Laser hybrid welding of a lean duplex stainless steel

Elin M. Westin, and Anna Fellman

Citation: ICALEO 2008, 1202 (2008); doi: 10.2351/1.5061238

View online: https://doi.org/10.2351/1.5061238
View Table of Contents: http://lia.scitation.org/toc/ica/2008/1
Published by the Laser Institute of America
 LASER HYBRID WELDING OF A LEAN DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
Paper #1202

1 2,3
Elin M. Westin , Anna Fellman
1
Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta Research Center, P.O. Box 74, SE-774 22 Avesta, Sweden
2
Lappeenranta University of Technology, Laser Processing Laboratory,
Tuotantokatu 2, FI-53850 Lappeenranta, Finland
3
Now at: Weldcon, Seulasenkatu 6, FI-53850 Lappeenranta, Finland

The benefits from using laser hybrid welding methods

Abstract
The use of duplex stainless steel increases steadily
worldwide and the fluctuations in nickel price the
recent years have contributed to further growth. The
lean duplex grade Outokumpu LDX 2101 (EN 1.4162,
UNS S32101) has low nickel content and is alloyed
with nitrogen and manganese to give a balanced
microstructure. It means that good austenite formation
is obtained even when laser welding autogenously
(without filler). This is in contrast to most other duplex
grades, for which laser welding is normally associated
with high ferrite fractions known to reduce the
ductility and corrosion performance. Laser welding of
LDX 2101 has been performed with and without filler
wire, and laser hybrid welding with gas tungsten arc
(GTA) and gas metal arc (GMA) using Nd:YAG, CO2
and fiber lasers. The microstructure is evaluated and
compared with the corrosion performance, and the
mechanical properties are presented.
Introduction
Duplex stainless steels have many advantages over the
austenitic grades. The duplex microstructure exhibits,
for instance, considerably higher yield strength
compared to austenite at equal or even higher
corrosion performance. The duplex grades solidify
ferritically, so the austenite formation occurring in the
solid-phase is controlled by nitrogen diffusion and
hence the cooling rate. Laser welding of these grades
has traditionally been avoided since the rapid cooling
rate would result in an excessively ferritic
microstructure, which could decrease both toughness
and corrosion resistance [1-6]. Consequently, laser
welding of duplex grades is normally limited to tube
welding where continuous annealing of the material
can be performed inline. Addition of pure nickel or
nickel-based consumables can also be an effective, but
expensive alternative [7-11].
are usually high welding speed, gap bridgeability and
low distortion. For duplex grades, the most important
improvement is the higher heat input compared to laser
welding, resulting in decreased cooling rates and hence
improved austenite formation [12-14]. The arc method
allows addition of more filler metal compared to laser
welding with filler additions, and also a larger
influence of adding nitrogen to the shielding gas to
prevent nitrogen loss [12].
LDX 2101® (EN 1.4162, UNS S32101) is a lean
duplex stainless steel with improved laser weldability
compared to most duplex grades. This is related to
alloying with manganese and nitrogen to promote
austenite formation. Earlier work [12] has shown that
LDX 2101 can be laser welded without deterioration in
ductility and corrosion performance. It was, however,
concluded that filler addition when laser welding, or
laser-GTA hybrid welding with and without nitrogen
additions to the shielding gas further improve the
austenite formation and the weld metal pitting
resistance. The aim of the present work is to show how
the ferrite content, the mechanical properties and
corrosion performance of this material are affected by
laser welding and laser hybrid welding with different
laser sources.
Experimental
Materials
The material was the commercially available lean
duplex stainless steel LDX 2101® (EN 1.4162, UNS
S32101) with a thickness of 1 mm and 2 mm. The
filler metals were the recommended duplex fillers
LDX 2101 (ISO 23 7 N L) and 2209 (ISO 22 9 3 N L).
Also the austenitic filler 308L-Si (ISO 19 9 L Si) was
included, although this filler has lower pitting
resistance than the base metal. The chemical
composition and the mechanical properties of the base
metal and filler wires are given in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively.

