSOCIATED FLEXIBILITY IN
ELDERLY PERSONS: SYSTEMATICALLY
EXAMINED RESEARCH
¹ Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Serbia
² Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Serbia
³ Faculty for Sport and Physical Education, University of Priština, Serbia

Systematic review
UDC: 796.012.23-053.88

Abstract
Introduction: Flexibility is defined as a maximum mobility amplitude. Flexibility drops with the age. It is very well known that a physical
activity stands out as a decisive factor in terms of quality lifestyle, which, at the same time, prevents and reduces various physical and
psychological age-associated changes. Stretching exercises or flexibility excercises are particularly important part of each training
programme as they increase the mobility span at joints, relax muscles and ease everyday activities, making a body more flexible and
helping in the prevention from injuries.
Methods: The works through two databases PubMed, Cihnal, Embase, Open-J-Gate i Google Scholar have been sought. The works of
experimental character on exminees over 60 years of age have been analyzed. The works dealing with the issue of flexibility directly or
indirectly through a research by its very content, have been sought.
Results: By initial database search we have come across with a preliminary figure of 3810 works, which have consequently produced
16 works by a meta-analysis, being analysed in details, from which a comprehensive conclusion has been eventually inferred.
Conclusion: Exercise including joints relaxation by its content, such as water exercise, then the one excluding uncoordinated rash
motions by its content, such as pilates, has been scientifically proved to be beneficial to the elderly population. As a result, minimum
injury exercise contributes to the improvement in all psycho-physical abilities, including flexibility.

Key words: flexibility, effects, exercise, adults, the elderly, yoga, pilates, Tai Chi

Introduction
The scientists have indicated that there is a possibility in the
health improvement and prevention of diseases through
physical activity and training, even in adults with reduced
abilities and a complex clinical picture, the improvement is
possible with a meticulous control and a moderate strain,
thereby, reducing the risk from injury to a minimum, while
the progress is guaranteed.
In the elderly population, it is very clear that flexibility re-
duces with the age. The Control Group of individual au-
thors has recorded negative measurements (after only six
weeks, which has proved flexibility rapidly reducing with
the age) (Lanier, 2016).
Physical activity and training bring about the enlargement
of a muscle mass and a muscle strength and a better func-
tional ability in regard of coordination, balance, and flexibil-
ity, which, intrinsically reduce the risk from injury caused
by the falling. (Barker, 2016).
The stretching exercises or flexibility are particularly crucial
part of any training programme for expanding the scope of
movements in the joints, relaxing the muscles and easing
everyday activities by making the body as much as supple
possible, thereby helping in the prevention from injuries like
tendon spraining or overstraining. (Grez, 2009).
Regular and correct stretching substantially reduces and
prevents the risk from injuries such as muscle ruptures,
arising for muscle inflexibility (Baker, 2001).
Activities improving flexibility include the exercises which
extend the muscles, here are some of them: swimming, tai
chi, specialized aqua aerobics for the elderly people, yoga,
pilates (Melro, 2016).

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 11

The objective of the work is to establish which exercise
programs contribute most to the increase of flexibility in
the elderly persons.
Methods
Research strategy
The following are electronic database utilized for gathering
data on exercise-related effects on flexibility in the elderly
people: PubMed/Medline, Cihnal, Embase, Open-J-Gate
and Google Scholar. The works published between 2000
and 2017 have been sought. The following keywords have
been utilized during a search: flexibility, effects, exercise,
adult, elderly, seniors, yoga, pilates, tai chi.
Type of Study
The review included journal articles written in English and
published during the last 17 years.
Type of Intervention
Analyzed scientific articles were to be of an experimen-
tal character, including a physical activity, flexibility, and a
tested population being older than 60 years of age.
Type of Outcome Measure
Analyzed scientific articles were to be of an experimen-
tal character, including a physical activity, flexibility, and a
tested population being older than 60 years of age.
Graph 1 Systematic review flowchart
3810 works (PubMed/Medline,Cihnal, Embase,
Open-J-Gate and Google School.
1520 works have been taken for a
further analysis.
542 works have been taken for a
further analysis.
16 works have been taken for a
further analysis.
12
Exclusion criteria
The exclusion criteria were as follows: studies without (1)
test flexibility; (2) studies without estimation of the flex-
ibility; (3) studies written in languages other than English.
Data analysis
Table 1 provides an overview of close analyses of 16 stud-
ies that met the set criteria. Following the conventions for
systematic reviews, the table presents the following pa-
rameters: groups, participant’s sample information (au-
thor, title of the work, location, number of examinees, age
group of examinees, duraton of treatment, treatment, test
flexibility and results).
Results
3810 works have been found by the review of electronic
database. Due to search criteria requiring the researches
be experimental and longitudinal ones, one has come to
the figure of 1520 works to be taken for a further analysis.
For the abstract reading 978 works which haven’t met the
over 60 years age criteria, have been dropped . Out of the
remaining 542 works 526 have been omitted for the scope
of the works being published. Sixteen works from 2000 to
2017 have been taken for a further analysis.
2290 works have been dropped for not
having a character of experimental or
longitudinal content .
978 works have been dropped
from the analysis due to the
apstract reading .
526 works have been dropped
for the publishing date of
scientific work.
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
 Table 1- Summary of characteristics of all studies meeting the inclusion criteria

Number of Age of an Duration of

Author Title of the work Location Treatment Tests Results
examinees examinee treatment

Successful
6 months ,
6-month
three times By increase –
endurance training
52 examinees a week, Stretching VO2max, related flexibility
Vitielo, M.D. does not alter Washington,
(31 male and ≥60 years duration of and strength body weight, we do not obtain
et.al. insulin-like growth USA
21 female treatment exercises back scratch. the improvement in
factor-I in healthy
around 30 endurance
older men and
minutes
women

Pilates exercise
positively affects
balance, reaction 12 weeks ,
The improvements in
time, muscle 100 three times pilates with
Sit and Reach all the segments have
Grez, G.B. strength, number Turkey examinees ≥60 years a week, a ball and
Test been achieved as well
of falls and (100 female ) for an hour elastic tapes
as in flexibility.
psychological duration .
parameters in 65+
years old women
The combination of
these programmes has
The role of
The combination of
water Tai Chi 1 month, Tai Chi, aqua
these programmes
on neurological 18 examinees every day aerobic, Back Scratch
60 – 75 obtained the results
Elena, S. A. components in Romania (8 male , a different stretching, and Sit and
years in the strength
aerobic aquatic 10 female ) programme fitness, yoga Reach Test
improvement, flexibility,
practice in the of exercise in water
balance and aerobic
elderly
endurance

Improving General
Flexibility with
a Mind-Body Neuro- The results obtained
40 minutes, Black Box
Approach: A 45 examinees emotional through the 40 minute
two times Test of the
Jensen, A. M. Randomized, Texas (23 male, ≥60 years technique, treatment have shown
for 20 left and right
Controlled Trial 22 female) excersise with the improvement in the
minutes hand
Using Neuro chiropractors muscle flexibility .
Emotional
Technique

The Effect of Pi- The Move-

The improvements in
lates on Range of 6 weeks ment span in
all of the joints have
Motion in Aging , twice a the joints has
Lanier, B. et al. Tennessee 10 examinees ≥60 years . Pilates been achieved, the
Adults Living in week for a been measure
most notably in the
Assisted Living 30 minutes by a goniom-
elbow joint
Facilities eter

The effects of
nursing interven- Virtual game
The Programme
tions utilizing 12 weeks , for improve-
without statistically
serious games that two times a ment of Sit and Reach
Lee, H. et al. South Korea 30 examinees ≥65 years. significant improve-
promote healthy week , for coordination Test
ments in a
activities on the an hour za poboljšanje
flexibility
health behaviors of and flexibility
seniors

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 13

 A number of Age of an Duration of
Author Title of the work Location Treatment Tests Results
examinees examinee treatment

The elderly woman

has achieved a flex-
Exercise and the
Preclination, ion in the joints and
elderly: guidelines 5 weeks , Yoga, tai chi,
obviation, comprehensive health
McDermott, A. and practical 5 times a strength and
Boston 1 examinee 82 years. rotation , by complying to the
Y. et al. prescription ap- week for an stretching
measured by Programme through a
plications for the hour exercises
a goniometer. moderate scope and
clinician
a long period time .

The change in feeding

Change in feeding
Exercise and the
habits , reduction of
elderly: guidelines 6 weeks ,
Strength ex- Strain Test on body weight through
McDermott, A. and practical everyday
Boston 1 examinee 70 years ercises in a a t readmill a physical activity,
Y. et al. prescription ap- routine
gym, walking . track have brought about
plications for the change
the improvement in
clinician
flexibility of the lower
extremities.

Practicing long walk-

Exercise and the 6 months , Blood pres-
The strength ing, reducing a bad
elderly: guidelines 20 minute sure sugar in
exercise, the cholesterol in blood
McDermott, A. and practical walking the blood , a
Boston 1 examinee 61 years . pilates in the produced the im-
Y. et al. prescription ap- and 10000 deep Sit and
gym, walking provement in the joint
plications for the feet walking Reach on the
in the park flexion.
clinician later on bench ..

The treatment of a
6 months Blood tak- medical nature mea-
, walking ing, a study sured
Swimming ,
Exercise and the for the of examinees The medical treatment
tai chi, spe-
elderly: guidelines start of the about how The medical treatment
cialized aqua
McDermott, A. and practical treatment , they feel, the with physical exercis-
Boston 3 examinee ≥60 years aerobic for
Y. et al. prescription ap- as well as measuring of es and change in feed-
the elderly,
plications for the the strength he of the joint ing habits produces the
yoga and tai
clinician exercises span move- improvement in both
chi .
in the later ment by a the comprehensive
stage. goniometer. benefit to the health
and flexibility.

Blood exam-
Metabolic health 16 weeks , The improvement in
Hydro – ple, a survey
and perceived four times the blood picture and
gymnastics, of examines
quality of life in a week, a bigger strength and
Melro, F. et al. Portugal 65 examinee ≥60 years. the strength about how
older adults after a every time flexibility has been
exercise in the they feel
16-week exercise lasting for recorded.
gym . through train-
programme an hour.
ing days.

A 12-Week Vigor-
The results obtained
ous Exercise Pro-
12 weeks have shown the im-
tocol in a Healthy Back scratch
every single provement in all seg-
Group of Persons Vigorous test and chair
Todde, F et al. Italy 40 examinee ≥65 years. day last- ments, including both a
over 65: Study of exercise sit and reach
ing for 65 flexibility of upper and
Physical Function test.
minutes . lower extremities.
by means of the
Senior Fitness Test

14 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

 A number of Age of an Duration of
Author Title of the work Location Treatment Tests Results
examinees examinee treatment

All the results read

from the table where
flexibility has been
5 weeks mentioned have
Aquatic activities, Anterior trunk
everyday Physical – fit- shown that a p level
Saavedra, J. health-related flexibility, post
Spain 28 examinees ≥60 years . treatment ness training of (≤0.05) has been
et. al. physical fitness hoc test, pre-
of 30 and in water below the value ,
and quality of life test.
60 minutes whereby there has
been a significant dif-
ference from the start
and the end of testing.

Sit and Reach Test has

brought
Aquatic Exercise
Sit and Reach Test
for Better Living
brought about on how
on Land: Impact 12 weeks,
there has been an im-
of Shallow-Water three times Sit and reach
Sanders, M. Exercise in the provement in flexibility
Exercise on Older Japan 26 examinees ≥60 years. a weeks test and back
et. al. shallow water in the lower part of the
Japanese Women for 60 scratch test.
body by 16%, while the
for Performance of minutes
upper part of the body
Activities of Daily
was measured by a
Living (ADL)
Back Scratch to up to
54 mprovement.
Aerobic, tai
Physical chi, walking The Survey has proved
Exercise Modality
activities and stretching that a physical activity
Choices One Year
176 examin- monitored , only walk- of any type has had
Stathokosta, L After Intervention
Canada ees (62 male , ≥60 years . , without a ing, yoga, Study favorable effects s on
et. al. in Previously Inac-
114 female ) concrete dance ,pilates, the entire health as well
tive Older Men and
direction of bicycle riding as the increase in the
Women
the scope. , golf, swim- flexibility.
ming, tennis

The results have

Physical-Perfor-
shown that there
mance Outcomes
32 weeks , Back Scratch haven’t been significant
and Biomechanical
Wang, M. Y. two times Test and Sit changes in the Back
Correlates from Los Angeles 24 examinees ≥60 years . Hatha yoga
et. al. a week for and Reach Scratch Test through
the 32-Week Yoga
60 minutes Test ANOVA database
Empowers Seniors
analysis (p= 0.20 i
Study
0.06).

Discussion
The majority of results received have produced the posi-
tive conclusions that flexibility through a physical exercis-
ing has been increased, which was carried out by twenty
works analysed, whereby they have encompassed flexibil-
ity-related problematics directly or indirectly. The treatment
have been applied in the period of 5 weeks to a year. The
elderly age of examinees has ranged from 60 years and
older, and the final results have been equally in men and
women examinees.
The exercises included in the treatment in elderly persons
have mainly been of a moderate intensity, in a majority of
cases, it has been the pilates, though, the exercises such
as tai chi, aquatic and gym exercises have also not been
dropped in the research.
For the sake of various types of trainings, we have classified
the discussion by the works on a dry land and the ones in
water which have been reflecting some specific methods,
we also mention them as a third whole of the discussion by
the review of research.
In his work, Franceso Todde has employed the treatment
titled “Vigorous exercise”, consisting of three phases: a
warming phase lasting for 10 minutes, the active one last-
ing for 45 minutes which has included mixed exercises and
a recovery phase lasting for 10 minutes. After 12 weeks,

