Drainage Principles and Applications-Wageningen University and Research 333101

DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
I I N T R O D U C T O R Y SUBJECTS
II T H E O R I E S O F F I E L D D R A I N A G E A N D W A T E R S H E D
RUNOFF
III S U R V E Y S A N D I N V E S T I G A T I O N S
IV DESIGN A N D M A N A G E M E N T OF DRAINAGE S Y S T E M S
Edited from:
Lecture notes of the
International Course on Land Drainage
Wageningen
CENTRALE LANDBOUWCATALOGUS
0000 0021 6198
I
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR LAND RECLAMATION AND IMPROVEMENT
P.O. BOX 45 WAGENINGEN THE NETHERLANDS 1974
ïlh
PREFACE
This book is the last of the four-volume series on Drainage Principles and Applica-
tions. The contents are based on lectures delivered in the International Course on
Land Drainage, which is organized annually by the International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement. Since the decision of the Board of the Course in
1969 to have all lecture notes re-edited for publication by the Institute, the first three
volumes have appeared. They were issued in 1972, 1973, and 1974, respectively.
Volume I deals with introductory subjects, Volume II with theories of field drainage
and watershed runoff, and Volume III with surveys and investigations. Volume IV
covers the design and management of drainage systems.
As was mentioned in the Introduction to Volume I, great efforts are made during
the Course to cover the principles of land drainage. Within the three months that
the Course lasts, it is impossible to cover every factor that may have a bearing on
successful drainage. A choice has to be made, not only of the topics taught, but also
on how thoroughly they are treated.
Since the first course was held in 1962, constant attention has been given to its im-
provement. Scientific advances made it necessary to update some topics. New sub-
jects were introduced and others were deleted or given less emphasis. Some sub-
jects were split up into two or three new ones and were gone into more deeply.' In
many instances a subject has been presented by more than one lecturer during the
12 years that the course has been held; this also led to major and minor alterations
in the original lecture notes. Some improvements were suggested by the participants
themselves, who come from all over the world and have different educational back-
grounds or are confronted with different types of drainage problems in their home
countries.
Nearly five years have passed since the contents of the four volumes and the titles
of the various chapters were decided on. In this volume the reader will notice that
some changes have been made in the list of Subjects andAuthors. Chapter 29 under-
went substantial changes. Due to the death of one of its authors, Mr. G. Hekket,
the revision of his part of the chapter was undertaken by Mr. M. G. Bos. who thus
became co-author with Mr. J. A. van Dort. For editorial reasons Chapters 30 and
31 were interchanged. The chapter on maintenance of ditches with chemicals had
to be updated and because its author Mr. H. G. van der Weij had retired, Mr. A. H.
Druijff has written a new chapter on the subject. The title of Chapter 32was altered
to cover its subject matter more appropriately. Repeated requests from participants
led to the inclusion of three completely new subjects: Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils,
Drainage of Sloping Lands, and Procedures in Drainage Surveys. These three new
chapters have been numbered 33, 34, and 36, as a consequence of which the original
Chapters 33, 34, and 35 have been re-numbered.
In spite of careful reading of the manuscripts before printing, a number of errors in
Volumes I and II have been overlooked. We have therefore included inVolume IV
an erratum of these first two volumes.
With the issue of this book, the goal of publishing the lecture notes of the Inter-
national Course on Land Drainage has been achieved. The user of the four volumes
may find it a drawback that certain topics are dealt with somewhat in isolation. In
the course itself, the interrelationship of these subjects is made obvious in several
case studies which are worked out bythe participants themselves. It wasnot consider-
ed practical to include the case studies in this publication since it would have neces-
sitated the issue of a costly fifth volume with many maps and drawings. Nor would
it have achieved its object since the case studies differ from year to year, while a
vital part of them - namely the discussions between participants when applying their
new-found knowledge - would of course be impossible to present.
The members of the Working Group who contributed to the editing of Volume IV
were:
Mr. N. A. de Ridder, Editor-in-Chief
Mr. A. H. J. Bökkers, Editor
Mr. M. G. Bos, Editor
Mr. R. H. Messemaeckers van de Graaff, Editor
Mr. Ch. A. P. Takes, Editor
Mr. J. de Wolf, Editor
Mr. J. Stransky, Subject and Author Indexes
Mrs. M. F. L. Wiersma-Roche, Translator
Mr. T. Beekman, Production
With the completion of the last volume of the series of four, I wish to express my
gratitude to the authors, the editors, and to all the others who have taken part in the
production of these works. So many people have carried their share of the burden
that it is impossible to mention them all by name. However, I would like to make an
exception for Mr. P. J. Dieleman, the late Mr. J. Kessler, and Mr. N.A. de Ridder
who, in succession, acted as editors-in-chief, and, as such, devoted much of their
working time and leisure hours to the job. I hope that the four volumes will prove
useful to all those engaged in land drainage. Any criticism and suggestions that might
lead to an improved future edition will be welcomed.
Wageningen, June 1974 F. E. Schulze

Director
International Institute for
Land Reclamation and Improvement
LIST OF SUBJECTS A N D A U T H O R S OF VOLUMES
I-IV
Volume I INTRODUCTORY SUBJECTS

Chapters
1 Hydrogeology of different types of plains N. A. DE RIDDER
2 Soils and soil properties W. F. J. VAN BEERS
3 Salty soils B. VERHOEVEN
4 Plant growth in relation to drainage G. A. W. VAN DE GOOR
5 Physics of soil moisture P. H. GROENEVELT
J. W. KlJNE
6 Elementary groundwater hydraulics P . J. DlELEMAN
N. A. DE RIDDER
7 Electrical models:conductive sheet S. A. DE BOER
analogues W. H. VAN DER MOLEN
Volume II THEORIESOFFIELDDRAINAGEANDWATERSHED RUNOFF

Chapters
8 Subsurface flow into drains J. WESSELING
9 Salt balance and leaching requirement W. H. VAN DER MOLEN
10 Effects ofirrigation on drainage J. NUGTEREN

11 Field drainage criteria J. KESSLER
12 Flow to wells J. WESSELING
13 Seepage J. WESSELING
14 Drainage by means of pumping from wells N. A. DE RIDDER
15 Rainfall-runoff relations and computational D. A. KRAIJENHOFF
models VAN D E L E U R
16 Hydrograph analysis'for areas with mainly J. W. DE ZEEUW

groundwater runoff
Volume III SURVEYSAND INVESTIGATIONS
Chapters
17 Surveys and their sequence J. M . V A N S T A V E R E N
18 Analysing rainfall data J. KESSLER
S. J. DE R A A D
19 Determining évapotranspiration J. W. KlJNE
20 Hydropedological survey K. VAN DER M E E R
R. H. MESSEMAECKERS
VAN DE G R A A F F
21 Groundwater survey N . A. DE R I D D E R
22 Assessing groundwater balances J. KESSLER
N. A. DE R I D D E R
23 Measuring soil moisture W. P. STAKMAN
24 Determining hydraulic conductivity of soils J. KESSLER
R. J. OOSTERBAAN
25 Deriving aquifer characteristics from pum- J. WESSELING
ping tests G. P. KRUSEMAN
26 Deriving soil hydrological constants from P. J. DIELEMAN
field drainage tests
Volume IV DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Chapters
27 Subsurface field drainage systems J. C. CAVELAARS
28 Surface field drainage systems S. RAADSMA
F. E. SCHULZE
29 Main drainage systems J. A . V A N D O R T
M. G. Bos
30 Chemical control of aquatic weeds A. H. DRUIJFF
31 Mechanical maintenance of ditches H. M. ELEMA
32 Drainage of newly reclaimed marine clayey W. A. SEGEREN
sediments, peat soils, and acid sulphate soils H. SMITS
33 Drainage of heavy clay soils J. W. VAN H O O R N
34 Drainage of sloping lands J. W. VAN H O O R N
W. H. VAN DER M O L E N
35 Drainage of rice fields G. A. W. VAN DE G O O R
36 Procedures in drainage surveys N . A. DE R I D D E R
R. VAN A A R T
37 Management of drainage projects F. HELLINGA
J. M. VAN STAVEREN
38 Economic evaluation of water management F. P. JANSEN
projects
MAIN TABLE OF CONTENTS
V Preface
VII List ofsubjects and authors ofvolumes I-IV
2 27 SUBSURFACE FIELD DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

3 27.1 Typesoffield drains
4 27.2 Ditch drains
9 27.3 Mole drains
14 27.4 Design ofpipe drainage
/ 33 27.5 Materials and structures for pipe drainage
/- 41 27.6 Construction ofapipe drainage system
51 27.7 Maintenance ofpipedrainage systems
68 28 SURFACE FIELD DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

69 28.1 Introduction
70 28.2 Need for surface drainage
71 28.3 Landforming for surface drainage
78 28.4 Surface drainage systems for flat areas
85 28.5 Surface drainage systems for sloping areas
88 28.6 Water disposal and diversion
91 28.7 Design discharge computations for sloping areas
111 28.8 Design discharge computations for flat areas
124 29 MAIN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
125 29.2 General aspects
132 29.3 Hydraulics
147 29.4 Design criteria
..-•-' 156 29.5 Installing a;main drainage system
158 29.6 The stability ofdrainage canals
178 29.7 Flow velocity control
190 29.8 Channel transitions (subcriticalflow)
/ 198 29.9 Pumpsand pumping stations
224 30 CHEMICAL CONTROL OFAQUATIC WEEDS