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 Table 1. Chemical composition of LDX 2101 and filler wires given in wt.%.
Material t, mm C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu N
a
LDX 2101 1.0 0.026 0.78 5.13 0.017 0.001 21.40 1.60 0.28 0.34 0.227
b
LDX 2101 1.0 0.027 0.74 5.30 0.022 0.001 21.29 1.62 0.30 0.37 0.248
c
LDX 2101 1.0 0.027 0.72 4.99 0.022 0.001 21.35 1.57 0.21 0.26 0.220
b
LDX 2101 2.0 0.025 0.72 5.17 0.020 0.001 21.25 1.62 0.28 0.35 0.233
c
LDX 2101 2.0 0.028 0.60 4.92 0.021 0.001 21.45 1.54 0.23 0.25 0.210
d
LDX 2101 Ø1.0 0.011 0.37 0.60 0.019 0.001 23.30 6.80 0.13 0.09 0.141
d
308L-Si Ø1.2 0.018 0.85 1.88 0.014 0.010 19.76 10.11 0.10 0.05 0.051
d
LDX 2101 Ø1.2 0.021 0.32 0.49 0.015 0.0007 23.21 7.18 0.34 0.36 0.144
d
2209 Ø1.2 0.014 0.48 1.60 0.015 0.0005 22.93 8.60 3.19 0.10 0.157
a
Nd:YAG laser tests, b CO2 laser tests, c Fiber laser tests, d Filler wire

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the base metal and filler metals used in this work.
Material / filler Rp0.2, MPa Rm, MPa A50, %
LDX 2101 min. 530 min. 700 min. 30
a
LDX 2101 520 710 30
a
2209 550 770 30
a
308L-Si 370 620 36
a
Filler wire

Nd:YAG Laser and Laser-GTA Hybrid Welding CO2 Laser and CO2 Laser-GMA Hybrid Welding

Nd:YAG laser welding was performed with a 3 kW
diode pumped Rofin DY033 laser on milled edges in
butt joints without gap. The focal length was 160 mm
and the fiber diameter Ø0.4 mm. The welding speed
was 3 m/min and pure argon was used as backing gas
at a flow rate of 8 l/min. GTA welding with Fronius
TransTig 1600 equipment was utilized for hybrid
welding with negative polarity using a Ø1.6 mm W-Th
electrode. The electrode stick-out length was 14 mm,
the arc length 2 mm and the distance from the GTA
electrode tip to the laser beam was 1.75 mm. Laser
welding and laser-GTA hybrid welding were
performed with and without filler wire and nitrogen
additions to the shielding gas. The filler wire was Ø1.0
mm LDX 2101 added at a rate of 1.1 m/min. The
shielding gases were N2, Ar and Ar + 3% N2. The GTA
current was 60-70 A and the voltage 10.4-12.0 V. The
laser power was 1.3 kW, apart for the autogenous
welds performed using 1 kW, and the resulting average
heat input was 0.02-0.04 kJ/mm. The edges were
milled before welding and leading laser was used for
all hybrid welds. The welding details are presented in
Table 3. More information can be found in Ref. [12].
Autogenous CO2 laser welding and CO2 laser-GMA
hybrid welding were performed with a Rofin Sinar
RS6000 using 5 kW laser power on the work piece.
The focal length was 300 mm and the focal point was
on the surface. The work pieces were laser cut with
nitrogen to avoid further beveling before welding and
these were clamped in a fixture, Figure 1a. The
shielding gas when autogenous CO2 laser welding was
pure helium at a flow rate of 25 l/min and it was
introduced to the process area via two copper tubes of
Ø4 mm diameter. When CO2 laser-GMA hybrid
welding, the laser was leading and the GMA process
using Esab Aristo 2000 equipment was pulsed. The
distance between the arc and laser beam was 2 mm and
the GMAW torch was tilted 58° in relation to the
surface of the work piece. The shielding gas consisting
of Ar + 50% He at a flow rate of 10-15 l/min was
introduced to the process area via the GMAW torch.
The filler wires were Ø1.0 mm 308L-Si and Ø1.2 mm
2209, and the stick-out length was 15 mm. The
parameters used in the experiments are presented in
Table 3 and the experimental set-up shown in Figure
1b.