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 15

the research carried out over both genders has given sig-
nificant results in tests such as a Seat and Back Scratch
Test (2016).
Some studies have been carried out at home, examin-
ees have received brochures by which they have guided
themselves with, nonetheless, such a sort of studies has
lacked a substantial motivation, whereby a lot of exam-
inees have given up during the treatment, around some
23%, 20 of participants have completed the programme.
Injury-related evaluation has reduced to 42% in a week
and even 64% in the group which has applied the pilates
and stretching techniques, which the pilates acts efficient-
ly on the improvement of flexibility in the elderly persons.
(Barker, 2016).
One of the studies has been carried out by a distance, 176
examinees (a middle value of 70 ± 5 years ; 63 males,
114 females ) and a year-long period of time. The study
has been carried out in the area of North America, more
precisely Canada. Due to a large area to cover for a study,
a half of examinees has personally been visited, while the
remaining has been examined by a phone. The examinees
have been physically active, doing the entire scopes of ac-
tivities, some of them being: aerobic, tai chi, walking and
stretching, yoga, dance, pilates, bicycle riding, swimming,
tennis and many other.
The results have been registered in every 8 weeks, and at
the end of the year the parameters showing the improve-
ment in a health (they have felt healthier) have been re-
ceived, they have improved their physical functions, they
have lost weight, they have been motivated by the instruc-
tors for a better life, they have been socialized in a certain
society through a physical activity. The study carried out
over them has given a clear picture that what has been
achieved in people most is to have been feeling good, and
right behind that has been the improvement of physical
ability, under which flexibility falls as well, which has been
the subject of the seminary work. Stathokostas, 2016).
Barret, C. carries out a study of 44 elderly examinees,
of the age over 60 years. The study has included Ex-
perimental and a Control Group, which have been assigned
a two-hour exercise treatment, two times a week in the
period of ten weeks. The professional therapeutist has fol-
lowed the evaluation of progress, at the very beginning of
the treatment, after two weeks, two weeks before the end
and at the end final when measurement has been carried
out. What has been particularly interesting in this work is
that a Control Group has undergone a treatment as well, but
only in stretching exercise, while an Experimental Group
has undergone both exercises of strength in addition to
stretching exercises. For results reading and assessment
in change, a multivariant analysis of covariance has been
used. The results have shown that both in Experimental
and Control Group the improvement has been achieved,
whereby a flexibility in Control Group has been improved,
while in Experimental Group, in addition to a flexibility, both
strength and balance have been increased. (2002).
Some studies have applied the Hatha yoga and its impact
on the increase of flexibility. 24 examinees older than 60
16
years have been included in the work. The Control Group
hasn’t participated, but the examinees have undergone the
Hatha yoga programme. The treatment has been applied
in 60 minutes, two times a week in 32 weeks, whereby
lighter exercises have been applied in the initial 16 weeks,
and the remaining 16 weeks the programme has been a
bit more strenuous. In addition to a study of a functional
ability, strength, balance, change in flexibility has been
monitored as well, whereby we have only been focused on
the results of a flexibility.
For examining flexibility, two tests have been utilized,1)
Back Scratching and 2) Sit and Reach. In the first test,
the examinees have been asked to put one hand over the
shoulder, and with the other one from behind try to reach
the one over the shoulder, a distance between two middle
fingers has been marked as a movement span. Out of the
three attempts, the best one is recorded.
In another test, the examinee have been asked to sit down
at the edge of a chair, then one leg be folded in the knee
at a 90º while the other one should be stretched with an
elevated foot. The examinee has been asked to try, in an
deep preclination, to reach a thumb on his foot. The dis-
tance between the middle finger on a hand and a palm on
a thumb presents a movement span for the lower part
of the body. Out of the three attempts, the best result has
been recorded. The results have shown that there haven’t
been substantial changes in the Back Scratch Test and Sit
and Reach Test through ANOVA data analysis . (p= 0.20 i
0.06) (Wang, 2016).
The exercise programme called SASS (Stay Active Stay
Strong) have been applied a week in a period of six weeks.
The examinees have been 60 years old and a strain level
has been classified for beginners (without experience ),
a middle level (with certain knowledge about fitness) and
an advanced level (persons with a substantially more ex-
perience ) The intensity has reflected in a set of weights
classified by a level. 225 examinees have completed the
treatment, some of the results describing the improve-
ment in flexibility have been Back Scratch Test and
the results have produced the improvement of 1.77 cm
(p<0.001). In the discussion, the author has come to
the conclusion that the SASS Programme has lead to the
improvement of a functional ability which has included
strength, flexibility of lower extremities, endurance, agility
and a dynamic balance (Bates, 2009).
The results obtained in the work of Lanier. B. have shown
that an Experimental Group has increased a movement
span in all ten movements, and the best results have been
obtained in the elbow joint flexion. In A Control Group,
even negative measurements have been recorded, which
could lead to the conclusion that a flexibility in an advanced
age has been declining rapidly. (2016).
Some of the exercises in the pilates have been pursued
with a pilates balls and elastic tapes, whereby the 12
week treatment has produced a statistical difference in
the increase of flexibility in old women over 65 years of
age. (Grez, 2009).
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
Some of the scientists have been dealing with the shallow
water exercises. As it has been widely known that an im-
mersed body in water becomes lighter for a volume which
it ejects from its body out of the water (Archimedes’ law),
therewith the presence in such an environment relaxes the
joints and enables an easier performing of certain move-
ments and exercises.
Stan Amelia has been trying through aqua aerobic to prove
its efficiency in the improvement of a flexibility. The flexibil-
ity programme has included the following exercise: tai chi
in water, and circle water spray right, -circle water spray
left; ; -hands like clouds; -ying yang; -full moon. Aquatic (
water ) yoga and exercises -mountain warrior; -toe lock;
-chest expansion. The Pilates in water and exercises -spi-
nal twist; -mermaid/merman; -single leg stretch. Seat and
Reach Test has confirmed that there have been certain
improvements of a flexibility both in male and female ex-
aminees (2013).
The study has been carried out over 26 women with the
of age ( mean 70.5), out of this figure 13 have been in
the Control Group and the remaining in the Experimen-
tal Group. The elderly women in the Experimental Group
have undergone the 12-week long treatment, three days
a week and 60 minutes water exercises. Some of the
shallow water exercises have been as follows: walking
through water, sitting in water and standing up, lateral
walking, as well as the exercises on dry land: walking,
shooting, lateral walking as well as card playing. The
results have shown that flexibility has been measured
by a Sit and Reach Test and, being such one, it has pro-
duced the improvement in flexibility of the lower part of
the body by 16%, while the upper part of the body has
been measured by a Back Scratch and it has created the
improvement of even 54% (Sanders, 2016). sen, 2012). Moreover, the movement span being mea-
The health issue in an advanced age can be versatile, some
of the scientists have tried, through aqua aerobic, to reha-
bilitate certain injuries, such as meningitis, cardio-respi-
ratory diseases, osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia, osteoporosis,
obesity to impact on the quality of life. Due to a wide scope
of diseases, as well as various age categories in persons,
scientists have included three groups in their research,
one entirely healthy, of an age of (20.6±1.1), of other
middle age (53.1±12.5) and the third one of an age of
(64.1±7.6). In addition to many results obtained, we shall
have been focusing only on those ones flexibility-related.
The data have been processed by the ANOVA method as
there were three Groups in order to establish a correlation
between them, whereby they have been processed by a
post hoc test and pretest in order to establish a difference
from the beginning of the measurement and a final mea-
surement. All the results read from the table where a flex-
ibility have been mentioned showed that a p level (≤0.05)
has been below the value, whereby there has been a sta-
tistically substantial difference from both the beginning and
the end of the measurement, which has meant that a physi-
cal activity has a positive impact on the improvement of
flexibility in all segments of the body, as well as in all age
ranges (Saavedra, 2006).
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
The treatment striving to the improvement of flexibility is
sometimes deviating from an already ingrained path, so
we have come across the works which have been ap-
plying different methods in their content, as well as their
results obtained.
In the work whereby they have studied on how neuro-emo-
tional technique has had the effects on the improvement
of flexibility, the professional chiropractors and specific
neuro-emotional exercises have obtained the improvement
of flexibility, which has been measured by a Black Box Test
(Jensen, 2012).
The scientist Lee, H.Y. have designed the games originat-
ing in South Korea, those are, in fact, virtual video-games
in which a character from the game is moving, based on
movements assigned by players, it is to say, in this case
by examinees of age range of over 65, a number of ex-
aminees: 30. During a 12 month-long examination, the
exercise through the game has been carried out twice a
week . The examination included only one Group Pre-test/
Post -Test Group.
The flexibility has been measured by a “Sit and Reach
Test‘’ described in the previous works. The Pre-test and
post-test flexibility-related results have obtained a p level
of 0.506, which means that these virtual games have not
reached any particular difference worth mentioning in this
survey. (2015).
The results have shown that an age-related flexibility has
been decreasing, though, as well as increasing certain
physical activity. Measurement tools which the scientists
have applied have been mainly tests measuring amplitude-
related movements in the specific joint, some of those
tests have been „Back Scratch” (Todde, 2016), then „Sit
and Reach” Test (Sanders, 2016), „ Black Box Test” (Jen-
sured by some scientists has been carried out individu-
ally, some of those movements have been a flexion of the
left and right elbow, a flexion and extension of the neck, the
left and right shoulder approximation and the right and left
shoulder flexion. (Lanier, 2016)
Conclusion
Flexibility defined as a mobility-related degree in the joints
is one of the precedents which enables the elderly persons
an easier moving in the space. It has been proved that a
flexibility is decreasing with an advanced age, which has,
in general, unfavorable effects not only on the movement in
general, but on the other body movements.
The studies have shown that, by certain physical activities,
we do improve a mobility degree in the joints, whereby
stretching exercises as well as some static exercises for
muscles strengthening, such as in the pilates and yoga,
have proved most beneficial.
Since the studies have been carried out in the elderly
population, all treatments have been monitored under the
watchful eyes of professionals, the volume and intensity
have often been adapted to their abilities, with an objec-
tive of preventing injuries. The results with a biggest sta-
17
tistic importance have been in the pilates, tai chi and yoga.
The studies,which, in its essence, were dealing aqua aero-
bics, stretching exercises, strength exercises, have also
achieved its goal of increase-related flexibility, but not to
an extent as in the previously mentioned ones. There have
been as well the works trying to influence flexibility through
virtual games, but the results have been unfavorable.
Therefore, the pilates, tai chi and yoga stand out as the
most efficient programmes for flexibility increase.
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Barker, A. L., Talevski, J., Bohensky, M. A., Brand, C. A.,
Cameron, P. A., & Morello, R. T. (2016). Feasibility of Pi-
lates exercise to decrease falls risk: a pilot randomized
controlled trial in community-dwelling older people. Clini-
cal rehabilitation, 30(10), 984-996.
Barrett, C., & Smerdely, P. (2002). A comparison of com-
munity-based resistance exercise and flexibility exercise
for seniors. Australian Journal of Physiotherapy, 48(3),
215-219.
Bates, A., Donaldson, A., Lloyd, B., Castell, S., Krolik, P.,
& Coleman, R. (2009). Staying active, staying strong: pilot
evaluation of a once-weekly, community-based strength
training program for older adults. Health promotion jour-
nal of Australia: official journal of Australian Association of
Health Promotion Professionals, 20(1), 42.
Vitiello, M. V., Wilkinson, C. W., Merriam, G. R., Moe, K. E.,
Prinz, P. N., Ralph, D. D., ... & Schwartz, R. S. (2001). Suc-
cessful 6-month endurance training does not alter insulin-
like growth factor-I in healthy older men and women. The
Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and
Medical Sciences, 52(3), M149-M154.
Gardner MM, Buchner DM, Robertson MC, Campbell AJ.
Practical implementation of an exercise-based falls preven-
tion programme. Age Ageing 2001;30:77–83.
ĠREZ, G. B. (2009). Pilates exercise positively affects bal-
ance, reaction time, muscle strength, number of falls and
psychological parameters in 65+ years old women (Doc-
toral dissertation, Middle East Technical University).
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Submitted: May 13, 2018

Accepted: May 29, 2018

Corresponding author
Nikola Utvić
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš,
Niš, Serbia
Kolašinskih kneževa 64, Zubin Potok 38228
E-mail: nikola.utvic028@gmail.com

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 19

Eldan Kapur1, Anel Dračić2, Edinela Gračić2 and Maida Šahinović3

INTERCONDYLAR NOTCH
MORPHOLOGY IN REGARD TO
ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT
INJURIES
1
Department of Anatomy, Faculty od Medicine, University of Sarajevo
2
Faculty of Medicine, University of Sarajevo
3
Department of Histology and embriology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sarajevo

Original scientific paper

UDC: 616-001:796.071.2
796.071.2:616-001

Abstract
Non-contact ACL injuries are more common in female, than in male athletes. One of the possible risk factors discussed were mor-
phologic variations in intercondylar notch height and width. The supposed pathomechanism of injury was related to a narrower and
higher built intercondylar notch in female in regard to male athletes. We measured 2 intercondylar notch morphometric parameters
and their indices of 100 dry human femora as to estimate the values and differences of intercondylar notch morphology in men and
women. We determined that there is a difference between linear morphometric parameters of the intercondylar notch between male
and female samples. The mean for both samples, regarding ICW, was 18.71±3.82 mm with the maximum value being 32 mm and
minimum 10 mm. For male ICW values the mean was 19.32±4.25 mm with the maximum value being 32 mm and minimum 10 mm.
Female ICW value mean was 18,04±3.40 mm with the maximum value being 25 mm and minimum value being 10 mm. The ICH value
mean in both genders was 28,00±4.48 mm with the maximum value of 40 mm and minimum 15 mm. The male ICH values mean
was 29.05±5.58 mm with maximum value being 40 mm and minimum 15 mm. Female ICH values mean was 26. 85±4.12 mm with
the maximum value of 35 mm and minimum value 16 mm. No gender difference was found between intercondylar notch geometrical
indices and as such the intercondylar notch geometrical indices cannot be used to explain the more often occurence of non- contact
injuries in female athletes.

Key words: Orthopaedics, Anthropometric, Non-contact injuries, Sports traumatology, Knee

Introduction
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are one of the
most common injuries in sports traumatology. Anterior
Cruciate ligaments play a restricting role in both physi-
ological axis of movement in the knee and their injuries
are the main reason the third pathological axis is described
(Kapandji, 1972). Injuries regarding ACL have been cat-
egorized as contact and non-contact with the former being
more common (Alentrorn-Geli et al., 2009; Murray, 2013).
Non-contact injuries are associated with a number of risk
factors including developmental and hormonal (gender,
family history, injury history, joint laxity, neuromuscu-
lar shant, preovulatory hormonal status), neuromuscular
(relative muscular strength, hip abduction strength, trunk
proprioception), anatomical (Q-angle, Intercondylar Notch
Size, ACL Size, Genu Recurvatum, BMI), biomechanical
(knee abduction, lateral body movement, anterior transla-
tion, external rotation) (Alentrorn-Geli et al., 2009). One
of the possible anatomical risk factors is the Intercondy-
lar notch size. The status of Intercondylar Notch size as a
risk factor is uncertain seeing that some authors confirm
it as legitimate risk factors and others deny its value in
prognosing and preventing ACL injuries. It has been pos-
tulated that smaller intercondylar notch sizes result smaller
ACL which have less tensile strength and are susceptible
to non- contact injury. Other than that it is possible that a
narrow intercondylar notch results in anterior or posterior
impigiment of the ACL during rotational movement and re-
sults in ACL rupture (Martin et al., 1962; Norwood and
Cross, 1977). Which is understandable since biomechani-
cally, ACL injuries occur either during hyperextension or
external rotation (Kapandji, 1972). During external rotation
the ACL becomes taut and is susceptible to injuries while
in contact with the medial condyle. The Posterior Cruciate
ligament (PCL) is tensed and results in movement of the

20 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

medial meniscus anteriorly. The relationship of the cru-
ciate ligaments in the sagittal plane is described as that
they are more crossed but lose contact resulting in open-
ing of the joint space and lack of rotational constraint by
the cruciate ligaments. The rotational constraint in external
rotation is regulated by the collateral ligaments because
of the fiber orientation. In recent studies it has been con-
firmed by methods of clinical, cadavers, in vitro and video
analysis studies that the most non- contact ACL injuries
occur during change of direction while deccelareting, land-
ing an extended or near extended knee or pivoting on a
leg with a planted foot. Other biomechanical factors are
valgus and varus forces, hyperflexion and anterior transla-
tional forces (Alentrorn-Geli et al., 2009). Multiple factors
explain why caution is advised when examining risk factors
for ACL injuries seeing that isolated conclussions might be
questionable. The aim of the study was to determine the
values of forementioned morphometric parameters of the
intercondylar notch and their correlation with each other.
We sought to determine whether there are gender differ-
ences between those parameters and to provide a review
of literature regarding the relevance of those differences in
non-contact ACL injuries.
Methods and materials
We examined 100 adult dry human femora, 52 of which
were male and 48 female. The femora were taken from
the Department of Anatomy, Medical School, University of
Sarajevo. Femora with visible pathological alterations were
excluded from the study. Two morphological parameters
were measured, in accordance to Martin et al. (1962),
using sliding calipers, the measurements were recorded
in milimeters. The morphological parameters were Inter-
condylar notch width (ICW) and Intercondylar notch height
(ICH), in addition to the two parameters we calculated
their relevant indices, Notch Width index (NWI) and Notch
Shape index (NSI). Notch Width Index was defined as the
ratio of ICW and Epicondylar Breadth Width (EBW). Notch
Shape Index was defined as the ratio of ICW and ICH. The
recorded measures were then sorted by gender and sta-
tistical measures were applied. We determined descriptive
statistical measures, correlation methods and ascertained
the differnce between male and female femora using paired
t- tests using the IBM SPSS programme. We have taken
values of p as 0.01< p < 0.5 as significant, 0.001< p
< 0.01 as very significant, values p< 0.001 were taken
as very highly significant. Values 0.5< p were taken as
unsignificant.
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for parameters values in both genders
Obs. with Obs. without
Variable Observations
missing data missing data
ICW 100 0 100
ICH 100 0 100
EBW 100 0 100
NWI 100 0 100
NSI 100 0 100
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
Results
Intercondylar notch width values for both genders were as
follows (Table 1). The mean was 18.71±3.82 mm with the
maximum value being 32 mm and minimum 10 mm with
the correlation coefficient being 0.006 which shows that ICW
and EBW correlate poorly (Table 2) and cannot as such be
deduced from one another. For male ICW values (Table 3) the
mean was 19.32±4.25 mm with the maximum value being
32 mm and minimum 10 mm. The correlation factor between
male ICW and EBW values was -0.266 hence the negative
correlation between male ICW and EBW values (Table 4). Fe-
male ICW value mean (Table 5) was 18.04±3.40 mm with
the maximum value being 25 mm and minimum value being
10 mm. The correlation coefficient between female ICW and
EBW values was -0.422 confirming that female ICW and EBW
correlate negatively (Table 6). The difference between male
and female ICW value was significant (p<0.05) but with a
noticeable overlap of values (10-35 mm for male and 10-25
mm for female femora). The Intercondylar notch height value
mean in both genders was 28000±4.48 mm with the maxi-
mum value of 40 mm and minimum 15 mm (Table 1). Cor-
relation coefficient between ICH and EBW for both genders
was 0.087 resulting in a positive but poor correlation (Table
2). The male ICH values mean was 29.05±5.58 mm with
maximum value being 40 mm and minimum 15 mm (Table
3). Male ICH and EBW values correlate negatively with the
correlation coeficient of -0.23 (Table 4). Female ICH values
mean was 26.85±4.12 mm with the maximum value of 35
mm and minimum value 16 mm (Table 5). Female ICH and
EBW correlate negatively with the correlation coefficient of
-0.144 (Table 6). The difference between male and female
ICH values was significant (p< 0.05) and with a major over-
lap (male values 15- 40 mm, female values 16-35 mm). We
calculated the NWI and NSI for both genders and subse-
quently for male and female femora. Notch Width Index mean
for both genders was 0.24±0.05 with the maximum value
0.40 and minimum 0.11 (Table 1). For male femora the NWI
mean was 0.23±0.05 with maximum value 0.40 and mini-
mum 0.11 (Table 3). The NWI mean for female femora was
0.25±0.05 with the maximum value 0.38 and minimum 0.13
(Table 5). The difference between male and female NWI in-
dices was was unsignificant (p≥0.05). Notch Surface Index
mean was 0.68±0.19 with the maximum value of 1.66 and
minimum 0.40 (Table 1). For male femora the NSI mean was
0.67±0.19, maximum 1.67 and minimum 0.43 (Table 3).
For female femora the NSI mean was 0.69±0.19, maximum
1,25 and minimum 0.40 (Table 5). The difference between
male and female femora was unsignificant (p≥0.05).
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation
10.00 32.00 18.71 3.82
15.00 40.00 28.00 4.48
62.00 92.00 77.77 6.46
0.11 0.40 0.24 0.05
0.40 1.66 0.68 0.19
21
Table 2 Correlation matrix for parameters in both genders

Variables ICW ICH EBW NWI NSI

ICW 1 0.29 -0.26 0.98 0.64
ICH 0.29 1 -0.23 0.32 -0.48
EBW -0.26 -0.23 1 -0.44 -0.04
NWI 0.98 0.32 -0.44 1 0.60
NSI 0.64 -0.48 -0.04 0.60 1

Table 3 Descriptive statistics in male samples

Obs. with Obs. without Std.

Variable Observations Minimum Maximum Mean
missing data missing data deviation
ICW 49 0 49 10.00 25.00 18.10 3.39
ICH 49 0 49 16.00 35.00 26.95 4.14
EBW 49 0 49 62.00 82.00 72.67 4.17
NWI 49 0 49 0.13 0.38 0.25 0.05
NSI 49 0 49 0.40 1.25 0.69 0.19

Table 4 Correlation matrix in male samples

Variables ICW ICH EBW NWI NSI

ICW 1 0.16 0.00 0.92 0.67
ICH 0.16 1 0.08 0.10 -0.57
EBW 0.00 0.08 1 -0.37 -0.05
NWI 0.92 0.10 -0.37 1 0.64
NSI 0.67 -0.57 -0.05 0.64 1

Table 5 Descriptive statistics in female samples

Obs. with Obs. without

Variable Observations Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation
missing data missing data
ICW 52 0 52 10.00 32.00 19.32 4.10
ICH 52 0 52 15.00 40.00 29.05 4.57
EBW 52 0 52 76.00 92.00 82.65 3.96
NWI 52 0 52 0.11 0.40 0.23 0.05
NSI 52 0 52 0.43 1.66 0.67 0.19

Table 6 Correlation matrix in female samples

Variables ICW ICH EBW NWI NSI

ICW 1 -0.09 -0.09 0.95 0.75
ICH -0.09 1 -0.04 -0.07 -0.69
EBW -0.09 -0.04 1 -0.38 -0.03
NWI 0.95 -0.07 -0.38 1 0.70
NSI 0.75 -0.69 -0.03 0.70 1