227 30.2 Aquatic weedsand their growth-place factors
229 30.3 Some ofthe most effective herbicides
231 30.4 Factorsthat caninfluence thesuccessofherbicide applications
233 30.5 Spraying equipment
233 30.6 Biological and other methods ofweed control
238 31 MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE OF DITCHES
239 31.2 Control of bank vegetation
247 31.3 Control ofaquatic weeds
249 31.4 Removal ofsilt and reshaping the channel
255 31.5 Selectingtheright equipment
262 32 DRAINAGE OFNEWLY RECLAIMED MARINE CLAYEY SEDIMENTS, PEATSOILS,

AND ACID-SULPHATE SOILS
263 32.1 Drainage ofnewlyreclaimed marineclayey sediments
281 32.2 Drainage ofpeat soils
287 32.3 Drainage of acid-sulphate soils
298 33 DRAINAGE OFHEAVY CLAY SOILS

299 33.2 Shallow and deep discharge
302 33.3 Depth of drainage
307 33.4 Analysis ofdischarge observations
318 33.5 Shallow discharge through thetop layer
322 33.6 Drainage solutions for heavy clay soils
325 33.7 Improving hydraulic conductivity
328 34 DRAINAGE OFSLOPING LANDS

329 34.2 Interceptor drainage offoreign water
335 34.3 Drainage oflocal water
342 35 DRAINAGE OFRICE FIELDS

343 35.1 Types ofrice culture
346 35.2 Ecologyoflowland rice
349 35.3 Water regimein thericefield
357 35.4 Specialfeatures oflowland riceculture
360 35.5 Drainage oflowlandricefields
384 36 PROCEDURES IN DRAINAGE SURVEYS

385 36.2 Reconnaissance survey
392 36.3 Detailed survey
412 37 MANAGEMENT OFDRAINAGE PROJECTS
414 37.2 Functions
414 37.3 Administrativeleveis
417 37.4 Sizeand delimitation ofwater control areas
418 37.5 Legal framework
419 37.6 Internal administration and staffing
422 37.7 Financing
423 37.8 Design and implementation ofdrainage projects
432 38 ECONOMICEVALUATION OFWATER MANAGEMENTPROJECTS

433 38.2 Costs
436 38.3 Benefits
437 38.4 Comparison ofdevelopments withandwithout the project
437 38.5 Discounted cashflows.Decision criteria
439 38.6 Time span of projections
439 38.7 Pricesand price relationships
452 Principle symbols used in Volume IV

455 Subject index
465 Author index Vols I-IV
471 Errata to Volume 1
472 Errata to Volume II
DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
27. S U B S U R F A C E F I E L D D R A I N A G E S Y S T E M S
J. C. CAVELAARS
Land Drainage Engineer
N.V. Heidemaatschappij Beheer, Arnhem
Lecturers in the Course onLand Drainage
J. C. Cavelaars (1962-1973)
N.V. Heidemaatschappij Beheer, Arnhem
PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Thevariousaspects ofinstalling afield drainage systemarediscussed,including

design,construction,andmaintenance.
CONTENTS
27.1 TYPESOFFIELDDRAINS 3
27.2 DITCHDRAINS 4
27.2.1 Principles anddesign 4
27.2.2 Construction 7
27.2.3 Maintenance 8
27.3 MOLEDRAINS 9
27.3.1 Principles anddesign 9
27.3.2 Construction 12
27.3.3 Maintenance 14
27.4 DESIGNOFPIPEDRAINAGE 14
27.4.1 Introduction 14
27.4.2 Spacing anddepthoflaterals 15
27.4.3 Diametersandgradients (hydraulicdesign) 15
27.4.4 Layout 30
27.5 MATERIALSANDSTRUCTURESFORPIPEDRAINAGE 33
27.5.1 Drainpipes 33
27.5.2 Covermaterials 37
27.5.3 Auxiliary structures 38
27.6 CONSTRUCTIONOFAPIPEDRAINAGE SYSTEM 41

27.6.1 Reviewofmethods 41
27.6.2 Marking alignments and levels 42
27.6.3 Manual installation 42
27.6.4 Excavatingmachines 44
27.6.5 Trenchlesspipedrainage 48
27.6.6 Deepdrainagebyhorizontalpumpedwells 49
27.7 MAINTENANCEOFPIPEDRAINAGESYSTEMS 51
27.7.2 Checking adrainage system 51
27.7.3 Reviewofdifferent typesoffailures,theircause,
andpossiblecures 55
27.7.4 Pipecleaningmethods 61
LITERATURE 64
Subsurface field drainage
27.1 TYPESOFFIELDDRAINS
Afield drainage system isasystem thatreceivesexcesswaterdirectfromthe

farmorfield andconveys ittothemaindrainagesystem,whichevacuatesthe
water fromthearea.Themaindrainage system (seeChap.29,Vol.IV)mustprovide
afreeandreliableoutlet forthefielddrains.Thefield drainage systems tobe
dealtwith inthischapteraresubsurfaceorgroundwaterdrainage systems,the
water toberemoved flowing through thesoilintothedrains.(Forsurfacedrainage
seeChap.28,Vol.IV.)
Itisnotalwayspossible,however,tomakeasharpdistinctionbetweensurface
and subsurfacedrainage.Aditchdesigned tocontrol thegroundwater tableis,
attimes,alsolikely toreceive surfacerun-off.
Inasubsurfacedrainage systemonecandistinguish threecategoriesofdrains:

field laterals, collectors, and main drains.
Field laterals -alsoreferred toas field drains, farm drains, or suction drains
- serveprimarily tocheck thefluctuations of thegroundwater table,butmay
alsocollect surfacerun-off.Thewater inthelaterals flows into collectors,
whichconvey thewater tothe main drainage system, throughwhich itiscarried
totheoutletofthearea.
The fielddrainage systemmayconsistofoneorallofthefollowing typesof

drains
- open drains: ditches
- mole drains: unlinedunderground channels
- pipe drains: clay,concrete,orplasticpipes,placed atsomedepth

intheground.
Ifthepipelateralsend incollectorditches,thesystemmaybedesignated
a singular pipe drainage system. Ifthecollectors,too,consistofpipedrains,
thesystem iscalled a composite pipe drainage system. Different arrangements
ofpipedrainsand/oropendrainsarepossible (seeFig.1).
© SINGULAR PIPE DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
COMPOSITE PIPE DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
eg.
900m
-e.g.4 0 0 m -
© C O M P O S I T E OPEN DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
II II
II II
II II pipe lateral drain
II II pipe collector drain
II II : road
II II o p e n lateral d r a i n
II II open c o l l e c t o r drain
II II
II II m a i n drainage channel
II II
U U
w/w/////////////////////////m/////m///////////////////wm
Fig.l. Somearrangementsofopenandpipefielddrains.
A: Singular pipe drainage system
B: Composite pipe drainage system
C: Composite open drainage system
27.2 DITCHDRAINS
27.2.1 PRINCIPLESANDDESIGN
Comparedwithcovereddrains,ditcheshave their specificadvantagesanddis-

advantages.
Advantages
- theycanservetoreceivebothgroundwaterandsurfacerun-off
-thegradientrequiredforwater transportinditchesismuchlessthan
inpipedrains,beingapproximately0.01%inditchesand0.1%inpipe
drains
- theyenableeasyinspection.
Disadvantages
- lossofland,especially ifsideslopescannotbemade steepdueto

instability ofthesoil
-weed growthanderosion,bothinvolving frequentandcostlymaintenance
- theland issplitupintoseparateparcelswhichmayconsiderablyhamper
efficient farming ifditchspacingsarenarrow.
Aswillbeclearfromtheabove,itwillgenerallybepreferable tousepipesas
lateraldrainsand touseditchesascollectors,especially inflatareas.Some-
times,particularly inslopingareas,theentirefielddrainage system,laterals
and collectors,consistsofpipes (compositepipedrainage system).
Inthefollowing situations,however,ditchesarequiteappropriateforuseas
laterals:
- ifthegroundwater tablecanbeadequately controlledwithrelativelywide

ditchspacings,sothat theparcelsarenottoonarrowfromthepointofviewof
efficient farming.Thiswillapply indeep,highlypervious soils,whereadvantage
canalsobetakenofthelowerradialresistanceofthedrainageflowintoditches
thanofthat intopipes
- ifthedrainshave tocopewithacertainamountofsurfacerun-offin
addition tothesubsurfacedrainage,e.g. insoilswith lowinfiltrationrates
orwhereveryhighrainfall intensitiesoccur (Chap.28,Vol.IV)
- iftheprocessofripeningnewlyreclaimed alluvial soils istobe

accelerated (Chap.32,Vol.IV)
- ifonlyashallowgroundwater tableisdesired,e.g. ingrasslandand

peatsoils.
Spacingsanddepth
Ifditches aretobeused aslateraldrains,spacinganddeptharedeterminedas

hasbeendiscussed inChap.8,Vol.11.
Forcollector ditches,thespacing isgovernedbysuchfactorsasthesizeofthe