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Table 3. Laser and laser hybrid welding parameters for the Nd:YAG, CO2 and fiber laser tests. The heat input is
expressed as HI = (P+U×I)/v, where average values were used for pulsed GMA. Unless elsewhere specified, a
leading laser configuration was employed for the hybrid welding.
t Filler Shielding gas Current Voltage vwelding vwire HI
Test Process
mm wire type l/min A V m/min m/min kJ/mm
1 1 --- Nd:YAG N2 10 --- --- 3 --- 0.02
2 1 --- Nd:YAG+GTA Ar 18 60 10 3 --- 0.04
3 1 --- Nd:YAG+GTA Ar + 3% N2 18 70 12 3 --- 0.04
4 1 LDX 2101 Nd:YAG N2 10 --- --- 3 1.1 0.03
5 1 LDX 2101 Nd:YAG+GTA Ar 18 70 10 3 1.1 0.04
6 1 LDX 2101 Nd:YAG+GTA Ar + 3% N2 18 70 11 3 1.1 0.04
7 2 --- CO2 He 24 --- --- 5 --- 0.06
8 2 --- CO2 He 24 --- --- 3 --- 0.10
9 2 308L-Si CO2+GMA Ar + 50% He 10 63 27 4 3.6 0.10
10 2 308L-Si CO2+GMA Ar + 50% He 10 104 31 5 5.8 0.10
11 2 2209 CO2+GMA Ar + 50% He 15 79 32 4 2.5 0.11
12 2 2209 CO2+GMA Ar + 50% He 15 105 28 5 4.0 0.09
13 1 --- CO2 He 24 --- --- 8 --- 0.04
14 1 --- CO2 He 24 --- --- 4 --- 0.08
15 1 2209 CO2+GMA Ar + 50% He 15 121 25 8 5.5 0.06
16 1 2209 CO2+GMA Ar + 50% He 15 105 28 6 4.0 0.08
17 2 --- Fiber Ar 16 --- --- 3 --- 0.10
18 2 2209 Fiber+GMA Ar + 2% CO2 25 112 28 3 7.0 0.16
19 2 2209 Fiber+GMAa Ar + 2% CO2 25 119 30 3 7. 0 0.17
20 1 --- Fiber Ar 25 --- --- 5 --- 0.06
21 1 2209 Fiber+GMA Ar +2 % CO2 25 86 26 4 5.5 0.11
a
22 1 2209 Fiber+GMA Ar + 2% CO2 25 85 27 4 5.5 0.11
a
Leading arc and trailing laser

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Experimental set-up of a) autogenous CO2 laser welding and b) CO2 laser-GMA hybrid welding.