22 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Discussion
The results we obtained correlate will with similiar studies
about morphometric parameters of the intercondylar notch
and their indices. Anthropologic differences in male and
female distal femoral morphology has been established in
many studies, although scarcse in the domain of the in-
tercondylar notch (Tilman et al., 2002). The ever growing
participation of females in sports resulted in the need to
identify the reason that non-contact injuries are more com-
mon in female than in male athletes. Some authors (Soury-
al and Freeman,1993; LaPrade et al., 1994; Shelbourne et
al., 1997; Anderson et al, 2001; Stiljak et al., 2014) have
confirmed and other denied the difference in intercondy-
lar notch morphology (Schickendantz and Weiker, 1993;
Teitz, et al., 1997). This study confirms the difference in
linear morphometric parameters between genders but de-
nies the difference in regard to intercondylar notch indices.
This is confirmed by LaPrade et al. (1994) who confirmed
that intercondylar notch stenosis can be a risk factor in
ACL ruptures, they confirm that there is no difference in
geometrical notch indices between genders. Stiljak et al.
(2014) conducted a smiliar study using imaging methods
where they compared normal knee with ones that suffered
ACL ruptures andmeasured their intercondylar notch indi-
ces. They found that the NWI and NSI values were larger
in control groups than in the group with ACL rupture with
the mean for NWI being 0.28 in control groups and 0.30
in the studied sample and for NSI 0.67 and 0.73. Other
than that they reported that the difference between male
NWI and NSI in control and studied groups were significant
while that was not the case in female samples. Similiar
results were obtained by Anderson et al. (2001). Teitz et al.
(1997) confirmed that there is no difference between gen-
ders regarding the geometrical indices and disagree that
there is a difference in geometrical indices between control
groups and studied groups. Shelbourne et al. (1997) con-
cluded that the narrow notch of female athletes could result
in more common non-contact ACL injuries. Muneta et al
(1997) confirm the fact that NWI cannot explain the differ-
ence between injury rates in male and female athletes due
the lack of significant differences in their values. Other ap-
proaches have been taken in determining the intercondylar
notch morphology as a risk factor for ACL injuries. House-
worth et al. (1987) used radiographs to determine the area
of the intercondylar notch rather than just the linear mor-
phometric parameters in the previous studies. They deter-
mined that a lower posterior arch of the intercondylar notch
might pose a risk for ACL injuries. A similiar approach was
taken by Tillman et al. (2002) who used another index, the
Notch Area Index (NAI) to quantify the area of the intercon-
dylar notch and to determine the difference between race
and gender. They concluded that there are is no difference
in NAI between race and gender. Tillman et al. measured
the NSI to quantify the variate shapes of the intercondylar
notch. The shape of the notch varies from A to U shape
and in some studies an Ω shape intercondylar notch de-
pendent on age of the subjects knee (Hirtler et al., 2016).
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
They determined that there is no difference in NSI between
male and female samples although after standardization for
height, the male intercondylar notches tended to be more
round than the female ones. A low NSI results in possible
impigiment of the cruciate ligaments in the anterior por-
tion of the intercondylar notch which is in this case nar-
rower. Norwood and Cross (1977) confirmed the fact that
the cruciate ligaments contact with the intercondylar roof
when in full extension. Such a mechanism could explain
the more common injuries in people of European in con-
trast to African descent (Tilman et al., 2002). Other pos-
sible mechanisms include the fact that notch width does
not correlate with the size of the ACL, as previously thought
(Muneta et al., 1997). The smaller the notch, the narrower
the space for the ACL and as such a larger risk for cruciate
ligament injuries.
Conclusion
We concluded that a difference in linear morphometric
parameters of the intercondylar notch exists with female
intercondylar notches being narrower and more superficial
than their male counterparts. No correlation with mediolat-
eral parameters was found. Intercondylar notch geometric
indices (NWI, NSI) have shown no difference between gen-
ders and as such cannot be used to ascertain the reason
for more often non- contact injuries in female athletes,
although some theories provide a plausible reason that re-
gards shape and size of the intercondylar notch.
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Submitted: Januar 13, 2018

Accepted: April 2, 2018

Correspondence to:
Eldan Kapur, MD, PhD
Medical faculty, University of Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: eldan.kapur@mf.unsa.ba

24 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Slavenko Likić, Izet Bajramović, Rasim Lakota, Damira Vranešić-Hadžimehmedović,
Dženana Imamović, Ivor Doder and Denis Čaušević

DIFFERENCES IN MOTOR-FUNCTIONAL
STATUS IN STUDENTS TESTED
THROUGH ATHLETIC DISCIPLINES
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 796.42.012.1

Abstract
Aim of the study was to determine differences between defined quality groups of students according to the body mass index (BMI),
in their motor-functional status tested by certain athletics disciplines. The sample consisted of 24 students (age = 19 ± 0.78, height
= 183.3 ± 6.96, body mass = 77.7 ± 10.24) who completed the study course of Athletics at the first year of the Faculty of Sports
and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo. Used variables consisted of the following athletics disciplines: sprint running 60 m,
hurdles running 60 m, running 300 meters, long jump and shot put. The sample was clustered into three equal groups consisting of
8 students, according to the BMI criterion [Group 1 BMI = 20.3 kg/m2 (181.3 cm, 67.1 kg); Group 2 BMI = 22.8 kg/m2 (186.5 cm,
79.3 kg); Group 3 BMI = 26.1 kg/m2 (182.1 cm, 86.8 kg)]. Analysis of the results in athletic disciplines showed statistically significant
differences in variables of running at 300m (1st with 3 – p=0.040 and 2nd with 3 - p=0.049), long jump (1st with 3rd p=- 0.043 *) and
shot put (1st with 2nd p=- 0.049 *). The obtained results indicate that motor-functional status of students was primarily differed by the
level of anaerobic-aerobic and anaerobic potential, according to the type of speed-endurance, speed-strength and explosive-strength.

Key words: BMI, Z values, speed-strength, speed-endurance, athletic potential

Introduction
Contemporary lifestyle is constantly focused on the needs
for different technologies that facilitate human work, but
also focus on sedentary lifestyle. Accordingly, humans of
modern time are both homo technicians and homo - sed-
ens (Bilić et al., 2011). Play sports by personal choice, that
is also adapted to the motor-functional and health status of
an individual, should be an integral part of every day’s life.
Contemporary trends have emphasized the importance
of regular physical activity, due to reasons of personal
health and health of general population (Malina, 2001).
Most physiological responses that are caused by moder-
ate physical activity improve health, while reduced physical
activity or its complete absence increases the risks of a
variety of modern time’s diseases (Matković et al., 2010,
Ćirić et al., 2015). According to WHO (2006), studies have
concluded that elimination of physical inactivity, among
other things, could reduce coronary heart disease by 15-
39%, hypertension by 12% and diabetes by 12-35%, and
also 18% less fractures caused by osteoporosis. Regard-
less of the inherited tendency to certain diseases, health is
not only genetically conditioned. People can significantly
influence their health status through changing their lifestyle
habits (Matković et al., 2010). Research today focuses on
the health benefits of daily intermittent physical activity, and
not exclusively aerobic activities (Kesaniemi et al., 2011).
The recommended categorization according to WHO
(1995) implies the following values of BMI: malnutrition
(<20 kg/m2), ideal weight (20-25 kg/m2), excess body
mass (25-30 kg/m2), and obesity (>30 kg/m2). The higher
values of BMI are related to the extent of the waist and hip
as well as their intercourse, regardless of age or sex (Anuu-
rad et al., 2003). But, according to its definition, BMI does
not differ fatty tissue from mass-free fatty tissue (Khoury et
al., 2013). Therefore, the increased value of BMI does not
always reflect increased adiposity (Freedman, Wang and
Maynard, 2005). Regardless of, BMI is most often used as
a surrogate adipose mass.
Athletics is a complex multidisciplinary sport, which most
prominently contains phylogenetic components of human
motion. The entire spectrum of natural forms of motion,
such as walking, running, jumping and throwing, is con-
tained in certain disciplines of athletic specialty (Smajlović,
2005). Athletic movements are the basis for any human
motional activity (Idrizović and Jukić, 2006). Accordingly,
athletics is a necessary basis for great achievements in
most sports. Also, results in athletics can well serve to

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 25

evaluate the development of human motor abilities, such
as speed, endurance and strength, as well as their different
manifestations (Smajlović, 2010). Due to the wide range
of its qualities that are reflected in its anthropological es-
sence, as well as its historical values, athletics is often
called “The Queen of Sports”.
The athletic disciplines differ according to the specific biome-
chanical structures of motion, which may be cyclic, acyclic
or cyclic-acyclic, as well as according to their various motor-
functional requirements. Depending on the motor-functional
requirements of certain athletic disciplines, energy can be
dominantly obtained from aerobic or anaerobic sources
(Vučetić et al., 2013), or their different combinations.
Through the course of athletics, as well as other extra-
curricular activities related to athletics, it is possible to
influence student’s motor-functional status with a wide
spectrum of activities, as confirmed by various studies
(Beljak, 2017, Cvenić, 2016, Abazović et al 2014, Žuvela
et al 2011). It is good to create a habit for using easily
applicable sports-recreational activities that can contribute
to raising motor-functional status and also contributing to
improving the health status of students.
Aim of the study is to determine the differences between
defined groups of students according to the BMI criterion,
and their motor-functional status tested by certain athletics
disciplines.
Methods
Participants
The sample consisted of 24 healthy, physically active men,
students of the first year at the Faculty of Sport and Physi-
cal Education, University of Sarajevo. All students realized
practical (60 lessons) and theoretical (30 lessons) classes
on the Athletic course during the academic year 2016.-
’17. Characteristics of the whole sample (mean ± SD)
were as follows: age = 19 ± 0.78 yrs; Height = 183.3 ±
6.96 cm; Body mass = 77.7 ± 10.24 kg. All respondents
were informed in advance of the reasons and methods of
research. They voluntarily decided to participate in the re-
search by signing the written consent. Complete research
results are stored at the Sports Institute, Faculty of Sport
and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo.
Running variables
Sample of variables for measuring motor-functional status
contained a set of 5 athletic disciplines: sprint running 60
m (R60m), hurdles running 60 m (H60m - height 84 cm,
range 8.5m), running 300 m (R300m), long jump (LJMP),
shot put (SHPT - weight 4kg), while the morphological
characteristics used are: body height (HEIGHT), body
mass (WEIGHT) and body mass index (BMI).
Testing procedure
The research was conducted during two working days,
with the requirement for students not to perform highly
intensive physical activity during 24 hours before testing.
26
On the first day, students are given a detailed explanation
of the testing protocol. The first day in the early morning
hours (9:00h), body height was tested with 0.5 cm ac-
curacy (Čović et al 2017) using a portable anthropometer
(Holtain 610, Crymych, United Kingdom), body mass and
body mass index (BMI) was tested on bioelectrical imped-
ance scales TANITA BC 420 SMA (TANITA Europe GmbH,
Sindelfingen, Germany). Thereafter, athletics disciplines
of sprint running 60 m (R60m), 60m hurdles (H60m),
long jump (LJMP) and shot put (SHPT - weight 4kg) were
tested. On the second day, hurdles running 60 m (R60m
- height 84 cm, range 8.5m) and running 300 m (R300m)
were tested. The results in the racing disciplines were
measured by a pair of photocells (Microgate photocell,
Bolzano, Italy).
Statistical analysis
Using the SPSS 23.0 mathematical-statistical program
(IBM Corp. Chicago), the obtained research results were
processed. For all treated variables, basic descriptive val-
ues (arithmetic mean and standard deviation) of entire
sample are calculated. After that, the clustering of respon-
dents was done according to the BMI values. A sample of
24 respondents was divided into three equal groups, with
a total of 8 respondents, based on the body mass index
(BMI) criteria. The basic descriptive values are calculated
for each defined quality group of respondents. Using ANO-
VA (LSD test), the differences between formed groups at
the statistical significance level (p≤0.05) were tested. To
analyze the athletic potential of defined quality groups, Z
values are calculated according to Dizdar’s (2006) recom-
mendation so that the results in the running variables are
multiplied by the number -1, since they are reversed scaled
and their higher numerical value represents a weaker re-
sult-value.
Results
The results of descriptive statistics of variables are
presented in table 1 for three defined quality groups of
respondents. It is evident that all three defined groups
statistically differ significantly according to the BMI
(p≤0.05) variable, which was also the starting point
of this research. The first quality group consisted of 8
students with the best BMI values, in the second qual-
ity group there were students whose BMI value ranged
from 9th to 16th position of the complete sample, while
the third quality group was formed by students with the
weakest BMI values. Within all tested athletic disciplines,
statistically significant differences were found in variables
running 300m (R300m) and long jump (LJMP) between
third quality group and groups 1 and 2, where it was also
noticeable that the first quality group had a better arithme-
tic mean value of the results. Also, statistically significant
differences were found in the variable shot put (SHPT)
between the first and second quality groups, where the
first group had a lower arithmetic mean, which also
means a weaker value of the results.
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and results of ANOVA (LSD test)

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

ANOVA
(n=8) (n=8) (n=8)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD LSD
1 with 2 – p=0.151
Height (cm) 181.37 6.32 186.50 4.65 182.12 8.95 1 with 3 - p=0.829
2 with 3 - p=0.217
1 with 2 - p=0.001*
Mass (kg) 67.10 6.92 79.38 3.87 86.83 7.42 1 with 3 – p<0.001*
2 with 3 - p=0.027*
1 with 2 – p<0.001*
BMI 20.37 1.19 22.80 0.56 26.15 0.92 1 with 3 - p<0.000*
2 with 3 - p=0.000*
1 with 2 - p=0.900
R60m (s) 7.94 .34 7.91 0.40 8.23 0.52 1 with 3 - p=0.194
2 with 3 - p=0.157
1 with 2 - p=0.768
H60m (s) 10.13 0.79 9.99 1.02 10.81 .91 1 with 3 - p=0.151
2 with 3 - p=0.088
1 with 2 - p=0.919
R300m (s) 43.68 4.43 43.90 3.80 48.26 4.26 1 with 3 - p=0.040*
2 with 3 - p=0.049*
1 with 2 - p=0.692
LJMP (m) 4.89 .35 4.97 0.34 4.43 0.54 1 with 3 - p=0.043*
2 with 3 - p=0.018
1 with 2 - p=0.049*
SHPT (m) 9.89 1.23 11.11 1.12 10.62 1.21 1 with 3 - p=0.232
2 with 3 - p=0.421
*p≤0.05: R60m – Sprint running 60m; H60m – Hurdles running 60m;
R300m – Running 300m; LJMP – Long jump; SHPT – Shot put: LSD – Least sig. difference

The arithmetic mean values of variables are transformed Discussion

to Z values in order to calculate and present the values of
their athletic potential (Table 2), and also present the typical The analysis of morphologic characteristics in three de-
structures of defined quality groups graphically (Graph 1). fined quality groups of students shows their following
characteristics (Table 1): The first quality group is char-
acterized by an extremely low BMI value (20.37 ± 1.19)
Table 2 Athletics results of quality groups (Z values) and values which is within the limits of normal values according to
of athletic potential (Σ Z) the World Health Organization (WHO) categorization, and
accordingly the lowest average body mass value; The sec-
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 ond quality group is characterized by higher body height
compared to the first and third group of students, which
VARIABLE Z Z Z have almost identical body height values. The second qual-
ity group is characterized by an average BMI of 22.80 ±
R60m (s) 0.20 0.27 -0.46
.56 which can indicate a balanced body height and mass
ratio, and also suggest an ideal body mass in the case of
H60m (s) 0.20 0.34 -0.52
this group of students, since their BMI value according to
R300m (s) 0.36 0.31 -0.65 WHO categorization is in the middle of the ideal range (20-
25); The third quality group is characterized by the highest
LJMP (m) 0.26 0.44 -0.71 average body weight value among all three defined quality
groups, and is characterized by a significantly higher BMI
SHPT (m) -0.53 0.45 0.06 value (26.15 ± .92). According to WHO categorization,
excessive body mass indicates a BMI of 25-30, which is
ΣZ 0.49 1.81 -2.28 noticeable in the case of a third quality group. However,

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 27

Graph 1 Typical
structures of quality R60m H60m R300m LJMP SHPT
groups in tested athletics
disciplines
according to WHO categorization, people are at a stage of
obesity when they have a BMI above 30 (Alberino et al.,
2001; Grotle et al., 2008).
In tested athletic discipline, statistically significant dif-
ferences were found in variables of running 300m and
long jump, between third quality group to groups 1 and
2, (p≤.05). These results point to dominant differences
between defined quality groups in athletic disciplines
testing the anaerobic-aerobic of speed-endurance type,
and anaerobic potential of speed and strength jump type,
contrary to the opinion of Singh et al. (2015). In addition,
as in previous studies, dominant differences between de-
fined quality groups according to the BMI criteria were
identified at the level of their explosive-strength potential
(Castro-Piñero et al., 2010; Gontarev et al., 2014; Almu-
zaini, 2000).
By using a variable shot put, an explosive-strength po-
tential (Terzis et al. 2003) was studied, where statisti-
cally significant differences were identified between the
first and the second quality groups. These results could
point to the fact that larger muscle mass contributes to
increased force (Aagaard and Andersen 1998), and thus
a better throw result. However, the same was not found
in the case of the third group that had the highest BMI
value, and as a possible reason it could be inappropriate
throwing technique.
In variables sprint running 60m and hurdles running
60m, there were no statistically significant differences
between defined quality groups. However, it is noticeable
that second quality group had better average values of
results in sprint and hurdles running compared to the
first, and evidently better average values compared to the
third quality group. These variables have exceptionally
speed, speed-strength, and speed-coordinative qualities
(Bissas et al., 1996).
Based on the results in athletic disciplines that have been
converted to Z values, it can be concluded that the highest
athletic potential was established in the case of the sec-
28
ond quality group (ΣZ = 1.81), the lower athletic poten-
tial was achieved by the first quality group (ΣZ = 0.49),
while the lowest the level of athletic potential was achieved
by the third quality group (ΣZ = -2.28) (Table 2, Graph
1). By analyzing the typical structures of defined quality
groups according to the BMI criterion, it was found that
the motor-functional status of students differs primarily
according to the anaerobic-aerobic potential of the speed-
endurance type, and anaerobic potential of speed-strength
and explosive-strength type. It can also be concluded that
the relationship between height and body mass, and their
ratio, may indirectly contribute to the type differentiation of
students by the level of motor-functional status and their
athletic potential.
Conclusion
The analysis of the morphologic characteristics of the
treated sample of students found statistically significant
differences between defined quality groups (p≤.05) ac-
cording to the BMI criterion. The most balanced ratio of
body height and mass was identified in the case of the
second quality group (BMI = 22.8), which may indicate
their ideal body mass, as this BMI value is in the middle of
an ideal range of 20-25 according to WHO categorization.
Among the defined quality groups, the dominant differences
in athletic disciplines were determined in variables running
300m, long jump and shot put. By analyzing the typical
structures of defined quality groups according to the BMI
criterion, it was found that the students’ motor-functional
status, tested through athletic disciplines, primary differs in
anaerobic-aerobic and anaerobic potential of speed-endur-
ance, speed-strength and explosive-strength type. It was
concluded that the relationship between height and body
mass, and their ratio, may indirectly contribute to the type
differentiation of students by the level of motor-functional
status and their athletic potential.
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
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Submitted: Januar 15, 2018

Accepted: March 23, 2018

Corresponding author:
Dr. Slavenko Likić, assoc. prof.
University of Sarajevo,
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education
Phone: +387 61 865 644
E-mail: slikic@fasto.unsa.ba

30 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Mensur Vrcić1, Erol Kovačević1,2, Denis Čaušević1, Amila Hodžić1 and Ensar Abazović3

THE EFFECTS OF POST-ACTIVATION

POTENTIATION ON UPPER-BODY
POWER PERFORMANCE IN
RECREATIONALLY TRAINED MEN
1
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
2
Institute of Sport, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
3
Center for Education and Entrepreneur, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 796.433.7.012.11

Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the optimal rest period between PAP and medicine ball throwing, and to verify that the perfor-
mance of the explosive strength of upper limbs was improved when it was preceded by 3x3 90% of 1RM on the incline bench press.
Fifteen male respondents (age = 21 ± 1.53; body mass = 73.75 ± 5.18) students of Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Uni-
versity of Sarajevo, participated in this research. Respondents throw the ball from sitting position, and 3, 5, 7, 10 minutes after the ac-
tivation stimulus - incline bench press 3x3 90% 1RM. Analyzing the obtained results, an acute increase in the distance of the medicine
ball throw was detected. The highest statistically significant pre and post-AP changes occurred in the seventh minute and amounted to
17 cm and 2.89% (p = 0.033). 3x3-90% 1RM IBP results in statistically significant PAP effects and optimal recovery time is 7 minutes.