farmorthemaximum lengthofpipedrains.Inflatareaswith singularpipe
drainage systems,ditchspacings areoftenoftheorderof200mto500m.The
water level inthecollector ditchesmustbemaintained atadepthbelowthe
outfallsofthepipedrains.
Dimensionsandauxiliary structures
Ifthedesiredwaterlevel,therequireddischarge capacity,and thetypeof

soilareknown,thedimensions,sideslopes,gradients,and structures,canbe
determined inthesamewayasformaindrainagesystems,which isexplained in
Chap.29,Vol.IV.
Calculationofrequireddimensions forfarmditcheswilloftenresultinditches
thatare sosmallthattheybecome impractical from thepointofviewofcon-
structionandmaintenance.Asarule,therefore,certainminimumdimensionsare
applied.Valuesoftenused inTheNetherlandsaregivenbelow (seealsoFig.2)
-bottomwidth (b):0.50m
-depth (y):0.40m to0.50mbelowthepipedrainoutfalls,resulting ina

totaldepth (D)of 1.40m to 1.80m
•j -, , j i vertical . .,
- sideslopesr (expressed as1:p = : —):usually
horizontal '
1:3/4 (clay soils), 1:1 (sandysoils)and sometimes 1:1.5 (unstable sand).
»-—b »*- pD 0 -
Fig.2. Cross-section throughaditch.
Location
The locationofditchdrains isinfluenced bymany factors,abasiconebeing

thatcollectordrainsoftenserveatthesametimeasboundariesbetweenfarm
holdings.Ifpossible,however,ditches should belocated inthelowestpartsof
thearea.Inthatway thebestsubsurfacedrainagefunction isobtained witha
minimumofexcavation.Furthermore,suchditcheswill serveasanefficientout-
letforsurfacewater,which tends toaccumulate indepressions,forexample
melting snowonsoilwhich isstillfrozen.
27.2.2 CONSTRUCTION
Marking alignmentsandlevels
Thecentrelineoftheproposed ditchisindicatedbypegs (CinFig.3),with

their topsatagivenheightabove theditchbottom.
Thewidth isindicatedbypegsAandBplacedatthesamelevelasC.Thedistance
betweenAandBissuch thattheextensionofthesideslopes intersectsattheir
tops.ThepointsPandQ,where thesideslopesbegin,canbemeasured fromthe
pegsaccording totheangleofthesideslopes.ThedistanceP-Q increases asthe
ground surfacerises,soinundulating land thewidthatthetopshowsaconside-
rablevariationand thealignment seemstobeveryirregular.
groundsurface high rç-Q, wide

Ai Ci B, 0, 8,
average level groundsurface P 2 -0 2average

*2 C2_ B2 A, P,
groundsurface low P3-CLJ narrow

A
C, B3 3 P3 Q3 B3
T Î •
CROSS SECTIONS PLAN
Fig.3. Marking alignmentsofopendrains.

Excavation
Ditchesareexcavated inTheNetherlandsbythefollowingmethods
-bymanual labour
-withdraglines.Thismethod isnowadaysonlyused forlargerexcavations,
e.g.ofmainchannels
-withhydraulicexcavators,equippedwitha"profilebucket".Thisbucket
hasexactly theshapeofthecross-sectionoftheproposed ditch.Mosthydraulic
excavatorshaveasetofseveral typesofbuckets,e.g.variousprofilebuckets,
rectangularbuckets,andbucketsforditchcleaning.
Whenexcavationsaremademanuallyorbydragline,afirstincision,some20cm
deep,ismadealongthesideslopesovertheentirelengthoftheditch.
Thiscanbedoneeitherbyhandorbyspecial tractor-mounted equipment.This
firstincisionservesasaguideforthefurtherexcavation.Fordraglinework,
oneortwoworkersareusuallyneeded tocheck thesideslope,smoothit,and
giveindications tothemachine-operator.
Whenworkingwithhydraulic excavators,theincisionisnotnecessary;itis
sufficient tomark thelinesP1P2P3 andQ1Q2Q3withchalk,asonafootballfield.
Anothermethod istostretcharopeoverthetopsofpegsA,thelineA!A2A3 in
Fig.3. Ifthebucketjust "touches"thisrope,theprofile iscorrect.Fromtime
totime thedepth ischecked.Thereisnoneed forextraworkers tosmoothand
finish theditch.
Theexcavated soilshouldpreferablyberemoved fromthesite,andcan,forin-

stance,beused forlevellingelsewhere.Ifitisplaced inaspoilbankalong-
side theditch,astripafewmetreswideshouldbeleftbetweenspoilbankand
ditch.Aspoilbank immediatelybeside theditchisnotadvisablebecause:
-excavatedmaterialmaywashdownorfallbackintotheditch
- theweightofthespoil increases theriskofthesideslopescollapsing
- itmakesditchcleaningmoredifficultbecausemachinesmovingontopof
thebankhave toreachdeeper.
27.2.3 MAINTENANCE
Unlessproperlymaintained,ditcheswillrapidly lose theireffectivenessowingto

weed growthand theaccumulationofsediments.Waterflowthrough theditchwill
thenbeimpeded,resulting inhighwaterlevels inwetperiods.Suchhighlevels
incollectorditchesmaymeanthatpipedrainoutfallsbecomesubmerged.
Maintenancepractices include
-weed control,tobecarried outafewtimeseachyear (Chaps.30and31).

Sometimesvegetation isburnedduring thedormant season.Althoughweedsmustbe
controlled,avegeta'tivecoverofthebanks isoftennecessary toprovidestabi-
lity fortheside slopesoftheditch
-removalofsoilandmud;sometimes thepropercross-sectionof theditch

needs toberestored.Thefrequencywithwhichacleanout isneeded isofthe
orderofonceinafewyears,butvariesgreatlyaccordingtolocalconditions.
27.3 MOLEDRAINS
27.3.1 PRINCIPLESANDDESIGN
Principles
Moledrainsareunlinedunderground channels,formedbyamoleplough,withouta
trenchhaving tobedug.Theattractionofthemethod liesinitslowinstallation
costsascomparedwith thoseofpipedrainage;moreover,moledrainagemaybe
effectiveincaseswherepipedrainsarephysicallynotfeasible.Moledrainage
isparticularly appropriate indense,poorlyperviousclaysoilswhichhavea
certaingeneralslope.Itsprimary aimisnottocontrol thegroundwatertable,
whichmaybeverydeep,buttoremoveexcesswaterfromthefield surfaceorfrom
thetopsoilwhere itmay constitutea"perchedwater table".Thewaterreaches
themolechannelmainly through thefissuresandcracks thatareformedwhenthe
molesarebeingdrawn (seeFig.4).
slit left by bladeof

mole plough
/mole channel
Fig.4. Cracking and f i s s u r i n g of heavy s o i l as a r e s u l t of mole drainage.
Theoutflowcharacteristics ofamole-drainage systemdifferconsiderably from
thoseofapipedrainage systemdesigned tocontrol thegroundwater table,but
bear someresemblance tothoseofasurfacedrainage system.Asarule,the
outflowfrommoledrains showsaquickresponse torainfallandhighpeakdis-
charges,dyingoffsoonafter therainhasceased.
Molechannelsaresusceptibletodeterioration.Theirrateofdeterioration,and
consequently theireffective lifetime,isgoverned byanumberoffactors,the
most importantofwhichare
- soilproperties (whichwilldecidetheir stability)

-moisture conditionsduring construction
- implements andmethodsofconstruction
- flowvelocities inthechannels (highvelocities causescouring anderosion)
-prolonged inundationofthechannels (whichmayresultintheircollapse).
Thesamefactorsalsogreatlydetermine
- thefeasibility ofmoledrainage
- thedesignandlayout
- themostappropriateperiod ofconstruction.
Systematic informationaboutmoledrainage isstill limited,mostpracticesbeing

based onlocalexperience.Moledrainageispractisedwidely inGreatBritain
(THEOBALD, 1963),NewZealand (HUDSON,etal., 1962)andAustria (FEICHTINGER,
1965).Foracomprehensivediscussiononallaspectsofmoledrainage,seethe
first tworeferences.
Soilconditions,suitability offields
Soils shouldhaveacertain "plasticity"toallowthemolechannels tobeshaped

andshould alsobestableenoughtoensurethatthechannelshavealongperiod
ofeffectivelife.
Itisdifficult togiveprecise informationonthenecessary soilproperties.