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Fiber Laser and Fiber Laser-GMA Hybrid Welding
Autogenous fiber laser welding and fiber laser-GMA
hybrid welding were performed on milled or laser cut
edges with a 5 kW IPG YLR-5000 using maximum
laser power and 100 µ m feeding fiber, with the focal
point 1 mm below the surface. The laser optics with a
focal distance of 250 mm corresponded to a focus
diameter of approximately 0.32 mm. The diameter of
the optical fiber was 100 µ m and the beam parameter
product was about 4.4 mm·mrad at a wavelength of
1.07 µm. The shielding gas was pure argon at 25 l/min
flow for the autogenous fiber laser welds and the
backing gas was pure argon at 15 l/min flow. In fiber
laser-GMA hybrid welding the process set-up was the
same as when CO2 laser-GMA hybrid welding, except
Ø1.0 and 1.2 mm 2209 filler wire were used and the
shielding gas was Ar + 2% CO2 at a flow of 20-25
l/min. In addition, both leading laser and trailing laser
were tested. The parameters used in the experiments
are presented in Table 3.
Non-Destructive and Destructive Testing
All the welds were visually inspected to be approved
into B class according to the weld quality standard
ISO-EN 13919-1. Radiographic testing was used to
confirm high weld quality.
Cross-sections of the welds were prepared with
conventional techniques and the microstructure
elucidated with color etching in a modified Beraha II
solution (60 ml H2O + 30 ml HCl + 1 g K2S 2O 5). The
weld metal ferrite and austenite fractions could then be
measured with image analysis (Optimas 6.1 software).
All welds were pickled for 1 to 20 min in 2 M HNO3 +
2 M HF at 60°C before corrosion testing. The critical
pitting temperature (CPT) was then measured in 1 M
NaCl with the Avesta cell [15,16] according to the
ASTM G150 standard. To give good statistics, six to
nine welded specimens were used and these were
tested on the root side, or on both the cap and root side.
The base metal was also pickled and corrosion tested
as reference. Tensile testing was performed in
accordance with EN 10002-1 and ASTM A370. The
weld bead reinforcement was removed before testing.
Results
Table 4 shows the ferrite content, the tensile test data
and the CPT of the base and weld metals. As expected
the welds had higher ferrite contents and somewhat
lower pitting resistance than the base metal. The welds
also showed higher strength and lower ductility
compared to the base metal.
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Small variations in the CPT were seen for the Nd:YAG
laser-GTA hybrid welds, but possible nitrogen loss,
indicated by higher ferrite contents, probably made the
root more susceptible to corrosion attack. Use of
nitrogen additions to the GTA shielding gas improved
the austenite formation and the corrosion performance.
The tensile strength was high, in parity with that of the
base metal, while the ductility was somewhat lower.
The austenite formation and pitting resistance of the
CO2 laser and CO2 laser-GMA hybrid welds were
generally high. The differences were small, but there
was some correlation between improved austenite
formation and higher CPT. The strength was generally
high and the ductility fairly good.
The autogenous fiber laser welds had low austenite
formation, which decreased the elongation. The
corrosion resistance was reasonable, but the scatter
large. The specimens that were attacked in the weld
metal had as low CPT as 6°C, while specimens
attacked in the base metal showed a CPT of up to
26°C. The austenite formation and the pitting
resistance of the weld metal increased when laser
hybrid welding, but the CPT was not as significantly
improved. One reason could be that pitting occurred in
some cases in association with small spatter on the root
side. The strength and ductility of the fiber laser-GMA
hybrid welded 2 mm material was high, while the
ductility was somewhat lower for the 1 mm thick
material with failures occurring in the weld metal. The
narrow autogenous fiber laser welds showed the
importance of good seam tracking systems. No evident
differences other than geometrical were seen for fiber
laser hybrid welding performed with leading and
trailing laser beam, but trailing laser resulted in
smoother root surfaces with less spatter.
Figure 2 shows typical weld cross-sections and weld
metal microstructures for 1 mm thick material. The
autogenous fiber laser weld was the narrowest
followed by the Nd:YAG weld, while the CO2 laser
weld was considerably wider. Use of hybrid welding
methods resulted in wider welds and larger weld bead
areas. Nd:YAG laser-GTA hybrid welds had the
smoothest surface, while fiber laser-GMA welds had
the narrowest root. The CO 2 laser-GMA hybrid and
fiber-GMA hybrid welds had exaggerated weld bead
reinforcement that could have a negative impact on the
fatigue properties. The filler metal had a diameter of
1.2 mm, which gave excessively high and wide welds,
particularly in leading laser position, and further
reduction of the heat input gave an instable arc.
Change of filler to 1.0 mm diameter resulted in smaller
welds, but the weld reinforcement was still
pronounced.
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Table 4. Base and weld metal ferrite content, tensile test data and critical pitting temperatures (CPT). All welds were
performed as butt joints and pickled before the corrosion test.
Parameter set-up Metallography Tensile test results Corrosion tests
t Shielding Ferrite Rp0.2 Rm A50 CPT, °C
Test Process Filler wire
mm gas vol.% MPa MPa % Cap Root
BM --- 1 --- --- 47 ± 2 626 839 31 26 ± 3
1 Nd:YAG 1 N2 --- 81 ± 2 663 850 21 17 ± 6 16 ± 7
2 Nd:YAG+GTA 1 Ar --- 73 ± 2 659 835 16 22 ± 2 13 ± 5
3 Nd:YAG+GTA 1 Ar + 3% N 2 --- 62 ± 4 631 829 20 21 ± 4 20 ± 5
4 Nd:YAG 1 N2 LDX 2101 73 ± 2 638 819 19 18 ± 5 12 ± 6
5 Nd:YAG+GTA 1 Ar LDX 2101 72 ± 2 637 810 13 18 ± 5 16 ± 6
6 Nd:YAG+GTA 1 Ar + 3% N 2 LDX 2101 63 ± 3 657 838 19 21 ± 5 20 ± 5
BM --- 2 --- --- 47 ± 4 585 782 35 26 ± 1
7 CO2 2 He --- 70 ± 2 628 818 23 --- 22 ± 5
8 CO2 2 He --- 61 ± 3 637 814 21 --- 25 ± 4
9 CO2+GMA 2 Ar + 50% He 308L-Si 57 ± 2 634 824 27 --- 19 ± 2
10 CO2+GMA 2 Ar + 50% He 308L-Si 52 ± 2 638 821 26 --- 24 ± 3
11 CO2+GMA 2 Ar + 50% He 2209 66 ± 7 610 792 22 --- 24 ± 2
12 CO2+GMA 2 Ar + 50% He 2209 52 ± 2 615 802 17 --- 24 ± 2
BM --- 1 --- --- 49 ± 2 624 821 43 29 ± 4
13 CO2 1 He --- 63 ± 2 660 836 18 --- 24 ± 5
14 CO2 1 He --- 58 ± 1 642 836 28 --- 28 ± 2
15 CO2+GMA 1 Ar + 50% He 2209 69 ± 2 657 848 22 --- 21 ± 2
16 CO2+GMA 1 Ar + 50% He 2209 56 ± 2 635 826 26 --- 22 ± 1
BM --- 2 --- --- 47 ± 4 609 790 38 26 ±1
17 Fiber 2 Ar --- 87 ± 2 627 794 22 --- 10 ± 4
18 Fiber+GMA 2 Ar + 2% CO2 2209 74 ± 4 620 792 23 --- 22 ± 6
19 Fiber+GMAa 2 Ar + 2% CO2 2209 74 ± 2 624 801 25 --- 18 ± 1
BM --- 1 --- --- 49 ± 2 639 822 50 29 ± 4
20 Fiber 1 Ar --- 87 ± 3 637 812 15 --- 20 ± 10
21 Fiber+GMA 1 Ar + 2% CO2 2209 71 ± 3 626 803 16 --- 18 ± 6
a
22 Fiber+GMA 1 Ar + 2% CO2 2209 73 ± 3 623 792 16 --- 16 ± 9
a
Leading arc and trailing laser