Key words: strength, students, PAP, medicine ball, 1RM

Introduction
Improving new training strategies, in the focus as a pri-
mary aim sets the promotion of the strong performance of
athletes. One of the most widely used and most applicable
methods of improving these performances is PAP (Post-
activation Potentiation) and implies an acute increase in the
effectiveness of muscular contraction after previous mus-
cular activity (Ebben, W. P., 2006; do Carmo et al. 2018).
Just increasing this efficiency accompanied by neuromus-
cular changes can contribute improving performance in
exercises that require strength, speed or power (Borba et
al. 2017; MacIntosh et al. 2012). However, various studies
revealed that PAP does not appear equally in all athletes,
and that there are different parameters influencing the size
of its effect, eg gender (Jensen and Ebben 2003; Rixon
et al. 2007), training level (Wilson et al. 2013; Chiu et al.
2003, Pääsuke et al. 2007), muscular fiber (Hamada et al.
2000; Seitz et al. 2016), duration of contraction (Baudry
and Duchateau 2004; Shima et al. 2006) etc. Also, the in-
dividual characteristics of athletes such as level of training,
distribution and the ratio of different types of muscle fibers
affect the size of the PAP effect (Evetovich et al., 2015).
In today’s research it is not clearly defined stacking size
that influences the strength of the occurrence and size of
the PAP effect but the correlation, which is confirmed in
many studies (Duthie et al. 2002; Kilduff et al. 2007; Xeno-
fondos et al. 2018; Lockie et al. 2018). The study Bellar et
al. (2012) noticed a positive correlation between absolute
power and the distance of throwing the ball after activat-
ing stimulus by throwing balls of bigger weight. Jo et al.
(2010) state that absolute strength has an impact on time
course of PAP effect, and that stronger people need less
time to complete recovery. Also, Seitz et al. (2014) noticed
the greatest PAP effect occurs 3 minutes after activating
stimulus for stronger (1RM squat ≥ 2x body mass) and 6
minutes for weaker subjects. However, study shows that
there is no precise optimum time of PAP effect, especially
when it comes to the power of the upper extremities.
There are indicators that the best effects are achieved be-
tween 7 minutes (de Assis Ferreira et al., 2012; Bevan et
al. 2009) and 12 minutes (Kilduff et al. 2007). To be more
precise, when it comes to acute improvements in ballistic
movement performance, some authors report the statis-

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 31

tically significant improvements (Markovic et al., 2008;
French et al., 2003; Smilios et al., 2005), while other au-
thors have not noticed any improvement (Scott and Do-
cherty, 2004; Jones and Lee, 2003; Koch et al., 2003).
Therefore, the general aim of this study was to verify that
the performance of the explosive strength of the upper
limbs was improved when it was preceded by 3x3 90%
of the 1RM on incline bench press. The second purpose
was to determine the optimal rest period between PAP and
medicine ball throwing.
Methods
Participants
The sample subjects of this study consisted of 15 healthy,
physically active male students of Faculty of Sport and
Physical Education of the University of Sarajevo, without
any reported upper extremity injuries in the past two years.
The subjects had experience with strength training and
were all physically active and had 3 to 5 trainings per week.
The characteristics of subjects (mean±SD) were: age (21
± 1.53), body mass (73.75 ± 5.18), maximum incline
bench press 1RM strength - (66 ± 10.38). All subjects
were previously informed in detail about the reasons and
procedures of research and they signed a written consent,
voluntarily.
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The subjects were asked not to do heavy training at least 24
hours before participating in this study. The research was
conducted in two working days in the morning, between
with one-day break. The first morning measured the weight
of the examinees (BC-420MA, TANITA Europe GmbH, Sin-
delfingen, Germany), after which they performed a stan-
dard warm-up of 5 minutes of easy running (8 km · h-1)
followed by 5 minutes of dynamic stretching (Tsoukos et
al. 2016) after which 1RM was determined.
performed by the subject sitting on a chair with a medicine
ball (4 kg, medical volume 76 cm) in both hands on the
chest. The subject was asked to throw the medicine as
far as possible in a certain direction and after then the dis-
tance of the throw have been measured. There were two
throws in 10 second intervals in order to avoid the acute
effects of the first throwing on the second. This test is used
because it is very simple and highly reproducible test of
upper-body explosive performance (int. Corell = 0.97)
(Harasin et al. 2006), and very often used in the training
of athletes in many sports. Activation stimulus meant 3x3
with 90% 1RM after which they threw the medicine ball at
certain time points of 3, 5, 7 and 10 minutes. Results of
throwing distance medicine ball are marked and rounded to
the lower whole number.
Statistical Analysis
The results were processed using SPSS. 23 for Windows
(IBM Corp. Chicago). Arithmetic mean values and standard
deviations were calculated, for all variables, followed by
paired samples T-test to determine possible differences in
time points. Statistical significance deemed at p<0.05.
Results
Table 1 shows the results of arithmetic means and stan-
dard deviations of treated variables. It is noticeable that the
results of the pair sample T-test show statistically signifi-
cant difference in the power output by throwing medicine
ball only in the seventh minute (p = .033). Figure 1. shows
the average means of the distance of medical ball throwing
at certain points that were analyzed in this study.
Table 1 Descriptive values of the achieved results (n = 15)
Std.
Variables Mean T - test
Deviation

One-Repetition Maximum Bench Press Weight 73.75 5.188 /

Determining maximum dynamic strength (1RM) was made
according to the recommendation of Brown and Weir IBP 66.00 10.385 /
(2001) with the help of barbell and free weights. The sub-
jects were asked to lie down on the incline press (28 ° in- PRE - PAP 5.89 .4760 /
cline) with head, shoulder blades, and buttocks constantly
contacting the bench. The bar is lowered to the chest paral- MBP 3 5.97 .376 .380
lel to the nipple line, after which one pushes upward until
the elbows aren’t fully corrected. The 1RM was determined
MBP 5 6.04 .353 .109
by using the standard procedure (Brown and Weir, 2001;
Dohoney et al., 2002). After determining 90% of 1RM, the
loads are gradually increased with the dumbbells of 1.25; MBP 7 6.06 .444 .033*
2.5 and 5 kg until 1RM is reached. For all subjects 90% of
1RM corresponded to their 3RM. MBP 10 5.99 .452 .182

Seated Medicine Ball Throw
The second day included warm- up and throwing the medi-
cine ball (4kg). The medicine ball throwing test used is rec-
ommended by the authors Harasin et al. 2006, which was
* significant at p<0.05; IBP = Incline bench press; PRE - PAP
= medice ball distance before PAP; MBP3 = distance after 3
minutes; MBP5 = distance after 5 minute; MBP7 = distance
after 7 minute; MBP10 = distance after 10 minute;

32 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Figure 1 Mean values of
the distance of medical ball
throwing (3,5,7,10min)
Discussion
The aim of this study was to evaluate PAP effects during
upper limb power exercise after a 3x3-90%1RM IBP. Two
evaluated factors were (1) PAP magnitude and (2) optimal
recovery time.
The most obvious acute effect of previous highly intensive
or high-performing activities is the loss of the ability to
generate force. However, it has been observed that con-
tractile history can also result in improved performance.
High intensity and/or high-volume physical activities primar-
ily reduces force generation ability (MacIntosh i Rassier,
2002). However, it is noticed that this type of contractile his-
tory can also enhance performance for a short time (Smith i
Fry, 2007; Grange et all, 1993; Sweeney et all, 1993). Previ-
ous studies have shown positive PAP effects on nerve acti-
vation magnitude (Hamada i sur., 2000; Moore i Stull, 1984;
Suzuki i sur., 1988) and contractile characteristics (Hamada
i sur., 2000; Vandervoort et all, 1983).
If observed in percentages, if the contraction (or contractile
parameters) after the activation stimulus is 100% of the
initial means, PAP does not occur, while means bigger than
100% indicate the presence of PAP and less than 100%
indicates “posterior activation depression” (Mola et al.,
2014) or fatigue domination over PAP effects (Chiu et al.,
2003). Further in the text, the changes in measurements
after the activation stimuli will be represented in percent-
ages, compared to the initial measurement.
According to the aim and based on the results presented in
the previous chapter, it is noticed that 3x3 90% 1RM incline
bench press increased upper-body ballistic performance.
The highest statistically significant pre and post-AP chang-
es observed were 17 cm (2.89%; p = .033) seven minutes
after AP while other changes, although present, were also
positive but not statistically significant. Thus, the increase
in medicine ball throw distance after three minutes was 9
cm (1.36%), 15 cm (2.55%) after five minutes and 10cm
(1.70%) after 10 minutes.
These results are in line with the review article in which au-
thor (Bishop, 2003) who stated that medium (and stronger)
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
intensity activation stimuli may cause acute improvement in
the performance of subsequent task performance until local
muscular fatigue occurs. It is important to mention that Sale
(2002) stated that PAP affects subsequent performance, but
the optimal parameters are not fully determined.
In addition to review articles that point to the existence of
PAP effects, Hrysomallis and Kidgell (2001) did not notice
statistically significant difference in the scores recorded
on the force plate during explosive push-ups after a 5RM
bench press activation stimulus.
Liossis et all (2013) noted that strength output increases
after 65% and 85% 1RM bench press, whereas at 65%
1RM changes occur after 4 minutes while at 85% 1RM the
greatest PAP effects were observed 8 minutes after acti-
vation stimulation. These findings are consistent with the
results of the study since, after 90% of 1RM, the biggest
difference was observed 7 minutes after AS.
Considering that the factors affecting the level of PAP: 1)
the age of the respondents (Baudry et al., 2005), 2) in-
dividual’s training level (Chiu et al., 2003; Wilson et al.,
2013), 3) the type of sport (Pääsuke i sur., 2007), 5) the
ratio of fast and slow twitch muscle fibers (Hamada et al.,
2000) and 6) contraction type (Ye et al. , 2015) it is likely
that the results would be a little different if sample with
different characteristics was included in the study, for ex-
ample professional athletes, athletes which predominantly
use their upper extremities or participate in training involv-
ing mostly explosive activities.
Many argued about possible PAP mechanisms and con-
cluded that this type of contraction is primarily associated
with myosin regulatory light chain phosphorylation (Grange
et al., 1993; Sweeney et al., 1993; Metzger et al., 1989)
and an increase in α-motoneuron excitability (Misiaszek,
2003, Zucker and Regehr, 2002), and, additionally, the in-
crease in central nervous system stimulation (Rixon et al.,
2007) which manifests itself by increasing nerve conduc-
tion and decreasing presynaptic inhibition thus resulting in
better synchronization and activation of higher order motor
units (Aaagard et al., 2002; Chiu et al., 2003; Güllich and
Schmidtbleicher, 1996; Tillin & Bishop, 2009)
33
In addition to t myosin regulatory light chain phosphoryla-
tion, some of PAP mechanisms are increased moto-neuron
excitability, better motor units synchronization (Hodgson et
al., 2005, Rassier and Macintosh, 2000), acute changes
in muscle fiber angle (Tillin and Bishop, 2009), increase in
actin-myosin binding number and better interaction (Gül-
lich and Schmidtbleicher, 1996), improved stimulation
- contraction synchronization and increased motor units
activation (Zhi et al., 2005, Szczena et al., 2002) Klein et
al., 2001; de Luca et al., 1996).
Conclusion
In accordance to the set of aims, it can be concluded that
3x3-90% 1RM IBP results in a statistically significant in-
crease in the distance of the medical ball throwing distance
from the chest and the optimal recovery time after activa-
tion stimulus with the amateurs is 7 minutes.
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36 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Edin Mirvic1, Eldan Kapur2, Faris Rasidagic1, Nermin Nurkovic1 and Milomir Trivun3

ACUTE DECREASE IN LUNG CAPACITY

CAUSED BY INTENSIVE SWIMMING
IN STUDENTS
1
Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
2
Medical Faculty, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
3
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports of the University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 797.2:616.24

Abstract
The main goal of this research was to examine the decrease in lung capacity influenced by load caused by swimming, that is, to what
extent the fatigue affects the change in lung capacity and to what extent the maximal inhalation and exhalation after the 200m crawl
technique section is decreased. Inadequate breathing (inadequate exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide) causes fatigue more quick-
ly. Breathing in water, due to hydrostatic pressure, is harder than breathing ashore. Therefore, it is harder to keep the swimmer’s body
position in water. It is harder to overcome the forces which interfere the swimming, the coordination is being obstructed as well as
the swimming technique. All that weakens the result, therefore the attention should be on the education of breathing technique during
swimming specifically. Accordingly, the goal of this research has been set – “to determine the decrease in lung capacity influenced by
load caused by swimming.” If the decrease of lung capacity is proven, the significance of training in swimming technique is affirmed.
Students of the second year at Faculty of Sports and Physical Education of University of Sarajevo were involved for the research – 26
male students. During the research, four measures of the lung capacity were done, which showed that load caused by swimming
influences the lung capacity negatively.
T-test did not show any statistically significant difference (p=0.558) for the maximal expiratory pressure for the first second of mea-
surement at standing in water and lying in water (p=0.225). The indicator in the sixth second, at standing in water, showed significant
difference a (p=0.038, η2=0.16). At lying position, in the sixth second, the difference which was also significant (p=0.006, η2=0.27).
Significant correlation of air flow in the first measurement – standing in water (p=0.023, η2=0.17) and second measurement – lying
in water (p=0.050, η2=0.14) was noted.
In conclusion it can be argued that the load caused after the 200m crawl technique section affects the lung capacity negatively and
obstructs the breathing. As a recommendation for further work with students, but also for other swimmers of similar characteristics,
it is necessary to dedicate more lessons to the practice of breathing technique.

Key words: Hydrostatic pressure, Fatigue, Inspirium, Expirium

Introduction
Breathing in water is significantly different than breathing
ashore, due to the load caused by hydrostatic pressure.
Furthermore, breathing in water is affected by specific
body position – it depends on the swimming technique,
but also on water which can interfere with the respiratory
organs by sprinkling. Inadequate breathing obstructs the
swimming and poses a threat of carbon dioxide accumula-
tion (disorientation, suffocation of the swimmer). Water, by
its pressure, prevents the air volume from ejection from the
lungs with maximal exhalation, after the maximal inhalation
which represents the vital capacity (Hadžović – Džuvo, A.
& Kapur, E. 2011). Therefore, the breathing technique train-
ing while being in water should be especially considered.
Inaccurate breathing also causes accelerated fatigue which
disturbs the hydrodynamic body position maintenance.
The fatigue further affects the decrease of time spent in
water and time dedicated to the training of swimming tech-
nique. A negative, closed circle then is formed, because:
the breathing technique is disturbed, oxygen flow into the
organism is decreased, fatigue is accelerated, the swim-
ming technique is disturbed, the effort is increased in order
to maintain the accurate body position and the time length
in water is reduced. Regardless of the fact that, during
swimming, the swimmers hold the horizontal body position

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 37

and reduce the load on the respiratory organs – the pos-
tural role of the thorax and abdominal muscles is smaller,
as well as the tightening role of the diaphragm (Druz, W.
& Sharp, J. 1981), breathing in water is not easier. This
claim is proved by the increased water pressure around
the chest, which pushes the walls of thorax towards inside
when the respiratory organs are relaxed (Withers, R. &
Hamdorf, P. 1989, Frangolias, D. & Rhodes, E. 1995).
The diaphragm cannot function on the mechanically effi-
cient level then (Henke, K., Sharratt, M., Pegelow, D.
& Dempsey, J. 1988). Physiological load on the heart and
blood vessels is increased due to the horizontal body posi-
tion. Due to the external pressure caused by immersion the
blood moves from the lower extremities to the chest (Ray
AD, Pendergast DR & Lundgren CE. 2008, Frangolias, D.
& Rhodes, E. 1996) so the blood flow to the heart and
lungs is increased, that is, besides the fatigue of muscles
upon the swimming activity there is this additional aggra-
vating circumstance while breathing. Breathing at crawl
technique can be considered quite complex regarding the
head being immersed in water face down and the inhalation
being done by turning the head left and right. To overcome
the oxygen shortage, but also maintain endurance in swim-
ming, and for the swimmer to stay in the aerobic phase of
work as long as possible, the air intake (Maglischo E.W.
2008) must be perfectly balanced with the arms technique.
Air is inhaled when the arm in its movement through the air
is finishing the retropulsion phase, immediately before the
fist comes in the water, that is, the other arm is in the tran-
sition phase for a new stroke. The exhalation is completely
done through the nose and mouth while the swimmer’s
face is immersed in water. Due to all the aggravating fac-
tors of breathing in water, the body changes the process
and adjusts so that, during swimming, the frequency of
breathing is lower and respiratory volume is higher in com-
parison with spontaneous breathing (Dicker, S., Loftus,
G., Thornton, N. & Brooks, G. 1980, Rodriguez, F.A.
2000). Therefore, while swimming the crawl technique,
the water environment causes accelerated muscles fatigue
and reduction of oxygen intake in the organism, so master-
ing the breathing technique would be significant. The main
goal of the research is to examine the decrease in lung ca-
pacity influenced by swimming load, that is, to what extent
the fatigue affects the change in lung capacity (Maglischo
E.W. 2008, Holmer, I. & Gullstrand, L. 1980, Hsieh, S.
& Hermiston, R. 1983, Lerda R., Cardelli C., Chollet D.
2001, Pedersen T., Kjendlie P.L. 2003) and to what extent
the maximal inhalation and exhalation after the 200m crawl
technique section is decreased.
Methods
Participants
Participants’ sample involved the male students at Faculty
of Sports and Physical Education of University of Sarajevo.
The students’ age ranged from 20 to 22 years, their aver-
age height was mean±SD: 1.73±0.08m, while the weight
38
ranged from 70.5±10.8 kg. The research included 26 male
students. None of the participants had any history of car-
diorespiratory diseases, they were all non-smokers, and
the research procedure was done in the regular classes of
the Swimming course. All the participants had the same
optimal conditions for regular attendance and passed the
Swimming course, which ensured that they can apply the
appropriate quality of crawl technique swimming. The writ-
ten consent forms to voluntary participation in the research
from all the participants have been collected. Positive ap-
proval from the ethics committee on the testing execution
was obtained beforehand.
Measurement conditions
Testing was done in the Olympic pool in Sarajevo at the
transversal length of 25m. The students had to swim 200m
with crawl technique, more precisely to swim eight times
the given length. The water temperature was +27C º, hu-
midity of the facility was 58,70%, air temperature +29,64
C º and chlorine level 0,5 mg/L, which was within accept-
able limits. The participants were informed on the protocol
of the research and the way of measurement before the
testing. The first step was to introduce the participants to
the measurement of maximal inspirium and expirium in the
upright position, and in the horizontal position subsequent-
ly. The measurement was done in the pool while the body
was immersed in water. They were also informed that the
measurement will be repeated after the 200m crawl tech-
nique section with maximal swimming speed. The maximal
exhalation, in the horizontal position was particularly inter-
esting, since it brings closer the knowledge of breathing
which is similar to the body position when swimming the
crawl technique. During the procedure, participants were
prepared for 10 minutes before the testing and entering
the water, which was followed by the respiratory muscles
warm up. The latter was performed by 200m crawl tech-
nique swimming with speed which corresponds the +/-
80% tempo of the control test. Such procedure was done
in order to introduce the muscles to the complete testing
gradually.
Maximal inspirium and expirium
measurement procedure
The maximal inspiratory pressure was measured on the
mouth with the means of a portable manual device (Micro
Medical Ltd, Kent, UK) which measures the air flow in the
first and sixth second of exhalation. The previous research-
es have shown that the respiratory muscles warm up be-
fore the testing is very important (Volianitis, S., McCon-
nell, A.K., Koutedakis, T., McNaugh- ton, L., Backx,
K. and Jones, D. 2001) so the example was followed
in this research accordingly. In the experimental trials it
was noticed that the warm up has a major role and shows
more objective results of testing. Commercially available
trainer of respiratory muscles (POWERbreathe®, Leisure
Systems International Ltd, UK) was used for inspiratory
warm up, which was performed while using the methods
described (Volianitis, S., McConnell, A.K., Koutedakis,
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
T., McNaugh- ton, L., Backx, K. and Jones, D. 2001).
On every occasion, the participants did the maximal in-
spirium and expirium while they were standing upright
next to the pool or lying down in the pool (face up). When
the participants were in the lying position their legs were
leaned on the fixed mobile stall, so that the body movement
would be reduced. Although the front crawl swimming re-
quires stretched body position with “face in the water”, due
to the applied devices it was not possible to measure the
maximal inspiratory pressure in the stretched immerged
position. There were three measurements each before the
200m crawl technique swimming, in the upright and lying
position (the best results were recorded), whereas, after
the swum section, the expirium was measured only once
in the upright and then only once in the lying position. Such
procedure was performed due to the load that the par-
ticipant had endured. The results from all the participants
were taken into the final processing and data interpretation
afterwards (Hill, N., Jacoby, C. and Faber, H. 1991).
Statistical analysis
The obtained data were processed in the SPSS 22.0 pro-
gram package for Windows. For determining significances
in differences between the first and the second measure-
ment, T-test for dependent samples was applied. When
significance was observed partial ETA squared (η2) was
calculated. Indications of η2 values were classified as: 0.01
- small influence, 0.06 - middle influence and 0.14 - great
influence. Statistical significance was set at 99%.
Results
When it comes to individual observance of variables, it can
be noted that T-test did not show any statistically signifi-
cant difference (p=0.558) for the maximal expiratory pres-
sure for the first second of measurement at standing in wa-
ter. The same statement can be indicated for the maximal
expiratory pressure in the first second of measurement at
lying in water (p=0.225). As regards to the indicator in the
sixth second, at standing in water, significance was noted
(p=0.038, η2=0.16). At lying position, in the sixth second,
similar result was observed (p=0.006, η2=0.27). At both
positions in water, both variables which show the air flow
from the 1st to the 6th second indicate defined statistical
significance. Significant difference of air flow in the first
measurement – standing in water (p=0.023, η2=0.17),
and second measurement – lying in water, (p=0.050,
η2=0.14) was noted. According to the results it can be
claimed that the measured expirium, after 200m crawl
technique swimming, was affected by fatigue caused by
maximal effort.