THEOBALD (1963),quotingvalues fromdifferentcountries,mentions theminimum
required claycontent asrangingbetween25%and50%;thesand content shouldnot
bemore than20%.Healsosuggests thefollowingpracticalmethod toassessthe
suitability ofthesoil:asampleofthesoil ismolded intoaballsome20cm
indiameter andplaced inacontainer ofwater sothat itisfullysubmerged.If
afterafewdaysthesample isunaltered,itisanindication thatmoledrainage
10
mightbesuccessful;ifthesampledisintegrates itisunlikely thatamole
channelwould lastasufficientlengthoftime.
The soilshouldbefairlyhomogeneous throughout thearea tobedrained.If

patchesoflesssuitable soil (e.g.sand)occur,themolechannelsarelikelyto
collapse sooninthesepatches,thusrendering theupstreampartsof thechannels
ineffective.
Moledrainagecanalsooftenbeappliedwith success incertainpeatsoils

(HUDSON,etal., 1962). Sinceamoledrainagesystemhastoberenewed fromtime
totime,theaccompanying fissuring gradually createsabetter structure inthe
soiland improves itspermeability.
According toFEICHTINGER (1965), thissoilimprovementmayevenbethemain

benefitofmoledrainage.Afteranumberofyears thesoilmaybecomesuitable
fortheinstallationofanormalpipedrainage system,without theneedfor
additionalmoledrains.
Topography
Moledrains shouldhaveacontinuous slopeinthedirectionof theoutlet;there

shouldbenoabruptchanges intheslopeofthechannel.Sincemostof themachine
canonlydrawthechannelparallel totheland surface,theland should alsohave
acertaingeneral slope.Flat landandlandwith irregular topography areless
suitable.
Design
Eachmolechannelmaydischargedirect intoanopenditch.Sinceunlined channels

tend todeterioraterapidly intheneighbourhood ofditches,thelast2or3
metresof themolechannels shouldbeprovidedwithpipes.
Very often,pipedrainsareused ascollectors for thewatercarriedby themole

channels.Thepipedrainsare installed first,about20to30cmdeeper thanthe
moles.Acommonprocedure istofill thetrenchwithporousmaterial,usually
gravel,uptoalevel slightlyhigher thanthefuturemole lines.Themolechan-
nelsarethenpulled atapproximately rightangles tothepipedrainsandacross
theporous fill.Thewater fromthemolechannels flows into theporousfill,
whichconducts itdownwards tothepipe (seeFig.5).
Anothermethod istoinstallasystemoflateralsand collectors,bothconsistin

ofmolechannels (HUDSON,etal., 1962).
11
Fig.5. Combinedmoleandpipedrainage.
Thefollowingdesignfeatures canbefurtherdetailed
- Spacing: Toensurefissuring ofthesoil throughout thearea,spacings

ofbetween2and5metresarecommonly applied.
- Depth: Thechannelsshouldbesufficientlydeep tobeprotected fromthe

effectsofdroughtand loadsfromheavy farmmachinery.Thedeeper thechannels
are,thegreateristheextentoffissuring.Ontheotherhand,installationcosts
increasewithdepth.Inpractice,molingdepthsofbetween45cmand60cmare
normal.
- Gradient: Apropergradient isrequired toavoid prolonged saturationand

flowvelocities thataretoohigh,bothofwhich causearapiddeteriorationof
thechannels.Someapproximatevaluesare:aminimumgradientof0.5 to 1%,a
maximumgradientof4to7%.Sincemostmachinescanonlypullachannelparallel
tothefield surface,thedesired gradienthas tobeeffectuatedbychoosingthe
rightdirection for themoleswithrespect totheslopeof theland.
- Length of lines: Infavourable circumstances,thelengthofmole linesmay

reachasmuchas200m.
27.3.2 CONSTRUCTION
Machines
Therearemany typesofmoleploughs.Comprehensivereviews,withillustrations,
havebeengivenbyHUDSON,etal. (1962)andTHEOBALD (1963).Thebasicfeatures
ofamoleplougharedepicted inFig.6.The "workingpart"isapointed cylindrical
steelcore,some5to 10cmindiameter.As themole ispulled through thesoil,
aroundchannelisformed.Usuallyacylindrical "expander",slightly largerin
diameter thanthemole,isattached totherearendof themolebymeansofa
shortchain.
12
The mole is carried on ablade,which is attached to the frame of the implement.

A common construction is the "beam type"mole plough. A long beam (e.g. 3 metres)
slides over the ground surface, its length ensuring that small irregularities of
the land will not seriously affect the smooth gradient of themole channel.As a
rule, the working depth of amole plough cannot be adjusted during the operation.
If the field surface is irregular, it is therefore advisable to level the land
prior to moling.
traction
Fig.6. Mole plough.
Working conditions during construction
It is of great importance that the moisture conditions of the soil be favourable

during construction. If the soil is too wet,a channel is formed without the neces-
sary fissuring and cracking. If the soil is too dry, excessive shattering of the
soil in the vicinity of the channel will lead to early collapse. Precise informa-
tion on the most desirable moisture content cannot be given; it must be found by
trial and error.
Lining of mole drains
Several attempts have been made to stabilize mole channels by lining them with
steel, bitumen, concrete, or plastic (EDE, 1957;BUSH, 1958;JUUSELA, 1960;FOUSS
and DONNAN, 1962;HEESE and HOLJEWILKEN, 1962). The aim was to prolong the effec-
tive life of mole channels and tomake mole drainage applicable under less favou-
rable conditions, e.g. in lighter soils.These efforts have ultimately resulted
in the development of trenchless pipe drainage,which can no longer be regarded
as an improved mole drainage,but which is basically equivalent to normal pipe
drainage, see Sect.6.
13
27.3.3 MAINTENANCE
Asstated earlier,molechannelsgradually lose theireffectiveness,theirworking

lifetime infairtogood conditionsbeingoftheorderof5to12years (THEOBALD,
1963),althoughmuchshorter (afewweeks)andmuch longer lifetimes (30-40years)
havebeenencountered (HUDSON,etal., 1962).Theonlyeffectivemethod ofrepair
istore-draw thechannels.
Itisquitecommontore-moleanentirefield afteranumberofyears,oralter-
natively,itmayonlybenecessary tore-drawafewchannels.
Todetermine thenecessity ofre-moling,drainage conditionsanddrainoutflows

shouldbeobservedduringwetperiods.Prolongedwetnessofthefield incombi-
nationwithalowdischarge indicates that thedrainage systemisnotfunctioning
properly. Itisadvisable tomake surewhere thecauseoffailure lies,whether
itbeinthemolechannels,inthepipecollectors,orduetopuddlingof thefield
surface.
Aswithpipe-drainage systems,ausefulguideline indetecting thecauseof

failures istoconsider theflowpathofthewater thatistoberemoved through
themoledrainage system,seealsoSect.7.
27.4 DESIGNOFPIPEDRAINAGE
27.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenapipedrainage system isbeingdesigned,thefollowingelementsmustbe

determined
- spacing anddepthoflaterals;theseareprimary factors inthecontrol

ofthegroundwatertable
-diametersand gradientsof lateraland collectorpipes;thesemustensure

theproperevacuationofthewater takenupby thelaterals
- lay-out (alignment)oflateralsand collectors;thismustbeadaptedto

thetopographical featuresoftheareaand tootherconditions.
14
27.4.2 SPACINGANDDEPTHOFLATERALS
Thetheoreticalbackground ofdetermining spacing anddepthoflateralshasbeen
dealtwith inChap.8,Vol.11;thedesigncriteriainChap.11,Vol.11;thesoil
properties tobeinvestigated inChaps.20and 24,Vol.111.
Intheory,thedeeperthedrainsare,thegreater thespacings canbe.Inpractice,

however,thereareseveralrestrictions tothedepthatwhichdrainscanbein-
stalled.Theseinclude
- thewater levelthatcanbemaintained inthecollectorditch

- theoccurrenceoflesssuitable soil layers.Thesemight taketheformof
poorlypervious layersatshallowdepths,butevenhighlypervious layersmaynot
besuitable forpipedrains.Incertainpeatsoils,forexample,thepipesare
likely tosubsidewhilepipes in"quicksand"may siltuporbedifficult toin-
stall
- increased seepage.Ifthehydraulic conductivity of thedeeplayersis

considerablyhigher than,intheoverlying layers,deepdrainagemayattractsee-
pagewater fromelsewhereand theremaybelittleoveralleffectontheground-
water level.Anadditionalproblemisthatthemore seepage there is,themore
chance there isof ironprecipitation
- thedepth thatcanbereachedbyavailabledrainagemachinery.
Certainrestrictionsmay alsobeencountered inthepossible spacingsofdrains.

Spacingscalculated onthebasisofhydraulic conductivitywill showacertain
variation throughout thearea.Inpractice,however,theareawillbedivided into
"blocksofequal spacings"and thecalculatedvalueswillberounded offto
thenearestpre-determined standard spacing.Apractical setofstandard spacings
is 10m, 15m,20m,25m,30m,40m,50m,etc.
27.4.3 DIAMETERSANDGRADIENTS (HYDRAULICDESIGN)
Whenthehydraulic designofadrainpipesystem isbeingconsidered onefaces

suchquestionsas
-whatareacanbedrainedbyapipelineofgivendiameter,laidatagiven
slope,assumingacertainspecificdischarge?
-whatpipediameter isneeded forapipelineofgivenlength,laidata

givenslope,withgivendrainspacingandspecificdischarge?
15
Toprovide answers tosuchquestions,onemustconsider thefollowingitems
-basic flowequations (uniformflow)fordifferent typesofdrainpipes

