June 2014

5 (c) organisms that are well adapted or have characteristics that help them to survive in
their environment will survive (be selected) to pass on their characteristics to their offspring.
Candidates were expected to state that some bacteria in the population already have
resistance to antibiotics as a result of mutation, while some do not as there is variation in
the population. The less resistant (susceptible) ones are killed on exposure to the antibiotic
while the resistant ones survive. The survivors reproduce and pass on the resistant genes to
their offspring. The survivors will multiply rapidly because of reduced competition from non-
resistant forms. Eventually most survivors will be the ones that are resistant to the antibiotic.

June 2015
6. (a) a biological species is differentiated from another if they are unable to interbreed and
produce fertile offspring. Members of the same species are able to interbreed and produce
fertile offspring. They also share a common ancestry and have similar genes.

Factors that lead to the formation of a new species include geographic isolation caused by
formation of rivers or mountains; ecological factors such as occupying different niches;
behavioural factors which result in reproductive isolation such as being nocturnal versus
being diurnal; having different mating habits or being fertile at different times of the year.
Factors that could result in an individual no longer being able to interbreed with the original
population such as mutation, genetic engineering and artificial selection.

(b) Postindustrialization, the speckled (light coloured) form was poorly camouflaged and
more likely to be eaten by birds since the soot from factories during industrialization caused
the tree trunks to be blackened so that the dark form was now well camouflaged. The dark
form now had the selective advantage (which belonged to the pale speckled form when the
tree trunks were lichen covered). Preindustrialization, both variants — the speckled form
and the black form — existed but the speckled form was well camouflaged on the lichen
covered trees, so less selection pressure was exerted by bird predation and they therefore
existed in higher numbers.

(c) Organisms that are well adapted or have characteristics that help them to survive in their
environment will survive (be selected) to pass on their characteristics to their offspring.
Candidates were expected to state that some bacteria in the population already have
resistance to antibiotics as a result of mutation, while some do not as there is variation in
the population. The less resistant (susceptible) ones are killed on exposure to the antibiotic
while the resistant ones survive. The survivors reproduce and pass on the resistant genes to
their offspring. The survivors will multiply rapidly because of reduced competition from non-
resistant forms. Eventually most survivors will be the ones that are resistant to the antibiotic.
January 2016
6. (a) Genetic engineering is the process by where a desired gene/gene of interest is
isolated/taken from an unrelated species with the use of specific enzymes/restriction
endonucleases and then inserted into a vector/plasmid using DNA ligase. The vector/plasmid
is then introduced into the organism and the desired gene is inserted into the organisms’
DNA/genome. The
genetically altered organism will then express this gene/have a new combination of traits
which do not occur in nature.

Advantages:
genetically modified organisms are able to express the desired traits within a short period of
time; genetically modified crops have desirable traits that enable them to survive better and
expression of the gene of interest is guaranteed.

Disadvantages:
genetic engineering technology is expensive, technical expertise is required to carry out the
technology, genetically modified organisms may pose a risk to the environment; engineered
variety may revert to the original genome because the gene gets lost or is not stable; and
ethical concerns.

(b) (i) The new red phenotype was the result of a mutation in the gene responsible for the
fruit
colour.

Implications of biological evolution:

The change in DNA may lead to the formation of a new species if the seeds produce plants
that are unable to reproduce with the original tomato plants. The mutation may also result
in the removal of certain other desirable characteristics in the species, like disease resistance
which is responsible for the survival of the original species and hence these genes will be lost
from the natural population.

(ii) The expected response was a breeding programme (artificial selection) whereby the
desirable gene is identified (from plants in the wild) or seeds from the crosses are planted
and the
offspring screened for the desired trait. These are then crossed and the offspring with the
desirable
gene are selected and propagated. Or the crosses are made between the crop plant and a
relative which has desirable traits (for example, disease resistance, better quality fruit).

How this process differs from the process occurring in nature?

This is a type of artificial selection. The new phenotype occurs naturally and it either survives
or
gets eliminated depending on its ability to survive in the environment. This will bring about a
change in the alleles and form the basis for biological evolution. Artificial selection also takes
longer to achieve its objectives.
January 2017

3(c) (iii) the likely sex of the haemophiliac child is male because males inherit their X
chromosome from their mothers and since one of the mother’s X chromosome carries the
haemophiliac allele, there is a 50 per cent chance that a male child will inherit that allele.
The female child gets one of her X chromosomes from the father so if that father is not a
haemophiliac, she will either be a carrier (XHXh) or normal (XHXH).

January 2017

6. (a) The insulin gene/desired gene is isolated from human DNA/pancreas cells with the use
of specific enzymes/restriction endonucleases and then inserted into a vector/plasmid taken
from the E. coli. The altered vector/plasmid is then introduced into the E. coli and the
desired gene is inserted into the organisms’ DNA/genome. The genetically altered E. coli will
then express the insulin gene/produce significant amounts of insulin when it reproduces. The
insulin is then extracted and purified for use by humans.

(b) (i)
 Artificial selection takes a longer time for the desired results to be seen but with
genetic engineering the desired result is seen as soon as the gene is introduced.
 Artificial selection is carried out in a field/on a farm while genetic engineering must
be carried out in a special controlled environment such as in a laboratory.
 Artificial selection is cheaper because genetic engineering requires more financial and
technical resources as well as specialized equipment.
 Artificial selection involves using the whole organism/reproductive parts/gametes but
genetic engineering is performed at the cellular level.
 Artificial selection is performed when a breeder/farmer crosses/mates a plant/animal
with another of the same or closely related species but with genetic engineering the
desired genes from an unrelated species are introduced into another for rapid cloning
to take place.
 Artificial selection is labour intensive because several backcrosses are required to
remove desired traits.
 With artificial selection a mixture of desirable and undesirable traits may be
introduced to the offspring, but with genetic engineering it is easier to target only
desired traits.
 Artificial selection involves the selection of genes for traits which already exist among
the species but with genetic engineering new genes can be introduced to a species for
production.
 Artificial selection is not harmful to humans but genetic engineering may be harmful
to humans.
 Artificial selection has no long-term harmful effects but the long-term effects of
genetic engineering are not yet known.

(ii)  Genetically modified bacteria are able to produce insulin within a shorter time
 A larger amount of insulin is produced as bacteria reproduce more frequently than
other sources of insulin like pigs and cows
 Mass production of genetically engineered insulin is cheaper for the consumer
 Humans do not develop resistance to genetically engineered insulin as they do to pig
or cow insulin
 Genetically engineered insulin from bacteria is less likely to cause allergic responses in
humans
 Genetically engineered insulin from bacteria may be more acceptable to individuals
from different religious groups, such as Muslims and Hindus, that do not use the
products of pigs and cows.