Table 1 The Difference’s in Lung Capacity Before and After Swimming

95% CI
Measurements Mean SD SEM t df p η2
Lower/ Upper
SPIR1S -0.071 0.590 0.120 -0.321/0.177 -0.594 23 0.558
SPIR1L 0151 0.595 0.121 -0.099/0.403 1.247 23 0.25
SPIR6S 0.431 0.963 0.196 0.024/0.838 2.195 23 0.038* 0.16
SPIR6L 0.173 0.278 0.056 0.055/0.291 3.045 23 0.006** 0.27
FLOWS -0.068 0.146 0.029 -0.130/-0.006 -2.283 23 0.032* 0.017
FLOWL -0.058 0.138 0.028 -0.116/0.000 -2.067 23 0.050* 0.14
** p<0.01; *p<0.05; SD- standard deviation; SEM – standard error of mean; 95% CI – 95% confidence intervals; df- degrees
of freedom; η2 – partial eta squared; SPIR 1S-The Difference’s in Lung Capacity Before and After Swimming the First Second-
Measured by Standing; SPIR 1L -The Difference’s in Lung Capacity Before and After Swimming the First Second-Measured by
Lying; SPIR6S -The Difference’s in Lung Capacity Before and After Swimming the Six Second-Measured by Standing; SPIR6L- The
Difference’s in Lung Capacity Before and After Swimming the Six Second-Measured by Lying; FLOW1S- Average Airflow-Measured
by Standing; FLOW2L- Average Airflow-Measured by Lying

Discussion
After all the needed data was completely collected, it can
be stated that all the participants performed the test ac-
cordingly and they were well informed on the testing
technique. As for analysis of the given results it can be
observed that at the maximal expirium in the first second,
between the initial and final measurement of exhalation,
statistically significant difference was not registered. Mea-
surement was done in two positions, standing in water and
then lying in water. It can be presumed that measuring time
was too short to register any difference in exhalation ca-
pacity. It is evident that the fatigue caused by predicted
load could not affect the occurrence of expected differ-
ence. Differences in exhalation capacity can be confirmed
only in the sixth second. Differences are evident, and they
appeared in both positions in which the testing was done
in the sixth second, both at standing in water and lying
in water. As for lying position, differences in expirium are
more evident (Volianitis, S., McConnell, A.K., Kouteda-
kis, T., McNaugh- ton, L., Backx, K. and Jones, D.
2001). 200m crawl technique swimming with maximal

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 39

effort proved to be appropriate load for respiratory mus-
culature of student population. However, that there is not
big difference between these two measurements, which is
opposite of expectation, is proved by the calculated ETA
coefficient. For the variables of air flow from the 1st to the
6th second the statistical significance of difference was
determined both at standing and lying in water. Therefore,
here as well the effort caused by maximal speed of 200m
crawl technique swimming had certain influence, that is,
it caused fatigue and negative influence on the lung ca-
pacity. Unfortunately, the η2 coefficients have low values
here too. If these indicators are to be compared to the in-
dicators for the top swimmers (Volianitis, S., McConnell,
A.K., Koutedakis, T., McNaugh- ton, L., Backx, K. and
Jones, D. 2001) and (Lemaitre F., JB., Coquart, F., Cha-
vallard, I., Castres, P., Mucci, G., Costalat and D., Chollet
2013), who have swum at the length of 50m and 200m,
we will notice that the expansion of thorax – by strength
of respiratory muscles, was improved by training, namely
they can resist the fatigue for longer, without reducing their
lung capacity. Here, of course it can be assumed that the
“inner breathing” has improved too, the gas exchange
in the lungs respectively. This segment however is not a
subject of this research. On the occasion of crawl tech-
nique swimming the swimmers can use various breathing
techniques – successive (gradual ejection of the air from
lungs into the water) and explosive technique (exhalation
in the form of an explosion – into the water as well) and
postpone or “overcome” the effects of fatigue by doing so
(Maglischo E.W. 2003). Both ways of air ejection are in
fact harder than the “normal process of breathing” due to
the water density. Therefore, effort is also necessary upon
exhalation, which creates even bigger fatigue of the com-
plete system in charge of breathing. More inhalations can
give the swimmer some advantages when swimming at
length (Lerda R., Cardelli C., Chollet D. 2001) and bring to
the fatigue postponement respectively (Pedersen T., Kjen-
dlie P.L. 2003). Hence it is necessary for every swimmer
to master the technique as well as the tactic of breathing
(Maglischo E.W. 2003). The reason for this recommenda-
tion is the knowledge from this research in which the ex-
halation volume reduction in the sixth second and air flow
reduction from the 1st to the 6th second after swimming
the 200m section are evident. With this, the research goal
was achieved, and it was proven that “the load caused by
the 200m crawl technique swimming section negatively af-
fects the lung capacity” and obstructs the breathing. Along
with the training and exercising the breathing muscles
strength, the fatigue of respiratory muscles will be post-
poned (Volianitis, S., McConnell, A.K., Koutedakis, T.,
McNaugh- ton, L., Backx, K. and Jones, D. (2001),
Romer, L.M., McConnell, A.K. and Jones, A. (2002) and
the overall performance of the swimmer will be enhanced.
The fatigue of respiratory muscles has a major role in limit-
ing the scope and intensity of sports (Johnson BD., Aaron
EA.,Babcock MA.,Dempsey JA. 1996) but also teaching
activities. Alternatively, a research could be done on a
bigger sample and possibly more precise data obtained
40
on what exactly affects the breathing process negatively.
Whether it is the breathing technique or only the fatigue of
breathing musculature in question.
Conclusion
It has been confirmed that water environment as well as
the effort in water – swimming, cause the fatigue of re-
spiratory muscles and the breathing organs functionality
deprivation. In order to postpone the fatigue during swim-
ming, trainers as well as the teaching staff who teaches
swimming are recommended an intensified work on mas-
tering the technique and tactic of breathing better. It would
be interesting to conduct a research on the female student
population, as well as the population of athletes in training
process of swimming and to compare the given data with
the established parameters hereby.
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Submitted: Februar 20, 2018

Accepted: March 15, 2018

Correspondence to:
Edin Mirvic, associate professor
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education,
University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: emirvic@fasto.unsa.ba

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 41

Arzija Pašalić1, Amel Mekić2, Bakir Katana1, Jasmina Mahmutović1 and
Amra Mačak Hadžiomerović1

THE ACUTE EFFECT OF STRETCHING

ON FORCE AND POWER
1
Faculty of Health Studies, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
2
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education , University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 796.012.1.071.2

Abstract
The aim of this study is to determine levels of anthropometric features and to make comparison to training status in football and bas-
ketball players. In total 53 football and 47 basketball players, who play in the clubs of the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Body weight, height, 6 skin folds and 4 volumes were measured. An independent t-test showed that the difference in mean body height
between the football and the basketball players was statistically significant (p<0.001), the average difference in height was 8.7 cm in
favor of the basketball player, while the differences in the mean values of the body mass were not statistically significant (p=0.07). BMI
was statistically significant (p= 00017) with higher BMI for football 22.8 ± 1.4 kg/m2 compared to 21.2 ± 5.7 kg/m2. In relation to
age, statistical significance in mean body weight and body height was not observed, while BMI differed (p=0.001). Juniors have lower
BMIs, (21.67 ± 2.4 kg/m2) than the seniors (23.08 ± 1.67 kg/m2), which can be explained by the fact that seniors have trained for
longer and have less fat in total body mass. A statistically significant difference in the median values of the subcutaneous fatty tissue,
as well as the extent of the extremities between football and basketball players, was not established, but significant differences were
found in relation to age. The study showed that there is correlation between years of training and body weight (r = 0.209, p=0.037),
longer training time is associated with higher body weight. Training years were also correlated with BMI (r=0.385, p<0.001), athletes
who train longer have higher BMIs. The training years correlates with percentage of fat % (r =-0.337; p = 0.001.), with a longer train-
ing time, the percentage of fat tissue in the total body mass decreases.

Key words: Anthropometric Characteristics, BMI, Football Players, Basketball Players

Introduction
Every high demanding sport imposes a permanent need
to monitor all the parameters that are important for each
sporting result. Besides physiological, biomechanical,
psychological and cognitive variables, all morphologi-
cal variables are equally important. Anthropometry is a
method that is often used in evaluating all morphological
aspects, and a method that uses measurable body sur-
face values ​​that are applied in the equations necessary
for calculating the body composition. (Nikolic, 2014).
Because of its practicality, anthropometry is also used to
understand the physical characteristics (performances) of
athletes in the field of sports science aiming to improve
athletic performance. The assumption that anthropomet-
ric characteristics influence the physical performances of
the athletes have been proven in many studies. (Gontarev,
2016).
Success in sports is directly related to certain anthropo-
metric features, body composition, and somatotype com-
ponents. (Gjonbalaj, 2018).
The whole body can be divided into two parts from the
point of functions: fat body mass, which consists of fat
and has low water content and lean body mass - lean body
mass, which is a body rich in water. The amount of liquid
contained in the lean body mass of the body is 70% and in
the fat 10%. The fat mass consists of essential and depos-
ited fats. The usual level of deposited fats in adult healthy
men amounts to about 15%, of which 3% are essential
fat, and 12% is found in the depots. (Burns, 1999; Okely,
2004). Athletes have less fat tissue. In his study, Wilmore
and his associates gave an overview of the standard values​​
of body fat for athletes in sports disciplines. These values​​
are obtained by measuring skin thickness and hydro-den-
sitometry. According to Wilmore, the percentage of body
fat for the football players is from 9-12%, and for basketball
players from 7-10%. (Wilmore, 1988).
In 1921, Czech anthropologist Jan Mateigka published one
of the first research papers on determination of the value
and changing the basic components of body mass - bone,

42 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

fat and the muscle tissue, using his new and original meth-
od of “dynamic anthropometry”. Mateigka was studying
the “physical efficiency” of individuals, and for the account
of insurance companies in the United States. Matiegka is
also the first author to list the individual, essential compo-
nents of the body weight of an athlete (Čokorilo, 2010).
It is well evident that differences in body features exist
between different athletes. The aim of this study was to
determine the existence of the differences in some anthro-
pometric features of footballers and basketball players and
to relate them with continuous growth. Total fat tissue in
the body is influenced by genetic factors, but even more so
by nutrition, endocrine factors and physical activity. With
the increase of fitness, the percentage of fatty tissue de-
creases. (Ratamess, 2003).
and dispersion measures. Students’ t-tests and the
Pearson Correlation coefficient were used to compare
variables. For the statistical analysis of the obtained data,
the SPSS 21 software for Windows was used. Statistical
significance of p<0.05 was used.
Results
From table 1 we see that the average value of the body
height of the football player is 183.99 ± 5.77cm, and the
basketball player is 192.78 ± 7.70; with a mean difference
of -8.7 (95% CI: 11.47 to -6.11). The body mass index of
the football player is 22.88 ± 1.42, while the basketball
player is 21.80 ± 2.71; with a mean difference of 1.07
(95% CI: 0.19 to 1.9).

Table 1 Mean values of the anthropomorphic parameters in

Methods relation to type of sport

Football Basketball
Participants
(N=53) (N=47)
We conducted an observation survey involving 100 ath-
letes, including 53 football players and 47 basketball Anthropomorphic
Mean±SD Mean±SD p
players who play in the Premier League clubs of Bosnia Parameters
and Herzegovina. All examinees were male, with an aver- Body height 183.99±5.77 192.78±7.70 <0.001**
age age of 19.3 ± 4.58 years, with active participation in Body mass 77.49±6.08 81.40±13.51 0.072
sports of 9.25 ± 4.46 years.
Body mass
22.88±1.42 21.80±2.71 0.017*
Measurement procedure index
All anthropometric measurements were carried out by DKNNl 6.72±3.21 6.85±3.23 0.836
highly qualified, trained and experienced examiners. Body DKNPl 4.70±1.15 5.00±1.45 0.250
height and mass were measured using a stadometer
DKNNk 9.44±3.31 9.99±3.65 0.438
(Seca, Leicester, UK). In addition to height and mass, six
skin folds (upper arm, forearm, chest, abdomen, thighs, DKNPk 7.16±3.35 8.20±3.31 0.125
and lower legs) and four circumferences (forearm, fore- DKNGr 5.74±1.86 6.25±2.61 0.259
arm, thigh, and thighs) were measured.
DKNTr 7.55±3.07 8.72±3.55 0.080
Absolute mass of fatty tissue is calculated according to
the formula F = d x TP x k2, where: Onl 28.93±1.86 28.70±2.99 0.639
F - mass of fat and subcutaneous tissue in g, Opl 26.75±1.36 27.02±2.05 0.250
d - mean value of measured leather folds, according to Onk 55.58±5.59 55.30±4.73 0.442
formula
d = (DKNNl + DKNPl + DKNNk + DKNPk + DKNGr Opk 38.30±2.61 38.95±2.61 0.125
+ DKNTr) /6 x 0.5, where: %F 11.66±3.48 12.47±4.02 0.286
DKNNl - the thickness of the skin fold of the upper arm, F(KG) 9.05±2.83 10.38±4.34 0.070
DKNPl - the thickness of the skin fold of the sub-arm, SD – Standard deviation; **- significant at 99%; * - significant at 95%
DKNNk - Thickness of the skin fold of the upper leg,
DKNPk - thickness of the skin fold of the subcutaneous Mean values ​​of anthropometric parameters in relation to
tissue, age (Table 2) show the existence of statistical significance.
DKNGr - thickness of the skin fold of the breast, except for body height and weight. forearm skin and sub-
DKNTr - thickness of the skin of the abdomen, cutaneous circumference of lower leg.
TP - body surface area in cm2, and calculated according The body mass index of the senior is 23.08 ± 1.67 and the
to the formula: junior 21.67 ± 2.40 with a mean difference of -1.41 (95%
TP = 167,2 X √ (TM X TV / 1000) CI: -2.23 to 0.584). Among the skin combinations. the most
k2 - constant expressed as a value of 1.3. pronounced difference in the mean values ​​of the skin fold
of the thigh. in the junior is 10.67 ± 4.01. and the seniors
Statistical analysis 8.73 ± 2.49; with a mean difference of 1.94; 95% CI: 0.61
For the statistical analysis we used the arithmetic mean to 3.27. Of the extremities. the most significant statistical
and standard deviation for the display of mean values ​​ significance of the circumference of the upper arm. in the
seniors. this value is 29.73 ± 2.22. and the junior is 27.92

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 43

± 2.33; with an average difference of -1.81; 95% CI: -2.71 Table 4 Correlative relationship between years of training, body
to -0.90. A large difference is also shown in % of fat tissue. weight and BMI
with seniors of 10.54 ± 2.54. and for juniors 13.54 ± 4.17. Body mass Body mass index
with an average difference of 2.99; 95% CI: 1.61 to 4.36.
Training age r=0.209* r=0.385**
Table 2 Mean values of anthropometric parameters in relation to age r - Pearson Correlation **- significant at 99%; * - significant at 95%

Junior Training age is in correlation with DKNNl (r =-24;

Senior (N=47)
(N=50) p=0.016). Athletes with a longer training experience have
Anthropometric lower DKNNl. Training age is in correlation with DKNPl
Mean± SD Mean± SD P
Parameters (r=0.349; p <0.001). Athletes with a longer training ex-
perience have less DKNPl. Training age is not correlated
Body height 189.06±7.65 187.19±8.36 0.246
with DKNNk (r=-0.167; p=0.097). This ratio is inversely
Body mass 77.51±10.09 81.15±10.47 0.080 proportional but not statistically significant. Training age is
Body mass inversely proportional to DKNNk. Training age is in correla-
21.67±2.40 23.08±1.67 0.001**
index tion with DKNPk (r =-0.323; p=0.001). With greater train-
DKNNl 7.78±3.72 5.77±2.19 0.001** ing time. DKNPk decreases. Training age is in correlation
DKNPl 5.29±1.46 4.39±0.94 0.250
with DKNTr (r =-0.297. p=0.003). with longer training
time. DKNTr decreases (Table 5).
DKNNk 10.67±4.01 8.73±2.49 <0.001**
DKNPk 8.86±3.50 6.44±2.74 0.125 Table 5 Correlation between training age and skin fold thickness
DKNGr 6.50±2.70 5.46±1.54 0.005** DKNNl DKNPl DKNNk DKNPk DKNGr DKNTr
DKNTr 9.24±3.68 6.97±2.52 0.080 Training r= r= r= r= r= r=
Onl 27.92±2.33 29.73±2.22 <0.001** age -0.241* -0.349** -0.167 -0.323** -0.174 0.297**
r - Pearson Correlation **- significant at 99%; * - significant at 95%
Opl 26.49±1.62 27.27±1.74 0.023*
Onk 53.74±4.02 57.17±5.66 0.01** Training age is correlated with ONI (r=0.334; p=0.001).
Opk 38.39±2.17 38.83±2.34 0.330 ONk (r=0.252; p=0.012). %F (r=-0.337; p=0.001) and
%F 13.54±4.17 10.54±2.54 <0.001** F(kg) (r=-0.236; p=0.018). the longer the training age
the higher the ONI. ONk. %F i F(kg). Training age is not
F(KG) 10.83±4.49 8.53±2.06 0.002**
correlated with OPI (r=0.168; p=0.095). OPk (r=0.090;
SD – Standard deviation; **- significant at 99%; * - significant at 95%
p=0.372).
The standard value of % fatty tissue (% F) in 9-11 age have Table 6 Correlation between training age and circumference of
26.4 % of football players. 26.4% has a lower percentage extremities
than the standard. and 47.2% higher than the standard
one. Standard values ​fatty tissue % (% F) of 7-10 contain ONl Opl ONk OPk %F F(KG)
25.5% of basketball players. 2.1% have a lower percentage Training r= r= r= r= r=- r=-
than standard. and 72.3% have a higher percentage of fat age 0.334** 0.168 0.252* 0.090 0.337** 0.236*
than standard ones (Table 3). r - Pearson Correlation **- significant at 99%; * - significant at 95%