(e.g.clay tilesorcorrugated plasticpipes)
- flowequations thattakeintoaccount thefact that theflowinadrain

pipe line increases inthedirectionofflowasthedraintakesupwateroverits
entirelength (non-uniformflow)
- asafety factor toallowforsomedecrease incapacityduetoacertain

degreeofsedimentation
- adraincomposed ofsectionsofincreasingdiameter inthedirectionof

flow.
Equations foruniformflow
Westartwith theassumptionoffull-flowingpipesforwhich thegeneralequation

ofDarcy-Weisbachholds
z
_Xv ,.
x d2g
where
z=lossinhydraulichead (m)
x=lengthofpipesectionconsidered (m)
d=insidepipediameter (m)
v=flowvelocity (m/s)
g=accelerationdue togravity (m/s)
X=resistance factor (dimensionless)
Theresistance factor Xdependsonthetypeofflow (laminarorturbulent)andthe

wallroughness (k)andhas tobedetermined byexperiments.This isillustrated
inFig.7 inwhich Xhasbeenplotted against theReynoldsnumberondoubleloga-
rithmicpaper.TheReynoldsnumber isdefinedas
Re-f (2)
whereV=kinematicviscosity of theliquid.Forwaterof 10 C,
V=1.31x 10"6 m2/s
16
Fig.7. Relationbetween theresistance

factor (A)andtheReynoldsnumber (R).
xxx = corrugated plastic pipes

• • • - smooth plastic pipes or clay tiles
K - roughness factor Ifor hydraulic rough pipes)
Adistinctioncanbemadebetweenroughpipesand smoothpipes.
For smooth pipes (clay tilesand smoothplasticpipes)thefollowingrelation

betweenXandRehasbeenfound (WESSELINGandHOMMA,1967;BLASHYZ,1965and
TREUDE,1964)
\ =aRe •0.25
(3)
inwhicha=ameasure fortheshiftofthelineasaresultofisolated irregu-

larities (e.g.tilejoints,sawslits).
For full-flowing pipes thedischargecanbeexpressedas
vd (4)
Q=t
Substituting Eqs.2,3,and4intoEq.1gives
i = 2 6 . 3 x ,o-4 a Q K 7 5 d - 4 - 7 5 (5a)
. ,_ - 0 . 5 7 2.71 .0.57
Q = 30 a d l (5b)
For clean pipesunder field conditions,avalue foraof0.40 istaken (SEGEREN

andZUIDEMA, 1966).
For corrugated plastic pipesnostraight linerelationship canbefoundbetween

AandRe.WESSELING andHOMMA (1967)found that theflowcanbedescribedsatis-
factorilyby theManning formula
,2/3.1/2
v=K R (6)
17
with
K
m = 7 0 ^Kra= I/n > wheren=Manning'sroughness coefficient)
R =hydraulic radius= y-d withfullflowingpipes.
BRINKandNILSSON (1965)foundasimilar typeofrelation.
ConvertingEq.6 totheformofEq.5yields
-2 2 -533
i= 10.25K Q d (7a)
Q = 0.312 K d 2 - 6 7 i ° - 5 0 (7b)
m
Eqs.5and7arepresented graphically inFig.8.
Theequationsgivensofarapply tothetransportofaquantityofwaterwhich
isconstantovertheentire lengthofthepipesection.Theseequations foruni-
formflowcanbewritten inthegeneralform
i = c d~ a Q ß (8a)
Q = c - l / ß d a / ß .1/ß (8b)
Equations fornon-uniformflow
Apipedraintakesupwaterover itsentirelength,sotheflowrateQgradually
increases fromQ=0attheupstreamend toQ=qBLattheoutflow,
where
q=specificdischarge (m/s)
B=widthofareadrainedby thepipeline,asarulecoinciding
with thedrainspacing (m)
L=lengthofdrainline(m)
Thistypeofflowwillbereferred toas non-uniform flow.
Sincetheflowrategradually increases inthedirectionofflow,thehydraulic

gradient increases too (Fig.9).Thepipe lineisstillassumed toberunningfull
(soforconvenienceweassumethatithasbeenlaidhorizontally;laterweshall
consider thecaseofaslopingpipedrain).Thehydraulic gradientwillestablish
itselfautomatically asanover-pressure (morethanatmospheric),whichcanbe
measuredwithpotentiometers (Fig.10).
18
BIBLIOTHEEK
STARINGGE?OU
E R R A T A
pages 19, 22, 23
DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

IV: DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OFDRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Publication16
ILRI,Wageningen
® SMOOTH PIPES
hydraulic gradient
(°/o)
100
/ / / / / / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / /inside pipe diameter ( m m )
0.50 40 5 0 6 0 70 8 0 100 120 150 200 250 300 350
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.02
20 n 50 100 200 5 0 0 1000 2000 5 0 0 0 10000 2 0 0 0 0
100° / o *-
20 50 100 200 5 0 0 1000 2 0 0 0 5000 10000 20000
75 / o *- discharge (m 3 / d a y )
(B) CORRUGATED PIPES

hydraulic gradient
(°/o)
/ / / / / / / inside pipe diameter ( m m )
40 5 0 6 0 70 8 0 100 120 150 200 250 3 0 0 / 4 0 0
0.50
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.02
20 50 100 2 0 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 10000 2 0 0 0 0
100° / o *-
20 50 100 2 0 0 5 0 0 1000 2 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
75 ° / o *- discharge (m 3 / d a y )
Fig.8. Diagram for determining pipe line c a p a c i t i e s . A: for smooth pipes,

2 714 .0 572
Wesseling's equation: Q- SOd i B: for corrugated pipes,
Manning's equation: Q= 22 d i 19
® SMOOTH PIPES
hydraulic gradient
(°/o)
1 0 0
/ / / / / / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / / i n s i d e pipe diameter ( m m )
0.50 40 5 0 6 0 70 8 0 100 120 150 200 250 300 350
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.02
20 50 100 200 5 0 0 1000 2 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 10000 2 0 0 0 0
100° / o *-
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2 0 0 0 5000 10000 20000
7 5 °/o *- discharge ( m 3 / d a y )
(B) CORRUGATED PIPES

hydraulic gradient
(°/o)
/ / / / / / / inside pipe diameter ( m m )

40 5 0 6 0 70 8 0 100 120 150 200 250 3 0 0 / 4 0 0
0.05
0.02
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5 0 0 0 10000 2 0 0 0 0
100° / o
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2 0 0 0 5000 10000 20000
75 ° / o discharge ( m 3 / d a y )
Fig.8. Diagramfordetermining pipelinecapacities. A: for smooth pipes,
TT T i *• / i e / , ß-?14 -0.572 B: for corrugated pipes,
Wesselzng s equatvon: Q = SOd ^
Manning's equation: Q= 22 d' •2.667 .0.5 19
x=distance from upstream end
z=H
F i g . 9 . Head loss (z)ina f u l l - f l o w i n g d r a i n pipe as

a function of thed i s t a n c e (x)and the resulting
P o t e n t i o m e t r i e curve.
potentiometers
--X..
Fig.10. Potentiometrieheadsasdeveloped byoverpressures

inahorizontalpipedrain.
Thenon-uniform flowequations canbederived fromtheuniformflowequationsas

follows.
The flowrateQ atadistancexfromtheupstreamend (Fig.9)isequalto
Q x =qBx (9)
Substituting Eq.9intoEq.8agives
dz -a, „,ß ß
1=— =cd (qB) x (10)
Using theconditions
z=0 for x=0

z=H for x=L
20
theintegrationofEq.10gives
H ^ c d ^ L ^ ' (11)
Introducing the"averagehydraulicgradient"
I-l (12)
andconsideringQ =qBLtobethetotaloutflowfromthedrainline,wechange
Eq.11 into
1= =
L ß+7cd Q
L °3a)
Q =qBL=(p+1) c d î U->b)
Thec, a, andßvalues forsmoothandcorrugated pipesmaybesubstituted into

Eq.13.Agraphicalpresentationof theresultingequations isgiveninFigs.11
and 12respectively.
Ifwenowcompare theequationfornon-uniform flow (Eq.13)with thecorresponding

equations foruniformflow (Eq.8),weseethat
- atequaloutflow,theaveragegradient ifornon-uniform flowisonly

p—r- irofthegradient iforuniformflow (Fig.13).Atthedownstreamendofthe
pipe line,thegradient fornon-uniform flowhasbecomeequal totheuniformflow
gradient
- forequalgradient (i ., =i .,) ,theoutflow fornon-uniformflow

,,- unif. non-unif.
is (ß+1) - 1.75 times theoutflowforuniformflowor
Q ., - 0.57 Q ., (14)
unif. non-unif.
Table 1summarizes theflowequationsapplicable tofullflowingpipes.
21
average hydraulic gradient
(°/o)
1.00 / / / / / / / /
inside pipe diameter (mm) / /
SMOOTH 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 150 200 250
300
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000
drainable area (ha)

60% 75% 100%
100
100
TOO specific discharge (mm/day)
50 1' 2' 3'4'_5'.7'10'
12/
15/
20
50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000

discharge (m 3 /day)
Fig.11.Diagramfordetermining capacities ofsmooth,dewatering,and full-flowing
drainpipes,basedonWesseling'sequationQ =qA=qBL=89d i
22
(°/o)
100
/ / • / / / / / / / /
SMOOTH inside pipe diameter (mm) / / / /
40 50 60 70 80 100 120 150 200 250
0.50 / / / / / / / / / / 300
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000
drainable area (ha)

60% 75% 100%
100
TOO
100
specific discharge (mm/day)
50 y '2' 3 ' 4 ' . 5 ' 7 ' 1 0 / '
%
15
20
500 1000 2000 5000 1000020000

discharge (m 3 /day)
Fig.11.Diagramfordetermining capacitiesofsmooth,dewatering,andfull-flowing
drainpipes,basedonWesseling'sequationQ =qA=qBL 89d 2 - 714 I 0 " 5 7 2
22
(°/o)
1.00 / i i / i i
CORRU- inside pipe diameter(mm)
GATED 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 150
500 1000 2 0 0 0 5000 10000 2 0 0 0 0
drainable area (ha)