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 Figure 2. 1 mm thick LDX 2101 material welded with (a) autogenous Nd:YAG laser, (b) Nd:YAG
laser-GTA hybrid with LDX 2101 filler and Ar + 3% N2 as shielding gas, (c) autogenous CO 2 laser, (d)
CO 2 laser-GMA hybrid with 2209 filler, (e) autogenous fiber laser and (f) fiber laser-GMA hybrid with
2209 filler.

Discussion Influence of Austenite Formation on CPT

Mechanical Properties Compared to base metal, weld metal normally has

All the welds fulfilled the yield strength and ultimate
tensile strength requirements for the base metal LDX
2101, whereas the elongation values were lower. The
weld bead reinforcement was removed before testing,
possibly additionally affecting the ductility since some
failures occurred in the weld metal. Most Nd:YAG and
some fiber laser welds failed in the weld metal, while
most of the CO2 laser welds failed in the base metal
and showed higher ductility.
somewhat lower corrosion performance [17,18]. On
the thoroughly cleaned laser and laser hybrid welds,
the loss in pitting resistance was moderate to small.
Additions of nickel and nitrogen or increased heat
input are well known to improve the corrosion
resistance by enhancing austenite formation [19-21].
This was also seen in the present work and the
autogenous laser weld metal with lowest austenite
fraction was least resistant to pitting attack. The overall
effect on CPT was however smaller, although the
lowest measured values increased with the austenite
content, Figure 3.