Table 3 Frequency values of

​​ % fatty tissue according to standard
values ​​for sport type Disscusion
Football Basketball Monitoring of body height and body weight is a significant
Fre- Per- Fre- Per- indicator of growth and development. Athletes often make
%F %F
quency cent quency cent mistakes because they think that by achieving an ideal
<= 8.99 14 26.4 <= 6.99 1 2.1 body mass they have the proper body structure. How-
ever. changes in body weight are not a good indicator of
9.00 - 7.00 -
14 26.4 12 25.5 changes in body structure. Measurement of body weight
11.00 10.00
has much greater specificity and sensitivity as an indica-
11.01+ 25 47.2 10.01+ 34 72.3 tor of growth. development and nutrition. whenever used
Total 53 100.0 Total 47 100.0 together with body height. According to the WHO recom-
mendations. BMI is used as a body weight categorization
Years of training are in correlation with body mass r=0.209; tool. which is unlikely to be applied to athletes because
p = 0.037. Longer training periods are accompanied by a they have higher muscle mass than non-athletes.
higher body mass. Years of training were in correlation with An independent t-test in our study showed that the dif-
BMI r=0.385; p<0.001. Athletes with longer training age ferences in the median values ​​of body height between
have higher BMIs (Table 4). football and basketball players are statistically significant

44 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

(p<0.001 while BMI of Indian basketball players is sig-
nificantly higher and was 22.63±2.33 (Burns, 1999).
The average difference in height is -8.7 cm in favor of
basketball players. while differences in mean body weight
are not statistically significant (p=0.07). The indepen-
dent t-test showed that the difference in mean BMI be-
tween footballers and basketball players was statistically
significant (p=0.017). footballers had higher BMI: 22.8
±1.4 than new program basketball players. 21.2 ± 5.7.
A study in which the anthropometric characteristics of
basketball players and handball players of the same age
in India were examined showed that the average body
height of the basketball player is 187 ± 5.1cm. which
is considerably lower than the average body our height
basketball players. However. our basketball players are
significantly heavier 81 ± 13.5 kg than the Indian bas-
ketball players whose average body mass is 79.4 ± 7.7
kg. There is the evident difference in the resultant body
mass indexes. Our respondents have BMI of 21.2, while
the BMI of Indian basketball players is significantly higher
for 2.63±2.33 (Burns, 1999).
In relation to age. an independent t-test did not show sta-
tistical significance in mean body weight and body height.
but the BMI (p=0.001) relates of age. Juniors have low-
ers BMIs (21.67 ± 2.4) than the seniors (23.08 ± 1.67).
which can be explained by the fact that seniors have trained
longer and have a higher lean body mass.
The median values ​​of the subcutaneous fat tissue were
measured at six points: upper arm, forearm, thigh, lower
leg, abdomen and chest. An independent t-test showed
that there are no significant differences at a single point
in mean values ​​of subcutaneous fat between tissues foot-
ball and soccer players. The same test showed that the
statistical significance exists between the mean values ​​of
the subcutaneous fat tissue at all six measuring points in
relation to the age. At all measuring points. there is a higher
mean value of the subcutaneous fatty tissue in juniors than
their older colleagues.
When using an independent t-test we analyzed the mean
values ​​of the volume of the limb, we did not get statistical
significance in relation to the type of sport, but there were
statistical differences in relation to the age as expected.
The statistical significance was proved in the case of mean
values ​​of the extremity of the upper arm (p=0.0005), fore-
arm (p=0.023), thighs (p=0.01). the only statistical sig-
nificance was not demonstrated at the median value of the
circumference of the lower leg (p=0.33). A study in which
a comparative analysis of the anthropomorphology char-
acteristics of seniors and cadets of top athletes in Serbia
was carried out which showed the existence of statistical
significance in the same mean values ​​of volume as our
study (Malićević, 2009).
Using the measured skin thickness values, we calcu-
lated the percentage of body fat in the total body weight
(% F) and the amount of fat (kg F) for each athlete. An
independent t-test has shown that the obtained mean
values ​​of % F and kg F are not statistically significant in
relation to the type of sport. but they are in relation to
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
age. both for % F, p <0.0005 and for kg F, p = 0.002.
The mean value of % F for juniors is 13.54 ± 4.17 and
kgF 10.54 ± 2.54 kg. while for seniors the percent-
age of body fat in the organism is 10.83 ± 4.49 and
kg F 8.53 ± 2.06. If we compare our results with a
study conducted by Malićević (2009) we can conclude
that juniors involved in the research have more fat tis-
sue seniors shown either in percentage or in kilograms
(Malićević, 2009).
The average value of % F in the soccer player is 11.66 ±
3.48 and for basketball players 12.47 ± 4.02. In a study
carried out by Wilmore and associates (1988). standard
values ​​of the percentage of fat tissue for athletes in cer-
tain sports disciplines were determined. According to
Wilmore. the percentage of body fat for football players is
9-12%. and for basketball players is 7-10%. In our study.
we determined the frequency of our respondents accord-
ing to standard values ​​of% F and obtained that 14 players
have less than 9% fat tissue. 14 have a standard value of
9-12%. and 25 players have over 11% fat tissue in total
body weight. In the basketball player. only one respon-
dent has less than 7% fat tissue. 12 of them are within
the standard values. while 34 of them have more than
10% fatty tissue in the total body mass. Low fat content
in athletes can lead to increased risk of injury. weaken-
ing of sporting results and prolonging the recovery time
after injury. However. the percentage of fat exceeding the
upper limit of standard values ​​is in a negative correlation
with athlete performance and should be reduced by ap-
propriate nutritional interventions.
Considering the years of training. our study showed that
years of training in correlation with body weight (r=0.209;
p=0.037). longer training time is accompanied by higher
body weight. which can be explained by a higher percent-
age of lean body mass. Years of training are also in correla-
tion with BMI (r=0.385. p<0.0005). athletes who train for
longer have higher BMIs.
Correlation of years of training and thickness of skin folds
has been made. we found that the years of training are
in correlation with the mean values ​​of skin thickness of
the upper arm. forearm. lower leg. chest and abdomen.
These values ​​decline with years of training. It only showed
that the years of training were not correlated with the mean
value of the skin thickness of the hip. as it is growing with
years of training.
Our research has shown that training years are in cor-
relation with the upper arm and the circumference of
the thigh. which increase with years of training. There is
no statistical significance between years of training and
the circumference of the forearm and the thigh of leg.
Years of training are in correlation with% F (r =-0.337;
p=0.001). With a longer training time. the percentage
of fat tissue in the total body mass decreases. and the
same case with kgF (r =-0.236; p=0.018). This only
confirms the importance of physical activity. its impact
on the body structure of the body and on the reduction
of fatty tissue.
45
Conclusion Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1988). Training for sport
and activity: The physiological basis of the conditioning
Based on the results of the research. we can conclude process. Brown & Benchmark.
that in relation to the type of sport. the football players
have higher body mass index and they are lower and
lighter than the basketball players. the same is the case
with the seniors in relation to the juniors. There is no dif-
ference in mean thickness of the subcutaneous fat tis- Correspondence to:
sue between football and basketball players. but there is Arzija Pašalić, assistant professor
a difference between seniors who have less mean skin Faculty of Health Studies,
thickness compared to juniors. The difference in mean University of Sarajevo
values ​​of the volume of extremities does not exist be- Bosnia and Herzegovina
tween football and basketball players. but the difference E-mail: arzijapašalić@gmail.com
exists in mean values upper arms. forearms and upper
legs between older and younger athletes. The higher per-
centages of fatty tissue were found in basketball players
and juniors. Training years are in correlation with body
mass. thickness of skin folds. volumes. and percentage
of fatty tissue of athletes.

References
Burns J..Davis M.J..Craig D.H. (1999) Conditioning and
nutrition tips for basketball. RT.; 10(4):38
Čokorilo, N., Mikalački, M., & Korovljev, D. (2010). Mea-
suring of the percentage of the fat tissue with modified
method according to Mateigka and BIA method. Glasnik
Antropološkog društva Srbije, (45), 411-418.
Gjonbalaj M. Georgiev G. Bjelica D. (2018) Differences
in Anthropometric Characteristics. Somatotype Compo-
nents. and Functional Abilities Among Young Elite Kosovo
Soccer Players Based on Team Position. Int. J. Morphol.;
36(1):41-47
Gontarev S. Kalac R. Zivkovic V. Vullnet Ameti V. Redjepi A.
(2016) Anthropometrical Characteristics and Somatotype
of Young Macedonian Soccer Players. Int. J. Morphol.;
34(1):160-167
Nikolic S. Todorovska L. Maleska V. Dejanova B. Efre-
mova LJ. Zivkovic V. Pluncevic-Gligoroska J. (2014)
Analysis of Body Mass Components in National Club
Football Players in Republic of Macedonia. Med Arh.;
68(3): 191-194
Okely A.D. Booth M.L. Chey T. (2004) Relationship be-
tween body composition and fundamental movement skills
among children and adolescents. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport; 75(3): 238-247
Ratamess N.A. Kraemer W.J. J.S. Volek J.S. Rubin M.R.
Gomez A.L. French D.N. Sharman M.J. McGuigan M.M.
Scheett T. Hakkinen K. Newton R.U. Dioguardi F. (2003)
The effects of amino acid supplementation on muscular
performance during resistance training overreaching. J.
Strength Cond. Res.; 17(2):250–258

46 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Izet Bajramović¹, Ćamil Habul², Munir Talović¹, Slavenko Likić¹, Nermin Nurković¹ and
Amel Mekić¹

EFFECTS OF 8-WEEKS LONG

MUSCULAR ENDURANCE TRAINING
WITH BODY WEIGHT IN CASE OF
RECREATIONAL ATHLETES
¹ Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
² Faculty of Teacher Education, University “Džemal Bijedić” in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 796.015.52

Abstract
The aim of this study is to determine effects of 8-weeks long muscle endurance training with the weight of body in case of recreational
athletes. Study included 10 males (age 26.4 ± 1.2; 181.38 ± 5.64 cm and 84.49 ± 11.29 kg). Three muscular endurance trainings
per week were performed during the program. Modified types of conventional body exercises, which include basic models of move-
ments for the whole body are included in the program. Training load was dosed by position of the body, speed of exercise performance,
number of series of a certain exercise (3-5 x 3-5), number of repetitions (10-25) and length of passive recovery between series of
exercises (30-90 sec). The following variables were used: maximal number of pull-ups in 60”, maximal number of squats in 60”,
maximal number of push-ups in 60”, maximal number of rotational forward bends of the body in 30”; body extension hang ; left arm
hang under the angle of 90°; right leg hang under 90° and pull-ups hang. Results of the T-test for dependent samples were statisti-
cally significant differences between two measurements (p<0.01). Muscular endurance of recreational athletes can be significantly
improved by continuous and programmed exercises using the whole body as basic loading. Coaches need to consider implementation
of training of strength with your own body, due to its useful effects.

Key words: conventional exercises, basic models of movements, training loading, static and dynamic strength

Introduction
Apart from development of quality training equipment, ex-
ercises with your own body, traditionally give more pos-
sibilities for achievement of desired result. Exercises with
your own body often include conventional type of training
for development of muscular endurance, which provides
strength performance during dynamic or static conditions
of muscular work, without reducing work abilities of an ath-
lete. It can be manifested by isometric and isotonic muscu-
lar contractions (Jelešković, Alić, Čović i Jelešković, 2018).
During warm-up and cooling down phase, exercises with
your own body can be useful as well. Žaljaskov (2004),
states that training of strength endurance can be very im-
portant at the beginning of conditional preparation, when it’s
necessary to establish the fundaments of strength. Muscu-
lar endurance is not closely related to muscular strength, ex-
cept if it is performed on bigger extern resistance (Sherkey
& Gaskill, 2008). Still, according to contemporary trends of
recreational sport it is important to gain healthy, harmonic
and universal development of human body. The new trends
of health improvement are included by a great number of
people in recreational work-outs and sports (Čaušević,
Ormanović, Doder & Čović, 2017). Therefore, it is impor-
tant to determine which exercises, methods and loading
levels at certain time, can lead to positive effects. With ap-
ply of body weight training, it is possible to achieve cer-
tain effects of training both with top-level athletes (Lipecki
& Rutowicz, 2015), younger women (Colakoglu, 2008),
untrained older individuals (Yamauchi, Nakayama, & Ishii,
2009), and younger athletes (Gardasevic, Bjelica, Vasiljevic
and Milasinovic, 2017). During the age of 15, there is an
increase in biological growth and muscle development, also
increase of muscle section, which certainly can contribute
to positive results (Gardasević, Bjelica & Vasiljević, 2016).
The aim of this study was to determine effects of 8-weeks
long muscle endurance training with the weight of body in
the case of recreational athletes.

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 47

Methods
Participants
Ten healthy men aged 23-30 participated in this research
(Table 1). Subjects belong to category of recreational ath-
letes and had doctor’s approval for participation in the
program. Procedure of intentional sample selection is used
in this research. According to Helsinki provision, all partici-
pants signed the consent willingly for participation in this
study, with an open option to leave anytime.
Training loading apart from personal weight is dosed by
speed of the exercise. position of the body. number of se-
ries of certain exercise. number of repetitions. and duration
of passive recovery between series of exercises (Table 3).
Training load increased with each of the following training
sessions. Speed of the exercises varied from slow to me-
dium. Biomechanically correct realization of the exercise
was with special emphasis on the correct position of the
spine. and was controlled by coach.
Table 3 Load of individual training

Table 1 Basic features of subjects (n=10) Exercises Series Repetitions Pause

Age (yrs.) 26.4 ± 1.2 3-5 3-5 10-25 30”-90”
Height (cm) 181.38 ± 5.64
Weight (kg) 84.49 ± 11.29 Statistical analysis
Basic descriptive parameters (IBM SPSS) were calculated
for all variables. Univariant t-test for dependent samples
Sample of variable was used for determination of statistically significant differ-
Initial and final testing is conducted in the morning. The ences between two measurements (p <0.05).
following testing procedures were implemented:
1. Maximal number of push-ups in 60”
2. Maximal number of pull-ups in 60” Results
3. Maximal number of squats in 60”
4. Maximal number of rotational forward bends of body Better results of mean values are noticed in all variables
in 30” after final measurement (table 4). Percentage increase in
5. Body extension hang (till release) all variables was between 18.62% and 31.2%. Results of
6. Left arm hangs under the ankle of 90° (till release) standard deviations are lower in the final measurement in
7. Right leg hangs under 90° (till release) case of six variables. The lower variability of the results
8. Right leg hangs under 90°and pull-ups hang (till re- in the final measurement indicates the results approxima-
lease) tion in their relation. The results have a normal distribution
which allows the use of parametric statistical procedures.
Training program The t-test results for dependent samples indicate statis-
Training program lasted 8 weeks. with frequency of 3 tically significant differences between the two measure-
trainings a week (24 trainings in total). One training lasted ments (p<0.01) (Table 5).
60 minutes. basic warm-up 10-15 minutes; main part of
the training 30-40 minutes and the cooling 5-10 minutes.
Three types of conventional exercises with only body Discussion
weight (push-up. squad and pull-up) were used in this
program. Exercises for development of muscular endur- All subjects had equal level of loadings during 8-weeks
ance are selected in relation to basic model of movements. training program. Apart from positive effects of the pro-
where each standard exercise was done in three modified gram there is also equalization of group of subjects with
forms (Table 2). Subjects were previously trained to per- the same level of muscular endurance in relation to initial
form programmed exercises. biomechanically. testing. It is interesting that there was no static exercise in
this program. Still. with the dynamic strength body weight
Table 2 Basic information about exercises exercises it is possible to achieve positive effects on static
muscular strength of legs. backs. arms and shoulders. The
Basic model of Standard Modification benefits of this exercises are their functionality. since ba-
movement exercise of exercise sic models of movement (horizontal body push with arms.
horizontal body pull with arms and vertical body lowering
Body push Push-up Incline; normal; decline.
into squat and lifting) are implemented in them. Apart from
Horizontal Narrow grip; wide grip; activation of big muscle groups all types of conventional
Body pull exercises included more joints. at the same time. Different
pull-up narrow pushdown.
variations of exercises were included in program. Accord-
Posture on two legs; ing to Vrcić. Kovačević & Abazović (2016). shifting exer-
Lowering and
Squat posture on one leg; cises lead to positive effects. Also, basic movement can
lifting your body
one leg lunge. be lost if an athlete is focused only on one aspect of move-
ment (Kuk. 2010). Increase of volume of work was em-

48 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Table 4 Descriptive indicators of initial and final measurement

Initial measurement Initial measurement

Variable
m ± sd cv m ± sd cv %
Maximal number of pull-ups (60”) 31.30 ± 7.81 24.95 38.7 ± 6.44 16.64 23.64
Maximal number of pull-ups (60”) 4.60 ± 2.87 62.39 6.60 ± 2.98 45.15 30.44
Maximal number of squats (60”) 34.70 ± 8.45 24.35 41.1 ± 3.78 9.19 18.44
Maximal number of body flexion (30”) 34.00 ± 10.2 30.00 40.5 ± 7.41 18.29 19.12
Body extension hang 30.66 ± 7.08 23.09 40.5 ± 8.88 21.92 32.1
Left leg hangs under 90° 33.92 ± 11.3 33.31 43.8 ± 8.42 19.22 29.13
Right leg hangs under 90° 38.38 ± 12.2 31.78 45.9 ± 9.05 19.71 19.56
Pull-up hand (sec) 94.00 ± 30.4 32.34 111.5 ± 29.5 26.45 18.62
Legend: m ± sd mean ± standard deviation; c.v. - coefficient variation; % - percentage increase

Table 5 Significance of the difference

t
Maximal number of pull-ups in 60“ -5.784**
Maximal number of pull-ups in 60“ -4.567**
Maximal number of squats in 60“ -3.868**
Maximal number of rotational forward bends of body in 30“ -5.713**
Extension body hang -7.773**
Left leg hangs under 90º -5.437**
Right leg hangs under 90º -4.805**
Pull-up hang -6.431**
Legend: * p <0.05; ** p <0.01.