60% 75% 100%
100
100
100 specific discharge (mm/day)
50
50 / 2/3/4/5/7/lä;
//
12/
100 200 500 1000 2 0 0 0 5000 10000 2 0 0 0 0

discharge ( m 3 / d a y )
F i g . 1 2 . Diagram for d e t e r m i n i n g c a p a c i t i e s of c o r r u g a t e d , d e w a t e r i n g , and f u l l - f l o w i n g
p i p e s , based on Manning's e q u a t i o n Q = qA = qBL = 38 d i
23
(°/o)
1.00 / / / / / /
CORRU- inside pipe diameter (mm)
GATED 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 15Ö
100 200 500 1000 2 0 0 0 5000 10000 2 0 0 0 0
drainable area ( h a )
60% 75% 100%
100
100
specific discharge '(rnm/day)
100
1' 2/
500 1000 2000 5000 1000020000

discharge ( m 3 / d a y )
Fig.12.Diagramfordetermining capacitiesofcorrugated,dewatering,andfull-flowing
pipes,basedonManning's equationQ =qA=qBL=38d i
23
N| X
LQ l O -^ t*3 II
IX IX 11
,£
\Jl r-H ö 3 « J ^ «i
Il H fc Ö4 U 'I
^
3 CQ
fc
,o
=K
O 'r*
Ü a s m
RH
,o
«K
24
H
trans'p~ 3H 'drain %>.
H
transp. ^
^&, Of.
H
drain '
-m aver,
"on-ù
'f/d* ^
j-~-
-X— 0:0L
Fig.13. Hydraulic gradients inafull-flowinghorizontalpipelinefor

uniformandnon-uniformflow.
Slopingpipedrains
Theequations givenaboveapply tofull-flowinghorizontalpipelines,thehydrau-

licgradientmanifesting itselfinaPotentiometriecurve (Fig.10).Ifthedrain
lineissloping,thesituationremainsunaltered,aslongastheslopeisnot
steeper thantheaveragegradient (Fig.14).Thelimit isapipelinejustrunning
fullwithnoover-pressure attheupstreamend,although someover-pressurewill
remainbetween theupstreamanddownstreamends.
Iftheslope issteeper thantheaveragegradient,theupstreampartof thepipe
linewillnolongerberunning full.Iftheslopeequalsthegradientatthe
downstream end,thepipewill theoreticallybejustrunning fullatthedownstream
end.Atanyotherpoint thepipe isnotentirelyfilled.
Fig.14. Different slopesofdrainpipeinrelation tohydraulicgradient.
Practical designprocedure
Inpracticaldesignproblems,aslope inthedrainlineisusuallypresupposed.
The implicitrequirement isthatatdesigndischargenoover-pressuremayoccur
attheupstreamend.Thus thedrainslopeequals theaveragehydraulicgradient.
This implies thatthepipesareassumed tobefullflowing over theirentirelength
and thatitistheirmaximumcapacity thatisconsidered.
25
Safetymargin
Wehave toexpectacertainreduction inadrain's capacity inthecourseoftime

asaresultofsiltationorthedepositionofchemicals.Also,newlyinstalled
clay tilesmayhavealessthantheoretical capacity,due toapooralignment.
Therefore,acertainsafety-marginhas tobeincluded inthedesign,toaccount
forthisreduction incapacity.Itsmagnitudewilldepend onthequalityofthe
installationwork,theexpected rateofdeposition,and theproposed intensity
ofmaintenanceoperations.
Inthedesigngraphs inFigs.II and 12twoalternativesaregiven:reductionsto,

respectively,75%and60%ofthetheoretical capacity.The lesserreduction
(to75%)isrecommended for largerdiameterpipes,especially collectors thatdo
nottakeupwaterdirect fromthesoilandare therefore lesslikely tosiltup
thanare lateraldrains.Forlaterals,especially thoseofsmallerdiameters,the
reduction to60%isrecommended.
Although theflowrate inacollector increases inthedirectionofflowasit

does inalateral,theincrease isnotgradual,asinalateral,butoccursin
sudden largeincrementsatthoseplaceswhere lateralsjointhecollector.
Thefollowing typesofpracticalproblems canbesolvedwith thegraphs
-determining therequired pipediameter foragivencase

-determining themaximumdrainableareaforagivenpipediameter
-determiningwhether,undergivenconditions,anover-pressurewilloccur
attheupstreamendof thedrain,and ifso,towhatextent.
Example 1
Thedrainagedesign forafield is:drainspacing 30metres;lengthofdrainline;

200metres;slope0.10%;specificdischarge 7mmperday.Toprovideasafety
margin,areduction incapacityof60%isallowedfor.
Question
Whichdraindiameter isapplicable
a)forsmoothpipes (clayorplastic)
b)forcorrugated plasticpipes?
Answer
Area tobedrainedbyonedrainline is30x200=6,000m2 or0.6ha.
a)forsmoothpipes:readFig.11 (seedotted line).Adiameterofbetween5

and6cmisfound.Sothepipewith thenext largestdiameter ischosen.
ForTheNetherlands thisis
6 cmclay tilesor7cmsmoothplasticpipes.
b)Forcorrugated pipes:readFig.12 (seedotted line).Insidediameter:

between6and 7cm.Thenext largestsizeinTheNetherlands isoutside
diameter80mm (inside72mm).
Example 2
Acompositepipedrainagesystemofthegridirontype (lateralsjoining thecol-

lectoratrightangles)istobeinstalled inafield.Lateralsaretojointhe
collector fromboth sides.Lengthof laterals:300metresononesideand200
metresontheotherside.
Thecollector istobeinstalled ataslopeof0.05%;specificdischarge5mm
perday.Areduction incapacity to75%isallowedfor.
Question
Find themaximum lengthofthecollector,whichwillconsistofconcretepipesof

20,25,or30cminsidediameter (assuming thesamediameter isused fortheentire
pipe line).
Answer
i=0.05%, q=5mmperday.
FromFig.11 thefollowingdrainable areasaredetermined (see75%-scale)
(round figures).
pipediameter (cm) 20 25 30
drainablearea (ha) 19 35 58
Thewidthofthearea,drainedby thecollector =500m.Sothemaximum lengths

foreachofthesizesare
pipediameter (cm) 20 25 30
maximum lengthofpipe line (m) 380 700 1160
27
Example 3
Aconcretecollectordrainpipewithadiameter of25cm,alengthof700m,laid
ataslopeof0.05%,drainsanarea500mwide.
Question
Assuming thecapacityofthecollector istobesetat 75%and thatadischarge

of 10mmperdayismeasured,whatwillbe theover-pressure attheupstream
endofthecollector?
Answer
Theareadrained is700x500=350,000m2 or35ha.Read fromFig.11that

i=0.16%.Deducting0.05%fortheslopeofthedrain,anexcessslopeof0.11%
remains.Theover-pressure is700x0.11%=0.77 m.
Itisoftenusefultoknowtherelativecapacitiesofpipesofdifferentsizes.
Severalvaluesarelisted inTable2.
TABLE2. Proportionalcapacitiesofdifferentdiameters,basedonEq.Sb1
Proportionaldiameters 4 5 6 7 8 10
Proportionalcapacities 1.00 1.83 3.00 4.56 6.54 12.00
d \2'71
âssuming i to be constant
Ifthecapacityofonepipesizehasbeendetermined fromthegraphs,itisasimj
procedure tocalculate thecapacityofanyotherdiameterbyreferring toTable2.
Thiswillbeillustrated by thefollowing.
Thedrainableareafor20cm-pipes isfound tobe 19ha.Tofind thecapacities

of25cmand30cm-pipes,onewillnotethattheproportionsofthediameters
are4,5,6.Table2showsthatthecapacityof25cm-pipes is 1.83 timesthat
of20cm-pipes.Sothedrainableareais1.83x 19ha=35ha.For30cm-pipes
thedrainableareais 3.00 x19ha=57ha.
Drainpipelinesofincreasingpipediameter
Itisacommonpractice tostartadrain linewitharelatively small-sizedpipe
attheupstreamend and tochange toalargersizeaftersomedistance toallow
fortheincreasingquantity ofwater tobecarried.Thisappliesparticularly
tocollectors.
28
Ifweassumethatthecollector of Example 2istobecomposed of20,25,and 30cm
pipes,thequestionis,atwhatdistances fromtheupstreamendshould thechanges
inpipediameterbemade.Thecondition isthat theremustbenoover-pressureat
theupstreamei\d.
Atfirstsightoneisinclined tocomposethecollectorasfollows
0 - 380m :20cm-pipes
380- 700m :25cm-pipes
700- 1160m :30cm-pipes
Thiswill,however,result inaconsiderablygreaterhead lossthanthe58cmthat

isallowed overalengthof 1160m (slope0.05%).Thiswillbeobviousfromthe
following (seealsoFig.15).
(0.75x380) (0.75x700) (0.75x1160)