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Figure 3. The influence of weld metal austenite content
on the CPT for laser weld roots.
The largest improvement was seen when adding
nitrogen to the GTA shielding gas when Nd:YAG laser
welding since this appears to counteract nitrogen loss
[12]. The CO2 laser and laser-GMA hybrid welds all
showed high austenite fractions and correspondingly
high CPT, indicating less nitrogen loss or slower
cooling rates due to higher heat input.
Autogenous fiber laser welding resulted in higher
ferrite contents with reduced pitting resistance
compared to the other welding methods. The narrow
welds might increase the alloying element loss as Khan
et al. [22] reported for Nd:YAG laser welding. Loss of
chromium and nitrogen may reduce the pitting
resistance, and evaporation of austenite stabilizing
elements such as nitrogen, nickel and manganese can
decrease the austenite formation. Fiber laser hybrid
welding gave considerably higher austenite formation
and improved the weld metal pitting resistance. Pitting
in these was not found in the weld metal or HTHAZ,
but instead in the base metal 1-3 mm from the fusion
line [13].
Recent work on laser hybrid welding of stainless steel
has shown that trailing laser and leading arc generally
appears to be a better option [23]. With trailing laser,
the welding speed is reduced, giving more time for
austenite formation, deeper penetration of filler
additions for uniform microstructure and elimination
of defects associated with leading laser on thicker
materials. No such differences were measured on the
thin material in the present work, although trailing
laser and leading arc gave the smoothest root
formation.
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Austenitic filler metal such as 308L-Si is not
recommended when using conventional welding
methods since this filler has lower corrosion resistance
than the base metal due to lower alloying content. This
can, for instance, lead to austenitic solidification of the
weld metal and increase the risk of forming
solidification cracks. Other negative effects can be a
reduction in strength and resistance to stress corrosion
cracking. However, for the CO2 laser-GMA hybrid
tests performed with this wire, the corrosion resistance
and the ductility were high. This is attributed to the
increased austenite content, reducing the amount of
nitride precipitates that can have a negative effect on
the weld metal properties.
Conclusions
The pitting resistance and mechanical properties of
welded LDX 2101 were evaluated for laser and laser
hybrid welding with different laser types using various
filler metals and shielding gases.
1. All welds fulfilled the yield strength and ultimate
tensile strength requirements of base metal LDX
2101, whereas the elongation values were lower.
2. The welds had higher ferrite content than the
parent metal and had, in the thoroughly cleaned
condition, somewhat lower pitting resistance.
3. Autogenous fiber and Nd:YAG laser welding
resulted in high weld metal ferrite contents and
these were least resistant to pitting. Laser hybrid
welding significantly improved the austenite
formation and made the weld metal more resistant
to pitting. The actual effect on the critical pitting
temperature was, however, not as significant. The
largest improvement was seen when adding
nitrogen to the GTA shielding gas when Nd:YAG
laser hybrid welding.
4. The CO2 laser and laser hybrid welds all showed
high austenite fractions and high pitting resistance.
The increased austenite formation when hybrid
welding was related more strongly to the increased
heat input than to the choice of filler metal.
5. Autogenous fiber laser welding gave the narrowest
and CO2 laser welding the widest welds. Hybrid
welding made the welds wider and increased the
weld metal reinforcement.
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 Acknowledgement
Pertti Kokko and Jaakko Moisio at Lappeenranta
University of Technology, Finland, and Mats Ström at
Nordic Laser Production AB, Sweden, are
acknowledged for resourceful laser work. Hans-Erik
Peth at Avesta Research Center performed the CPT
measurements and Rachel Pettersson at Avesta
Research Center gave valuable comments on the script.
Thanks are also expressed to Seppo Neuvonen at
Rautatyö Kröger OY, Finland, for the right to publish
the CO2 laser-GMA hybrid welding results.
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[17] Rahoi, D.W., Liljas, M., Qvarfort, R., Davison,
R.M. & Gemmel, G. (1987) Improved
weldments for alloy 2205, in Proceedings of
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307, 17pp.
[18] Miura, M., Koso, M., Kudo, T. & Tsuge, H.
(1989) The effects of nickel and nitrogen on the
microstructure and corrosion resistance of
duplex stainless steel weldments, Welding
International 7, 200-206.
[19] Bonnefois, B., Soulignac, P. & Charles, J.
(1991) Some aspects of nitrogen introduction in
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[20] Vilpas, M. & Hänninen, H. (1999) The role of
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Meet the Authors
Ms. Elin M. Westin holds a M.Sc. degree in
mechanical engineering from Luleå University of
Technology and received her international welding
engineer certificate from the Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden in 2002.
Since then she has been working as a research engineer
for Outokumpu Stainless at Avesta Research Center,
where she is responsible for weldability research on
duplex stainless steels and also an external Ph.D.
candidate at KTH.
Dr. Anna Fellman received her M.Sc. degree in
mechanical engineering in 2002 and her Ph.D. in laser
processing in 2008 from Lappeenranta University of
Technology (LUT). She also received her international
welding engineer certificate from LUT in 2008. She is
today working as a consultant, with her own company
Weldcon. Her specialty is laser welding processes;
especially laser hybrid welding of steel.

[21] Matsunaga, H., Sato, Y.S., Kokawa, H. &

Kuwana, T. (1996) Effect of nitrogen on
corrosion of duplex stainless steel weld metal,
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
3, 225-232.

[22] Khan, P.A.A., DebRoy, T. & David, S.A.

(1988) Laser beam welding of high-manganese
stainless steels–examination of alloying element
loss and microstructural changes, Welding
Journal 67, 1s-7s.

[23] Fellman, A. & Westin, E.M. (2008) Fiber laser

hybrid welding of stainless steel, in Proceedings
of ICALEO 2008, Temecula, CA, USA, Laser
Institute of America, 2008, Paper 1204, 8pp.

ICALEO® 2008 Congress Proceedings

Proceeding Laser Materials Processing Conference
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