phasized in the first six weeks of program. Performance of
training of muscular endurance under a large but not maxi-
mal number of repetitions. provide an athlete larger vol-
ume of work. Otherwise. the athlete is considerably more
energetically exhausted. if the activities are performed at
maximum number of repetitions (Bajramović. Likić. Manić.
and Mekić 2015). During the training one can achieve
maximal result in relatively short period. with optimal us-
age of energy if one respects the principles from easier
to heavier. from simple to complicated and from known
to unknown (Bjelica. 2010). After first six months the in-
tensity of loading was increased. gradually. by increasing
the speed of performance of exercises or work in more
demanding position of the body in relation to the standard
position. By applying exercises of different type, it is pos-
sible to avoid adaptation of muscles. It is known that dif-
ferent angle and position of the body during performances
of exercises can highly activate muscle groups. Changing
the push-up type can result to significant changes in neu-
ral activation of primary pectoralis major and back deltoid
muscle (Allen. Dean. Jung & Petrella. 2013). Also. narrow
pushdown activates muscles of the back side of forearm.
triceps brachi more than wide pushdown (Evans. 2010).
Higher lifted arms during performance of push-up in rela-
tion to the level of legs (incline). contributes lower intensity
of loading. Higher lifted legs in relation to the level of arm
position during performance of push-up (decline) leads to
higher intensity of loading. Modified pull-up in form of re-
versed rowing primary activates large back muscle. other
smaller muscles of upper back and muscles of extensors
of hip in relation to other exercises of pulling with load.
such as standard exercises of pulling (rowing) in forward
body band with outer loading (Fenwick. Brown & McGill.
2009). After pushdowns in training. body pulls were done
and vice versa.
It is known that opposite model of movement prevents in-
juries. Asymmetry of muscles can be cause of injury or
chronically orthopedic problem. Therefore. a well created

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 49

program can include movements for each muscle group
(Plisk. 2010). In case of muscle asymmetry. its removal
should be obligatory part of training of strength (Kazazovic.
Tabakovic. Talovic. Alic. Jeleškovic & Mrković. 2010.).
In multi-joint strength exercises there is an activation of
muscles of stomach and back. In this way. one avoids
unnecessary body motions and incorrect performance of
exercise. When performing exercise push-up, the outer ab-
dominal oblique muscles maintain stabile position so that
primary initiators m. pectoralis major and m. deltoideus
can complete the push up task (Mori. 2004; Cresswell.
Oddsson. & Thorstensson. 2006). Also. different exercises
variations of squat and pull-up. give muscles of stomach
and back the role of stabilizers. For this reason it is not
surprising that positive changes in tests of evaluation of
muscle endurance have occurred. Muscular endurance of
recreational athletes can be significantly improved by con-
tinuous and programmed exercises using the whole body
as the main loading.
Conclusion
It is evident that body weight as a loading can be efficient
in improvement of muscular endurance of the whole body.
Training of strength with body weight is economical way
of training because it doesn’t demand additional mate-
rial conditions and it is adequate or applicable in differ-
ent situations. For beginners it is important that the whole
training with own body weight contains basic models of
movements. Models of basic movements need to have
important role during the selection of exercises for train-
ing. Therefore. muscles of torso are secondary activated
during the basic models of movement, which makes these
exercises optimal. Apart from certain advantages. training
of strength with own body weight has its disadvantages.
Outer loading is better for isolation exercises. Adjustments
of loading in exercises with own body weight is more com-
plicated in relation to exercises with outer loading because
it is necessary to shift angles and positions in relation to
the pad or the equipment.
Manipulating variations of exercises gives possibility of
dosing training load. By modifying exercises of strength
with your own body weight can make quality stimulus on
muscles during trainings for top-level athletes. This can be
a suggestion for future studies.
50
References
Allen, CC., Dean, KA., Jung, AP., & Petrella, JK. (2013).
Upper Body Muscular Activation during Variations of Push-
Ups in Healthy Men. International Journal of Exercise Sci-
ence 6(4). 278-288.
Bajramović, I., Likić, S., Manić, G., Mekić, A. (2015).
Dizajniranje savremenog kondicionog treninga. Sarajevo:
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Bjelica, D. (2010). Teorija sportskog treninga. Podgorica:
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Colakoglu. F. (2008). The effect of callisthenic exercise on
physical fitness values of sedentary women. Science &
Sports. 23(6). 306-309.
Cresswell, A. G., Oddsson, L. & Thorstensson, A. (1994).
The influence of sudden perturbations on trunk muscle ac-
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Čaušević, D., Ormanović, Š., Doder. I. & Čović, N. (2017).
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Mori. A. (2004). Electromyographic activity of selected
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Submitted: April 2, 2018

Accepted: April 28, 2018

Correspondence to:
Izet Bajramović, PhD
University of Sarajevo,
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education
Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: ibajramovic@fasto.unsa.ba

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 51

Dženana Imamović and Faris Rašidagić

INFLUENCE OF LATIN AMERICAN

DANCES TO BALANCE, REPETITIVE
STRENGTH AND COORDINATION
TRANSFORMATION
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 793.3-053.5

Abstract
Main goal of this study was to determine whether there are any changes in the level of coordination, strength capacity and balance
quality under the Latin American dance classes in primary school children. Sample includes 32 students aged 12.4+0.5 years old.
Program of Latin American dance lessons lasted for six weeks. The aim was to establish positive transformational changes in motoric
capability. Level of transformational effects was expressed as difference between initial and final measuring. Significant improvement
was observed in Flamingo test (p<0.001, η2=0.74), Standing on one leg with eyes closed on a horizontal balance bench (p=0.01,
η2=0.86), Standing on both legs with eyes closed on a horizontal balance bench (p=0.00, η2=0.68), Bat coordination (p=0.02,
η2=0.08), Side walking (p=0.02, η2=0.87), Backwards training ground (p=0.03, η2=0.91), Push-ups (p=0.00, η2=0.86), Back
straightening (p=0.00, η2=0.55), Lying-sitting (p=0.01, η2=0.78).
It can be concluded that significant improvement was observed in coordination, strength capacity and balance quality under the influ-
ence of additional attendance of Latin Dance classes.

Key words: Latin American Dances

Introduction
Dance research demands understanding of dance nature,
culture functioning and being familiar with the most recent
dance forms. (Kostic, Dimova, 1997). There is a significant
interest of scientists and experts to explore dance as an art
and sport-motoric activity in the fields of training, nutrition,
wounds and development of certain human capabilities.
Due to the fact that there is a huge number of different
dances, the available research pays attention to partial and
specific dance techniques (Pedersen at al, 1999). It has
already been proven that all motoric capabilities have an
important role to successfully interpret dance structures
(Ross & Butterfield, 1989) and conative characteristics
(Kostic at al, 1999). Specific ways of teaching certain
dances when they are learned, repeated and perfected can
greatly contribute to excellent dancing skills (Kostić, 1997.
Koutedakis & Sharp, 2004., Cross at al, 2006., Brown and
others, 2007. Chockley, 2008. And Weiss at al, 2008.) It
is necessary to develop motoric skills in order to achieve
success in dancing (Imamović & Ramadanović, 2011). On
the other hand, there is not enough research to show which
dances and in what extent they positively affect motoric
performance especially within younger age groups. When
it comes to multidisciplinary approach in latest trends, this
research follows how dance process can transfer to one
part of motoric structures. According to the above men-
tioned, the aim of this research is to „determine level of
changes in coordination, strength capacity and balance
under the influence of Latin American dances practiced by
primary school students“.
Methods
Sample of the Examinees
This research was done on 32 students aged 12 years old.
Average height of boys was 162.5± 3cm, average weight
was 54.4±0.7kg. Parents’ consent was given to do this
research. Students who participated in the research were
fully aware of its purpose. Students had regular lessons of
Physical and Sports Education. No student was involved in

52 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

any sports club and dance program from this research was
organized as extra-curricular activity at school. All mea-
surements were done according to Helsinki declaration.
Steps from three Latin American dances (Samba, Cha-cha-
cha, and Jive) were used for transformation. Transforma-
tional program lasted for six weeks and the duration of one
training was 45 minutes (details of the program presented
in Table 1). The reason for such immense training was to
check if it was possible to connect dance content with
teaching process that is, Physical and Sports Education.
Having in mind the additional information, it is expected to
get positive transformation of motoric capabilities: Coor-
dination, Flamingo (FLAM), on horizontal balance bench,
standing on one leg with eyes closed (KL1NZO) within the
primary school students.
Sample of variables
The measurement was done on date which was announced
and determined beforehand. Order of the initial and final
measurement was the same. Measurers were familiar with
the technique of doing the tests and filing the results. The
Table 1 Basic program activities - dance
examinees were also introduced with the test due to their
complexity.
Variables, by which motoric status is determined, are de-
fined in 1998. by the authors Šoše and Rađo:
1. Variables to Determine Balance:
1.1. Flamingo (FLAM)
1.2. On horizontal balance bench, Standing on one
leg with eyes closed (KL1NZO)
1.3. On horizontal balance bench, standing on both
legs with eyes closed (KL2NZO)
2. Variables to Determine Coordination:
2.1. Bat Coordination (KOPAL)
2.2. Side walking (KOUST)
2.3. Backwards Training Ground (POLNAT)
3. Variables to Determine Repetitive Strength:
3.1. Push-ups (SKLEK)
3.2. Back Straightening (PODLED)
3.3. Lying - Sitting (LEZSJED)
Experimental dance program
Dance program specifics are shown in Table 1.

Content - Duration Week 1 – Week 3 Week 4 – Week 6

Weekly Frequency 3 times a week 4 times a week
Volume or Training Duration 45 min 45 min
Number of Dances 3 3

Dance Type: Samba Character: lively, pleasant

Movement: crisscrossed path, „parading” circulating in space or at the spot
Tact: 2/4
Tempo: 50 tacts per minute
Emphasis: on second hit
Dance Type: Samba Body Movement: Samba bounce action
Dynamics: Medium

Character: bold, lively, passionate

Dance Type: Cha-Cha-Cha
Movement: stationary, the pair is moving to opposite and same directions
Tact: 4/4
Tempo: 30 tacts per minute
Emphasis: on first hit
Lifting and lowering: none
Dynamics: Medium

Character: rhythmic, „kicks” and „flicks”

Movement: not progressive, from and to „moving center”
Dance Type: Jive Tact: 4/4
Tempo: 44 tacts per minute
Emphasis: on second and fourth hit
Lifting and lowering: none
Dynamics: High
Duration of Dance Implementation Main A and B part 27 minutes, every Main A and B part 27 minutes, ev-
dance lasts 9 minutes ery dance lasts 9 minutes
Intro Natural ways of movement (walking, Natural ways of movement (walk-
running, skipping, sprint) ing, running, skipping, sprint)
Preparation Nine Formation Exercises Nine Formation Exercises

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 53

 Main A and B parts Dance Steps Dance Steps
SAMBA: SAMBA:
- Samba Whisks L and R - Samba Whisks L and R
- Samba walk (side) - Samba walk (side)
- Stationary samba walk - Stationary samba walk
- Traveling Botafogo - Traveling Botafogo
- Volta actions - Volta actions

CHA-CHA-CHA: CHA-CHA-CHA:
- Chasse to L, Chasse to R - Chasse to L, Chasse to R
- Fan - Fan
- Hand to hand - Hand to hand
- Hockey stick - Hockey stick
- Spot turn to L,spot turn to R - Spot turn to L,spot turn to R

JIVE: JIVE:
- Basic in place - Basic in place
- Basic in fall away - Basic in fall away
- American spin - American spin
- Change to hands behind back - Change to hands behind back
- Change of place L toR - Change of place L to R

End part Stretching, 5 positions Stretching, 5 positions

Table 2 Balance, coordination and repetitive strength differences observed after the program

Mean SD N Diff. t df p η2

FLAM 16.51 2.64 31 2.90 9.29 30 0.00** 0.74

KL1NZO 14.91 2.44 31 4.10 13.59 30 0.01** 0.86

KL2NZO 17.50 5.76 31 2.45 8.05 30 0.00** 0.68
POLNAT 33.48 8.01 31 -14.69 -18.33 30 0.03** 0.91
KOPAL 7.64 2.25 31 -4.64 -10.99 30 0.02** 0.80
KOUST 11.01 1.21 31 -2.66 -14.65 30 0.02** 0.87
PUSH UP 20.09 6.69 31 2.51 14.06 30 0.00** 0.86
PODLED 50.41 13.52 31 1.38 6.14 30 0.00** 0.55
LEZSJED 41.87 8.90 31 2.93 10.41 30 0.01** 0.78
SD – Standard deviation; df – degrees of freedom, p – statistical significance; η – partial eta square; ** - significant at 99%;
2

Flamingo (FLAM) On horizontal balance bench, Standing on one leg with eyes closed (KL1NZO); On horizontal balance bench,
Standing on both legs with eyes closed (KL2NZO); Bat Coordination (KOPAL); Side walking (KOUST); Backwards Training Ground
(POLNAT); Push-ups (SKLEK); Back Straightening (PODLED); Lying - Sitting (LEZSJED)

Statistical analysis Results

For the needs of this research, given results were analyzed
invariantly. The difference between initial and final state
were determined with T – test for dependent samples. Lev-
el to determine the significance was set to 95% (p=0.05).
Values above that were not treated as valid. Every T – test
had a calculated quadrupled eta which is used as corre-
lational ratio to determine quality of connection level from
the T – test. This procedure was explained by authors
Kolesarić & Tomašić-Humer (2016.).
All variables had normal distribution of data.
Statistically significant balance difference was deter-
mined in all three tests that descriptively show difference
between initial and final state of motoric capability. Value p
for FLAM is (0.00) and calculated eta coefficient is (0.74)
and shows great impact. Second variable for balance –
KL1NZO shows T-test value (0.01) and eta coefficient is

54 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

(0.86). This variable as well as KL2NZO with T-test (0.00)
and eta coefficient (0.68) had great improvement com-
pared to initial state.
Variables that define coordination motoric capability, also
show difference between initial and final measuring. Value
p for POLNAT is (0.03) and calculated eta is (0.91). Value
p for KOPAL is (0.02), eta (0.80) and variable KOUST with
T-test level (0.02), eta value level (0.87). Given the fact that
level of T-test significance was set to (0.05), all three de-
termined differences are on statistically important level. Eta
coefficients for all three variables also show great improve-
ment in realized content so values have changed between
initial and final state.
Repetitive strength has also shown positive changes during
the period of implementing the program, in other words, it
has developed further. Variables with T-test values: PUSH
UP (0.00) and eta (0.86), Back Straightening (0.00) and
eta (0.55), Lying – Sitting (0.01), eta (0.78). These results
show us there is an important difference between initial
and final measuring. Implemented program achieved want-
ed effect.
Discussion
Results of T-test for dependent samples show develop-
ment of all three motoric capabilities. This statement can
be justified by the given research and confirm that Latin
American dances significantly affect transformation of co-
ordination, repetitive strength and balance within primary
school students (Kostić and others 2006; Jocić, 2004).
The level of T-test value was set to (0.05) and projected
that the development of above mentioned motoric capabili-
ties is on the highest level (p value of T-test in this research
were from 0.00 to 0.03). To confirm how big is the T-test
value, eta coefficients were also calculated for each vari-
able separately (nine variables overall) and its reach for
each of them is from 0.55 to 0.91. According to Gamst,
2008, eta coefficient of 0.22 has „great impact“so it can
be stated that realized program had good transformational
influence on all motoric capabilities. (Lobo&Winsler, A.
2006, Vlasic, 2007) So, content of the program realized
within six weeks enhanced the balance, coordination and
repetitive strength of the boys (Alricsson, 2003; Zagorc,
2005). This script has not discussed whether there was
better understanding of movement structures for each spe-
cific dance (so called motoric knowledge) (Kostic, 2004).
Explanation of changes that happened can be found in very
sensible development period within the researched popula-
tion – 12-year-old boys, when they enter specific and faster
phases of growing and developing. (Kostic, 1999). Also,
explanation for transformational efficiency comes from well
picked dances (Samba, Cha-cha-cha, Jive) which were ac-
ceptable to researched population since they have well-struc-
tured movement and rhythm (Volgar, 2002; Zagorc, 2000).
Also, it is important to mention that teaching staff made
appropriate and quality planning of all activities, that is,
means of transformation were in accordance with cat-
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
egory of population were content was realized (Uzunovic,
2009). The set aim of research is completely achieved,
given the fact that in all nine researched variables there
were positive and statistically significant changes. Above
mentioned dances can be recommended as means to in-
fluence transformation of motoric capabilities. However,
there should be prepared curriculum of activities as put in
Table 1 – with main program characteristics. Guidelines
for other research papers can be set by checking the ef-
fects of this program on different age categories or sexes.
Also, it would be good to investigate if for example classi-
cal dances, with the same curriculum and age groups can
achieve same or similar transformational effects.
Conclusions
Content of Latin American dances is recommended as ad-
ditional content in Physical Education lessons.
Realized curriculum of activities can be recommended
for teaching process due to the fact that every observed
motoric capability has suffered significant positive trans-
formation – program was effective within male part of
population.
There are questions opened for new researchers if for in-
stance, classical dances with same curriculum and age
groups can achieve same or similar effects of transforma-
tion.
Also, effects of this program can be verified within same
Latin American dances on different population or sex group.
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Scientific Conference.
Accepted: May 9, 2018
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of Conative Characteristics and Success of Performing Corresponding author:
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56 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Hodžić Amila, Damira Vranešić-Hadžimehmedović, Lejla Šebić, Berina Turković, Ivor Doder,
Semir Mašić and Šemso Ormanović

ANALAYSIS OF BODY DIFFICULTIES

AT INDIVIDUAL 2016 OLYMPIC
GAMES FINALS IN ELITE RHYTHMIC
GYMNASTS
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

UDC: 796.41.032.2“2016“

Abstract
The main aim of this study was to analyze the body difficulties in the compositions of individual elite rhythmic gymnasts at the Olympic
Games 2016. In the final competition, ten gymnasts competed with four apparatus: hoop, ball, clubs, and ribbon. The research data
have been collected using video recorded tape during the final competitions at the Olympic Games of 2016. Two independent analyst
used form of notation to diverse the elements. Based on review and analysis of exercises, a total of 40 compositions were analyzed,
based on which it was determined that 9 different jumps, 13 different rotations and 12 different balances have been performed, with
total sum of 34 body difficulties. Compositions analysis gymnasts performed a total of 355 difficulties that consisted of 118 rotations,
125 jumps and 112 balances. Most frequent elements were Jete with a turn (n=44), Rotation in penché (n=29) and Back scale leg
high up (n=28). Finalists of the Olympics 2016 used similar body difficulties with no diversity at the choice of body difficulties which
were the part of their compositions.