285 380 525 870
1100 1200
distanceinm
Fig.15. Head lossesinadrainline,composed ofpipesectionsofdifferent
diameters. The actual Potentiometrie curve never intersects the line of the
pipe line slope. o o o actual Potentiometrie curve
Thehead lossof58cmwilloccurifthe entire pipe line consistsof30cm-pipes.
Since thepipesarerunning full,replacingpartofthepipe linewithsmaller
sizedpipeswillresultinanincreasedheadlossandconsequentlyanover-pressure
upstream.Therealhead losswillbe 9$ cm, and thegradientwillbeasindicated
-X.
by thedotted lineinFig.15.Thismeansanover-pressure of38cmattheupstream
end.
FromFig.15itisseenthat theactualhydraulic gradient line isobtainedby

combining thePotentiometrie curvesofthedifferentdiametersbyvertical
shiftingparallel tothemselves.
Itisalsoobvious thatacorrectcompositionofapipelinecanbeobtainedby
ensuring thatthePotentiometrie curvedoesnotcrossthelineofthepre-supposed
average gradient (takenequal totheslopeofthedrain line).Onemethod isto
29
make seriesof"standardPotentiometriecurves"foreachdiameter andmakefor
eachdesignacombinationbyshifting (asinFig.15).
Wecanalsousethefollowingpracticalrule (CAVELAARS,1971)
- Shifttothenext largest sizeat75%ofthemaximum lengthofasimilar

line,or intheexamplegivenabove
Shiftfrom20to25cm :at3/4x 380m=285m

from25to30cm :at3/4 x 7"0m=525m
from30to35cm :at3/4x i160m-870m
Hence thecompositionofthedrainwillbe
0 -285m 20cm
285-525m 25cm
525-870m 30cm
870- (theoretically, 1450m) 35cm
Inthismanner,asisshowninFig.15,thepre-supposed averagegradientof0.05%
isnotcrossed.
Note: This reduction to 75%is in addition to the réduction (of 75%)

as a safetymargin for siltation etc.
Thecompositionof thecollector canalsobedeterminedwith thehelpofTable2.

This isamuch fastermethod.
Firstdetermine themaximum lengthofthe20cm-pipesfromFig.11.Result:380m.

Take3/4 x380=285 m. Theproportional lengthsof theother sizescanthenbe
derived fromTable2(sincealllengthsarereduced to75%,thetableremains
valid).
Shiftfrom25cmto30cm:at 1.83 x285m=525m (measured fromtheupstreamend).

Shift from30cmto35cm:at3.00 x285m-860m.
27.4.4 LAYOUT
Typesofpipedrainsystems andpatterns
Inasingular systemeachpipedrain linehasitsownoutlet intoanopenditch.

Inacompositesystemthelateralpipe linesdischargeintoacollectorpipeline.
Sometimes several collectorsmaydischarge intoalargercollectorpipe line,and
soon.Thuscompositesystemsofthefirst,second,etc.ordercanbediscerned.
30
Thepatternofacomposite systemmaybeof thegridiron type (lateralsperpendi-
cular tothecollector)oroftheherringbone type (lateralsentering thecollec-
toratasharpangle,seeFig.16).
These systemsareallregularsystems;thereisaregularpatternofdrainlines
throughout thefield.Suchsystemswillbeappropriateinfairlyhomogeneous
fieldswithamoreorlessuniformneed fordrainage.
SRIDIRON OR PARALLEL SYSTEM HERRING BONE SYSTEM
Fig.16. Patternsofregularcompositepipedrainagesystems. A: Gridiron

or parallel system. B: Herring-bone system.
Todrainisolatedwetplacesorto"tap"springs,irregularorrandomsystemsmay
beinstalled (seeFig.17). Oftenacombinationof typesisfound inonesystem.
Fig.17. Randompipedrainage system.
Selectionofsystem
Itdepends onthelocalcircumstanceswhich systemwillbe themostappropriate*

The following factorsdeserveconsideration
31
-withacompositesystem,alargeareacanbedrainedwithoutopenditches,
thusavoiding theinconveniences of lossoflandand inefficientfarming
- asingularsystemwillhavemany outlets intoanopenwatercourse.These

areallweak spots inthesystemsince theyaresusceptible todamageandmayprov
ahindrance tomechanicalditchcleaning
- ifacomposite systemshouldblockupsomewhere,thismayaffect thedrainag

ofagreaterareathanwouldbeaffectedbyablockage inasingularsystem.The
many separate outletsofasingular systemareveryconvenient forinspecting
and cleaning thepipedrains
- insomesituationsarelativelydensenetworkofopendrainsisdesirable
tocollect surfacewaters
-apipecollectorrequiresconsiderably steepergradients thandoesa

collectorditch.Therefore inacomposite system there isarelatively greathead
loss,especially ifthesystemcoversalargearea.Inlow-lying flatareas,how-
ever,thereisusuallynotmuchheadavailable.Thisproblemcantheoreticallybe
overcomebydigging deeperandwidermaindrainage canalsandoperatingmore
powerfulpumping stations,but thisisasolution thatinvolvesconsiderableextra
expenditure
- theinstallationcostsofpipecollectorsare,asarule,higher thanthose
ofcollectorditches.Ontheotherhand,maintenancecostsofditchesaremuch
higher thanthoseofwell-constructed pipecollectors.Thegeneral tendencyis
that inthelongruncompositesystemsarecheaper thansingularsystems.
Itcanbeconcluded that,whenever thereisenoughhead available,composite

systemsare tobepreferred.Thus theappropriate systeminslopingareaswill
usuallybeacomposite system.Thesteeper theslope,thelarger theareathat
canbecoveredbyonesystemwithoneoutfall.Inflat,low-lyingareas,asin
TheNetherlands,singular systems arepredominant,although sometimes composite
systemswithrelatively shortcollectorsanddrainingrelatively smallareasare
found.TheNileDelta,ontheotherhand,which isalsoflat,and low-lying,is
scheduled tobeprovided entirelywithcomposite tiledrainagesystems.
Oneofthemainreasons isthattheentireregionhasanextremelybranched system
ofirrigation canals,acomplicatedparcelling oftheland intosmallholdings,
andpracticallynoexistingopendrainsexcept themaindrains.Sinceitwasnot
considered feasible toreallocate theproperties and torearrange theirrigation
system,theestablishment ofanetworkofextraopencollectordrainswould create
many additionalproblems.
32
Whenacomposite system istobeinstalled,agridironpatternwillusuallybe
themostappropriate.Aherringbonepatternmaybeofadvantage toadjustthe
directionofthedrainlines totheslopeoftheland.Itissometimesbelieved
thatlateraldrainpipelinesshouldjointhecollectoratasharpangletoreduce
entranceenergy losses.However,thesaving inhydraulichead ascompared toa
right-angle junctionisofnopractical significance,ashasbeenprovedby
BLAISDELLandMANSON (1967).
Alignmentand locationofdrains
Ifthereisadistinctnaturaldirectionofgroundwater flow,thelaterals canbest

belaidperpendicular tothemainflowastheywill thusbeabletointercept
theflowmosteffectively.
Inflatornearly flatareas thelateraldrainsarepreferably installed inthe

directionofthemainslope,ifany,asthiswillmeananapproximately equal
draindepthintheentirefield.
Asageneralruleitisadvisable tosituatedrains inthelowestpartsof thearea

whenever thisisfeasible.Thiswillensure themosteffectivedrainage atthe
mosteconomical installationdepth.Inlargedrainagesystems themaindrainshould
followthenaturalvalleys.Quiteoftenoneisnotentirely free toadaptthe
drainalignments tothebestdrainagefunctionbecauseofsuchfactorsasproperty
boundaries,existingnetworksofirrigationanddrainage channels,roads,etc.
27.5 MATERIALSAND STRUCTURESFORPIPEDRAINAGE
27.5.1 DRAINPIPES
Themostcommonmaterialsused inthemanufacture ofdrainpipesareclay,con-

crete,andplastic.
Claypipes
Claypipes (oftenreferred toas"clay tiles")areusuallymade inlengthsof

about 30cmandhavearangeofinternaldiameters.InTheNetherlands,diameters
vary from5cmto 15cm,5cmbeing thestandard sizeforlateraldrains.The
pipesmaybestraightortheymayhaveacollar.Collaredpipesmayprovidesome
33
extra safeguard againstmisalignment ifthepipe line isinstalled inunstable
soil.Collar-type tilesareconsiderablymoreexpensive thanstraight onesand
theextracost isusuallynotjustified.Thewaterenters thepipe linethrough
thegapsbetween the tiles,nomatterhowcarefully theendsarebutted against
oneanother.Porosityofthewalls isofnopractical significance.Clayware
pipesarehighlyresistant tochemical attacks anddonotdeteriorate inthe
soil.
Themanufacture ofhigh-quality claypipesrequires agreatdealofskillanda

well-equipped factory.Someimportant aspectsofqualityare:shape (straight,
square ends),absenceofcracks,homogeneity (well-mixed clay).
Concretepipes
Concretepipesareused ifclay tilesarenotreadily availableorifgreater

diameters (e.g.more than 15or20cm)arerequired.Themanufacture ofconcrete
pipes isamuch simplerprocess thanthatofclaypipes and their installation
isalsomuchsimpler.
Adisadvantage ofconcrete isitssusceptibility todisintegration inacidand

sulphate soils.Thiscanbeovercome tosomeextentbyusing sulphate-resistant
cement.
Aswithclay tiles,waterenters through thegapsbetweenthepipes.Thereare

concrete tiles specially designed topermitwaterentry through theirporouswall.
Thepores,however,are likely tobecomecloggedby siltandclayparticlesor
othermaterials likeironochre.Theporosity alsomakes thepipesmorevulnerable
toattackbycement-destroyingagents.
Plasticpipes
Sinceplasticpipeswere introduced inabout 1960,theyhavemetwithaconstantly

growingdemand.Awidevariety oftypeshasbeenproduced,butonlyalimited
numberhave foundapplication inpractice.
Themostcommonplasticmaterials fordrainpipes arepolyvinyl chloride (p.v.c.)