Key words: Rhythmic gymnastics, Code of Points, Individual exercises, Difficulty

Introduction
Rhythmic gymnastics as a conventional sport that con-
tains aesthetically shaped and choreographed acyclic
motion structures (Ibrahimbegović- Gafić, 2003.; Šebić,
2016) is a part of complex sports by the elements struc-
ture, i.e. by their biomechanical and functional analysis
(Wolf-Cvitak, 2004). Eurhythmics and compatibility of
moves of the whole body, as main expressive means,
complemented by the work of the apparatus and in accor-
dance with music (Šebić, 2016), shows the artistic di-
mension of rhythmic gymnastics (Bjelić & Radisavljević,
2011). The competition in the individual exercises
was included in the program of the Olympics in 1984
(Schmid, 1984), whereas the competition in group exer-
cises has been included in the Olympics program since
1996 (Hökelmann, Liviotti& Breitkreutz, 2013). Rhythmic
gymnastics competition is held in individual and group
exercises in accordance with the rules prescribed by
Rhythmic Gymnastics Technical Committee of the Inter-
national Gymnastics Federation, and which change every
four years (Toledo & Antualpa, 2016) after the completion
of the Olympic Games. Reasons why these rules change
commonly are: a) aspiration of the experts in this area to-
wards finding a way to evaluate the success in perform-
ing technically very complex movement structures the
most objectively (Šebić, 2016), b) to keep a great interest
of fans of this sport and to prevent the monotony that can
occur due to lack of diversity in the compositions, or per-
formance of similar elements, where the originality and
diversity cannot be shown (Agopyan, 2014). Five appa-
ratus are used in rhythmic gymnastics: rope, hoop, ball,
clubs, ribbon (Klentrou, 1998), while the program of the
individual exercises includes four apparatus valid for an
Olympic cycle based on prescribed rules. The program of
individual competitions for senior in the 2013-2016 cycle
included four exercises: hoop, ball, clubs, ribbon (FIG
Code of Points 2013-2016).
The composition should be unique choreographic whole,
with clear artistic expression, i.e. a product of distinct
main idea, expressed through the different body and
apparatus movements. The composition performance,

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 57

which shouldn’t be only a plain sequence, such as a se-
ries of body difficulties or apparatus elements, but the
transitions of logically connected moves without unnec-
essary interruptions, should completely correspond to
the character, speed and rhythm of the music chosen
(Viner, Terekhina, Guriev, 2012). Difficulties in individual
exercises are consisted of four components: body dif-
ficulties, dance steps combination, dynamic elements
with rotation and throw, apparatus mastery. The Code
of Points for rhythmic gymnastics 2013-2016 included
many variants of body difficulty (Leandro, Ávila-Carv-
alho, Sierra-Palmeiro, Bobo-Arce, 2016a), in total 151
difficulty, listed in the tables of the Code of Points, that
include 48 balances, 45 rotations and 58 jumps, with a
possibility according to the rules that to certain jumps
can be added components which change the base value
of the jump and its symbol. Difficulties from each group
of body elements had to be represented in compositions
(two minimal, four maximum): jumps, balances, rota-
tions. The maximum number of body difficulties which
can be performed in the exercise was nine, and the
minimal number of body difficulties was six. Analysis
the compositions of world/elite level individual gymnasts
is a good indicator whether the new rules and their ap-
plications have achieved the efficiency and effects in
making new compositions and whether they contrib-
uted to higher level of diversity and originality. Several
studies (Trifunov & Dobrijević, 2013, Agopyan, 2014.,
Ávila-Carvalho, Sierra-Palmeiro, Bobo-Arce, 2016a,
Leandro, Ávila-Carvalho, Sierra-Palmeiro, Bobo-Arce,
2016b, Batista, Garganta, Ávila-Carvalho, 2017, Lean-
dro, Ávila-Carvalho, Sierra-Palmeiro, Bobo-Arce, 2017)
describe the analysis of quality and quantity of technical
content, and the components of compositions. Agopy-
an (2014) analyzed the type, value and final number of
body difficulties performed in compositions with hoop,
ball, clubs and ribbon by ten gymnasts who competed
in the finals of the Olympic Games 2012 in London. The
research data showed that in total 573 body difficulty
repeats were performed, including 16 jump variations –
performed 134 times, 14 balance variations – performed
178 times, 18 rotation variations – performed 153 times,
17 flexibility variations – performed 108 times.
Therefore, the main aim of this study was to determine and
analyze the number of body difficulties and their frequency
in 40 compositions performed in the finals of the Olympic
Games 2016.
Methods
Participants
The study was conducted on a sample of 10 gymnasts
(mean±SD: 21.60±3.37 yrs.) who competed in the finals
of the Olympic Games 2016. Each gymnast performed
four exercises (hoop, ball, clubs, ribbon), which in total
represents 40 compositions performed in the Olympics
finale.
58
Procedures
The research data was collected using video analysis
during the competition finals in individual exercises at the
Olympics 2016. Since it wasn’t possible to access the
official form-sheets of the gymnast’s exercises (D-Form),
the analysis was performed by viewing video recordings
from the Olympics finals (www.olympicchannel.com).
The focus of the analysis was on one of the difficulty
components, rather body difficulties. The analysis was
performed by two national rhythmic gymnastics judges
(National Level I and National level III) for 2013-2016
cycle. Variables obtained by the procedure are body dif-
ficulties divided in three groups. Groups of body difficulty
elements by the Code of Points for rhythmic gymnastics
2013-2016 are jumps (J), balances (B) and rotations (R).
According to the rules for cycle 2013.-2016., the gym-
nast in her composition could perform minimum two, and
maximum four body difficulties from each group (jumps,
balances, rotations).
Criteria of body movements and
difficulties
The type and number of body difficulties and their fre-
quency in 40 compositions were analyzed. According to
Code of Points 2013-2016, the lowest difficulty value
was 0.10 points, and the highest was 0.50 points. Since
in all three groups of body movements (jumps, balances,
rotations), elements with body rotations and/or full body
waves (which are not difficulties listed in the table) could
be added before or after the difficulties and in that way
raise their value. According to the Code of Points (FIG
Code of Points 2013-2016), there are mixed difficulties
that are consisted of two or more different difficulties,
and their components counted as separate body diffi-
culties, as prescribed by the rules. Multiple rotation dif-
ficulty, which involves two or more pivots with different
shapes, according to the rules are counted as one dif-
ficulty, and on the same principle was calculated dur-
ing the analysis (one difficulty). Fouetté Balance (that is
consisted of three components) was calculated as one
difficulty, that has its own value and symbol, which is
in accordance with the rules prescribed. Rotations was
not calculated by the number of the turns performed in
the exercise, taking into the consideration that gymnasts
make two or more turns, but by base rotation of 360°,
i.e. they were calculated on the principle one pirouette =
one base rotation (360°). Since the value of difficulties
was not analyzed, balances that could be performed on
the flat foot were calculated altogether with the same dif-
ficulties performed on the relevé, because, according to
the rules, they represent same difficulties by the shape,
but different by the value.
Statistical analysis
Statistical data analyses were performed using SPSS 22.0
for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). Descriptive sta-
tistics which includes terms of mean, sum, maximum,
minimum and frequencies for each body difficulties are
expressed.
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
Results
Based on exercises’ review and the analysis, results were
obtained on the number of body difficulties from each
group of elements and their total frequency. Highest fre-
quency of body difficulties was observed from the rota-
Table 1 The number of performed body difficulties from each group and their total frequency
Frequency Minimum
Rotations 13
Jumps 9 1
Balances 12
Total number of body difficulties in all 40 compositions was
355. In addition to the total number of body weight repeti-
tions in Table 2., the results of the minimum and maximum
Table 2 Total number of body difficulties for 40 compositions
Balances
N 40
Mean 2.80
Minimum 2 2
Maximum 4 4
Sum 112
Body difficulties performed in gymnastics compositions
(jumps, rotations, balances), their labels and values are
shown in Table 3. Results of the frequency for each body
difficulty were obtained (Table 4). The highest frequency
from the group of jumps achieved Jete with a turn (44
times), from the group of rotations it was the Rotation in
penché (29 times), while from the group of balances the
maximum frequency was achieved by the Back-scale leg
high up (28 times).
Discussion
The aim of the research was to determine and analyze the
number of body difficulties and their frequency in 40 com-
positions performed in the 2016 Olympic Games finals.
Based on the analysis and results given, it was established
that 34 body difficulties were performed in the finals of
the Olympic Games, which 13 of them were rotations, 12
balances and 9 jumps (Table 1). The obtained results show
that, despite the huge diversity and number of body dif-
ficulties listed in the Code of Points 2013-2016, gymnasts
performed similar difficulties, leading to the conclusion
that a small number of variants of body difficulties were
shown and, consequently, there was not enough diversity
in the performed compositions. The results of this study
HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018
tions group (13), following the balances group (11), while
the least frequency of difficulties was from the group of
jumps (9). The highest frequency of body difficulties per-
formed was scored by jumps (125 times), then rotations
(118 times), and the smallest frequency was achieved by
balances (112) (Table 1).
n = 10
Maximum Sum Mean
1 29 118 9.08
44 125 13.89
1 28 112 9.33
number of performed difficulties in each composition and
for all groups of body elements were presented.
n = 10
Jumps Rotations Total
40 40 40
3.13 2.95 8.88
2 8
4 9
125 118 355
have shown similarities to the research Agopyan (2014)
and Avila-Carvalho et al. (2012) where it was concluded
that a limited variety in the choice of body difficulties for in-
dividual and group compositions makes them monotonous
and compromises their artistic value.
According to the results, when the body difficulties were
compared based on the number of performances, the ro-
tations are performed the most (13), then the balances
(12), and at least the jumps (9). When the body difficul-
ties were compared based on the overall frequency, jumps
are the group of difficulties that have achieved the highest
frequency (125 times), then rotations (118 times), while
the smallest number of repeated body difficulties was from
the balances group (112). This research shows that the
gymnasts performed jumps of higher values (Trifunov,
Dobrijević, 2013), i.e. jumps performed with rotations
(more than 180°), ring and back bending of the trunk (Ago-
pyan, 2014). The performed jumps require a certain level
of physical abilities, greater physical preparation (Avila-
Carvalho, Klentrou, Palomero, Lebre, 2012) and quality
performance, and the reason for quality performance can
be found in the training process and work on the technique
of their performance (Trifunović, Dobrijević, 2013). As a
reason why the rotation difficulties were the preferred of
the gymnasts and the balance difficulties the less used,
it is possible to take the time needed to perform balances
59
Table 3 Body difficulties performed in compositions (rotations-R, jumps-J, balances-B)

Body difficulty

Body difficulty

Body difficulty
Label

Value

Label

Value

Label

Value
R1 0.30 (360°) R2 0.40 (360°) R3 0.30 (360°)

0.50 0.60
R4 0.10 (360°) R5 (0.30+0.20) R6 (0.10+0.50)
(360°+360°) (360°+360°)

R7 0.30 (360°) R8 0.20 (360°) R9 0.20 (360°)

R10 0.50 (360°) R11 0.30 (360°) R12 0.40 (180°)

R13 0.10 (360°) J1 0.70 J2 0.50

J3 0.50 J4 0.60 J5 0.40

J6 0.30 J7 0.80 J8 0.40

J9 0.40 B1 0.50 B2 0.50

B3 0.50 B4 0.50 B5 0.50

B6 0.30 B7 0.30 B8 0.30

B9 0.40 B10 0.50 B11 0.40

B12 0.30

60 HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018

Table 4 Frequencies for all performed body difficulties

N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean

J3 4 10 13 44 11.00 B5 4 1 1 4 1.00
J1 4 6 12 36 9.00 R10 4 1 1 4 1.00
R2 4 6 8 29 7.25 R9 4 1 1 4 1.00
B2 4 7 7 28 7.00 R8 4 1 1 4 1.00
B4 4 5 8 26 6.50 B8 4 0 1 3 0.75
R4 4 6 7 26 6.50 R11 4 0 1 3 0.75
R3 4 4 6 20 5.00 R6 4 0 1 3 0.75
B3 4 4 7 19 4.75 B10 4 0 1 2 0.50
B1 4 4 6 19 4.75 B9 4 0 1 2 0.50
J2 4 2 5 13 3.25 B7 4 0 1 2 0.50
J4 4 2 4 12 3.00 B12 4 0 1 1 0.25
R1 4 3 3 12 3.00 B11 4 0 1 1 0.25
R7 4 2 3 10 2.50 J9 4 0 1 1 0.25
J7 4 1 3 7 1.75 J5 4 0 1 1 0.25
J8 4 0 2 6 1.50 R13 4 0 1 1 0.25
B6 4 0 2 5 1.25 R12 4 0 1 1 0.25
J6 4 1 2 5 1.25 R5 4 0 1 1 0.25
See Table 3 for abbreviations

(Leandro, Ávila-Carvalho, Sierra-Palmerio, Bobo-Arce,
2016a), because they are static elements and their value,
which, according to the prescribed rules, is not greater
than 0.50 points, while in the case of rotations it is pos-
sible to achieve a higher value of difficulty, since every ad-
ditional rotation of 360° on the relevé increases the value of
difficulty for the full value of the base, while in rotations on
flat foot or other part of the body, each additional rotation
of 360° increases the base value of the difficulty by 0.20.
A similar study carried out by Agopyan (2014) showed
that in the finals of the Olympic Games in 2012, the gym-
nasts performed the most body difficulties from the group
of rotations, then from the group of flexibility, jumps and
balances, while in terms of the total number of repetitions
achieved by body difficulties from the group of balances,
then from the group of rotations, jumps and the smallest
number of repetitions was performed in flexibility. It is evi-
dent that according to the Code of Points 2009-2012, four
groups of body elements were defined (jumps, balances,
rotations and flexibility) which were divided as compulsory
and non-compulsory body movement groups for each ap-
paratus separately (FIG Code of Point, 2009-2012). How-
ever, the Code of Points 2013-2016 brings new changes:
the jury composition is changed (it returns to two groups
of judges), the evaluation of the artistic components (unity
of composition, music and movements, expression of the
body and the use of space) became the responsibility of
the Execution judges, the final score is changed (instead
of the previous 30.00 to 20.00 points), it is allowed to use
music with words in only one exercise, the components
of the difficulties of the composition are defined, the re-
quirements for the body difficulties are changed. Another
change is the elimination of flexibility and the redistribution
of certain elements from this body group into balance and
rotation groups (Avila-Carvalho, Klentrou, Palomero, Lebre
2012), because extreme flexibility was the cause of an in-
creasing number of injuries in gymnastics.
In the Table 2 are shown the results for the total number of
body difficulties performed in 40 compositions, the mini-
mum or maximum number of difficulties performed in one
composition, and the minimum and maximum number of
body difficulties from each group to be performed. In all
the compositions, at least two and maximum four body
difficulties from each group of elements were performed,
and it is evident that the gymnasts and coaches complied
with the rules. When it comes to maximal number of body
difficulties that can be performed in one composition, most
gymnasts and their coaches chose the maximum number
of difficulties, while a few gymnasts chose a performance
of eight difficulties, from which it is possible to conclude
that the gymnasts were selecting the performance with
more body difficulties, so that they could achieve the
highest possible scores for difficulties (Leandro, Ávila-
Carvalho, Sierra-Palmeiro, Bobo-Arce, 2015, Leandro,
Ávila-Carvalho, Sierra-Palmerio, Bobo-Arce, 2016a) and
contribute to a better final score, which in essence, apart
from the execution (which include the artistic and techni-
cal faults) determines the final order. The total number of

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 61

body difficulties performed in all 40 compositions is 355.
When we look at the results of the total frequency for all
the difficulties in all 40 compositions, the Jete with a turn
was performed the most, 44 times as a difficulty having
a value of 0.50 and a difficulty that can be successfully
performed isolated, in a series or combined with other
jumps in exercise (Agopyan, 2014). Rotation in penché
was the most used rotations, 29 times. One of the possible
reasons for the highest frequency of Rotation in penché is
that it does not require much effort in performance (Ago-
pyan, 2014) and compared to other difficulties of the same
level it is easier to performed and since gymnasts perform
two or more turns, it is possible to achieve high difficulty
value. Gymnasts used the balances that mostly require to
bend the body (Torso) forward, side or back with a wide
leg amplitude (open the legs 180° degree). Back scale leg
high up is performed 28 times, and it requires bending the
torso back to the horizontal position, the amplitude of the
legs of 180° and it is possible to be performed isolated but
also combined with other balances. This study shows that,
apart from the difficulties with a large number of repeti-
tions, several difficulties were performed only once (Table
4.), and as a reason it is possible to indicate that some
gymnasts decided to perform these difficulties in accor-
dance with the consistence and the idea of composition,
trying to achieve originality and diversity in compositions,
then according to their abilities, while other gymnasts do
not prefer the same body difficulties and have not decided
on their performance, which is also evident in the results
obtained. Increasing body difficulties and apparatus level
helps gymnasts to achieve as high initial value of the com-
position (Agopyan, 2014). When considering the analysis
and the results for all 40 compositions, it is obvious that
gymnasts and their coaches, respecting the rules, unity
and style of their gymnasts, have chosen the difficulties
of the higher value and the complexity. The evaluation
criterion in rhythmic gymnastics requires the optimal use
of the total body potential combined with apparatus, and
therefore the gymnasts, with the intention of getting the
highest points from the judges, aim to prepare and present
a composition of superior quality (Agopyan, 2014).
Conclusion
As a result of the analysis, it can be concluded that the fi-
nalists of the Olympic Games used similar body difficulties
and, accordingly, there was not enough diversity in the se-
lection of body difficulties which are an integral part of their
compositions, but since the compositions are represented
by other difficulties’ components (Batista, Garganta, Ávila-
Carvalho, 2017), according to the author, the compositions
were overall interesting, original and attractive. The gym-
nasts surely prefer the difficulty that corresponds to their
structural features, which aesthetically correspond to the
idea of the composition, which is performed with greater
certainty and for which there is less probability of perfor-
mance error. Coaches, respecting the rules, style, capa-
bilities and abilities of their gymnasts, choose the difficulty
62
that is by value, but also by performance more complex
and attractive, to make a composition as good as possible.
The performance of individual compositions in rhythmic
gymnastics is characterized by qualitative factors that in-
clude the artistic value of exercise, musical accompani-
ment, body difficulties and apparatus selection, as well as
the quantitative factors that involve the number of body dif-
ficulties and apparatus, including original elements, so as
the use of space (Hökelmann, Liviotti, Breitkreutz, 2013).
Since the rules in rhythmic gymnastics change every four
years, it is very important that professional staff, coaches
constantly follow the current changes in the world of rhyth-
mic gymnastics in order to prepare their gymnasts in the
best possible way and achieve better results.
The results of this research can certainly help judges,
coaches and gymnasts in Bosnia and Herzegovina to have
a better insight into the top of the world rhythmic gymnas-
tics, which can ultimately be a guideline to achieve better
results on the international scene, because there are young
talented gymnasts who, with better conditions, competent
and educated staff could achieve notable results.
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Submitted: April 11, 2018

Accepted: May 23, 2018

Corresponding author: Amila Hodžić, MA

Faculty of Sport and Physical Education,
University of Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: ahodzic@fasto.unsa.ba

HOMO SPORTICUS ISSUE 1 2018 63

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 Contents

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ACUTE DECREASE IN LUNG CAPACITY CAUSED BY INTENSIVE SWIMMING IN STUDENTS 37

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EFFECTS OF 8-WEEKS LONG MUSCULAR ENDURANCE TRAINING WITH BODY WEIGHT IN 47
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Dženana Imamović and Faris Rašidagić

INFLUENCE OF LATIN AMERICAN DANCES TO BALANCE, REPETITIVE STRENGTH AND 52
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ANALAYSIS OF BODY DIFFICULTIES AT INDIVIDUAL 2016 OLYMPIC GAMES FINALS IN ELITE 57
RHYTHMIC GYMNASTS

Instructions for autors 64

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