andpolyethylene (p.e.),ofwhichp.v.c.ispredominant.Withequivalentweight
and size,p.v.c.-pipes haveasomewhathigherresistance tooutsidepressurethan
p.e.-pipes andarecheaper.Ontheotherhand,p.v.c.islessimpact-resistant,
especially atlowtemperatures.This "brittleness"ofp.v.c.-pipesmay leadto
damagewhenbeinghandled atlowtemperatures (about freezingpoint).
34
Plasticpipescome insmoothandcorrugatedvarieties,ofwhichthecorrugated
typeshavebecomemorepopular inTheNetherlands inrecentyears.
The smoothpipesarerigidand their lengthusuallydoesnotexceed5m.Thecor-
rugatedpipesareflexibleandaredelivered incoilswhose innerdiameteris
about0.80mormore,dependingonthediameter and flexibility ofthepipe.The
totallengthofpipeinonecoildecreaseswith increasingdiameterand isapprox-
imately 200m for5cmpipesand 100mfor 10cmpipes.
Corrugatedpipeshave some advantages oversmoothpipes
- theyrequirelessplasticmaterialperunitlengthandaretherefore
cheaper.Evenso,theyhaveamuchgreaterresistance tooutsidepressure
-due totheir flexibility theyaretheonly typeofpipe thatcanbeused

withspecial drainage techniqueslike trenchlessdrainage (Sect.6).
A disadvantage ofcorrugatedpipes isthattheyhaveaconsiderablyhigherhydrau-

licresistance thandosmoothpipes.Thisimplies thatlarger-sizedpipesare
needed todrainthesameamountofwater.Theoutsidediameterofcorrugatedpipes
needs tobeabout25%more thanthatofsmoothpipes.
Anewdevelopment istheplasticstrip.Aplastic strip,equal inthicknessto
thewall thicknessofsmoothplasticpipes,iscarriedonaroll.Bymeansofan
apparatusonthedrainagemachine itisshaped toarigidpipe,bypunches inthe
overlap.Thesepunches alsoserveforwaterentry.Additional openingscanalso
bemade inthestrip.Thepipethusformedhasaboutthesamestability assmooth
plasticpipes.Up tillnowithasonlybeeninstalledwithanormal trench-excava-
tingdrainagemachine.Apossibledevelopment isitsuseintrenchlessdrainage
(Sect.6).Theplastic-strippipes arecheaper intransport thantheready-made
plastic pipes.Theirusemaybeappropriate inareaswhere savings intransport
costscanbeconsiderable.
Entry ofwater
Smoothpipes are,asarule,providedwithsawslits,usuallylongitudinal,
sometimes transversal.Corrugatedpipesgenerallyhaveagreatmany smallopenings,
preferably inthevalleysofthecorrugations.Perforationsonthetopsofthe
corrugationswould involveaconsiderableweakeningof thepipe.
Technical information
Somedataabout thep.v.c.pipescurrentlybeingused inTheNetherlandsaregiven

below.
35
SMOOTH PIPES
Outside diameters: 40mm,50mm,70mm,90mm, 110mm, 125mm

Minimum wall thickness: 0.80mm,0.95mm, 1.30mm,2.00mm,2.20mm,2.50mm
respectively (about2%of thediameter)
Weight per metre of pipe: approximately 150g,220g,400g,for40,50,
and 70-mmpipes respectively
Perforations: longitudinal sawslits,25mmlongand0.6 -0.8mmwide;
40slitspermetreofpipe,making atotalinflow-areaof
approx.600mm2
CORRUGATED PIPES
Outside diameters: 60mm,65mm,80mm, 100mm, 125mm

Height of corrugations: about5-6%ofthediameter,sothattheinside
diameter isabout 10-12%lessthantheoutside
diameter
Weight per metre of pipe: about 75-80%ofsmoothp.v.c.'-pipeswith thesame
outsidediameter
Perforations: smallperforations: 1mmx 1mmto 1mmx4mm;asarule
6 rowsofabout 100openingspermetreofpipe.Totalinlet
areavaryingroughlybetween 1,000mm2 and3,000mm2 permetre
ofpipe
Quality requirements ofdrainpipes
Specificationsonqualityrequirements areeitheralready inexistenceorareunder-

goingpreparationinmostmanufacturing countries.Asarule,thespecifications
differfromonecountry toanother.Thisreflects thevariety inopinionsabout
therequirements,butcertainly also thevariety inconditionsunderwhichthe
pipesareused (e.g.depth,presence ofstones,etc.).
Choiceofdrainpipes
Intheirdrainage functions thereisnotmuchdifferencebetween thevarious

typesofpipecurrentlybeingused.Theultimate choicewillbedictatedby
economies andworkingefficiency,although traditionoftenappears tobeadeciding
factor.Theadvantageofplasticpipesover clayandconcrete istheirconsiderably
lighterweightand theirproduction ingreater lengths,thusinvolving lower
transport costs,especiallyonthefield,andcheaperinstallation.
Someapproximateprices inTheNetherlands (1973)permetreofpipe,with

hydraulically equivalentdiameter
36
claytileswithoutcollar,insidediameter 5cm: Df 0.50
smoothp.v.c.pipe,outsidediameter 5cm: Df 0.65
corrugated p.v.c.pipe,outsidediameter 6cm: Df 0.61
Thehigherpriceofp.v.c.pipes isbalanced byasaving incostsofhandling

andinstallation.
27.5.2 COVERMATERIALS
Covermaterials areapplied topipedrainsfortwopurposes
- tofacilitatewater flowinto thedrain (water-conducting function)

- toprevent theentryofsoilparticles into thedrain (filtering function).
Covermaterials canbeapplied invariousways:
- inbulk,spread outlooselyover thedrainpipes immediatelyafterthe

pipesarelaid
- insheetsormats,placed inrollsonthedrainagemachine.Inoneway
oranother,thepipesarecovered orcompletely enveloped during installation
-bymeansofpre-envelopeddrainpipes.
Covermaterials inbulk
Withbulkcovermaterials,transport costsformamajor item,whichexplainswhy

there isageneralpreference forlocalmaterials suchas
-peat litter (organic soil),which isthetraditionalmaterialused inThe

Netherlands;up to 1960,very littleothermaterialwasusedhere
- gravel,which isincommonuse inmanycountries.IntheUnitedKingdom

itisextensively used incombinedmole-pipedrainage systems.Itsheavyweight
makes the transport and applicationofgravelquiteexpensive.Itseffectiveness
inpreventing soil sedimentation issubject todoubtunlessproperlygraded
-debris ofplants:heathand strawofflax (bothofwhichhavebeenused

with goodresults inTheNetherlands),strawfromcereals,etc.
- syntheticmaterials,e.g.polystyrene flockswhichhaveavery lowspecific

weight.
Thesebulkmaterials areusually applied asacoveronly,i.e.theyarespreadon

topofthedrains.Acompleteenvelope,which issometimes advisablebecauseof
itsfiltering function,isnotpossiblewithmodernmechanicaldrainagemethods
exceptathighcosts.
37
Covermaterialsonrolls
The firstofthematerials inthiscategory,introduced inTheNetherlandsabout

1960,wasthethinglass fibresheet.Itsmainadvantagewas thatitwasan
excellent filtermaterialwhichcouldeasilybeformed intoacompleteenvelope.
Itsusemeantasubstantialreduction intransportand installation costs.Insub-

sequentyearssomedisadvantages cametolight:apoorwater-conducting function,
because itwas toothin,and itsporeshadatendency tocloge.g.byiron
deposits.
Lateron,effortsweremadetocombine thegoodwater-conducting functionofthe

bulkmaterialswiththecost-saving functionofthesheetsonrolls.Theresult
was theintroductionofmatsofstraw,1-2cmthick,andpeatlitteronrolls,
bothofwhicharegenerallyused asacoveronly.Anadequate filtering anda
goodwater-conducting functioncanbeobtainedwithacombinationofathin
filtering sheetonthetrenchbottomandathickermatontopofthedrain.
Pre-envelopeofdrainpipes
Pre-enveloping isonlyappliedwithsmoothorcorrugated plasticpipes.Used

asenvelopesare
- thinsheets (glass fibre,nylontissue,orother syntheticmaterial)of

whichonlyafiltering functionmaybeexpected
-mats, 1-2cmthick,offlaxstraw,cereal straw,peat litter,cocos

fibreetc.
27.5.3 AUXILIARY STRUCTURES
Outlets
Apipeoutlet intoanopenditchshouldbesuch thatitcausesnoerosionofthe

side slopesoftheditchand thatitformsnoobstacle tomechanicalditch
cleaning.
Satisfactoryandreliable isaconcrete structure inarecess-areaof theditch

(Fig.18). Since this structure isrelatively expensive,itisasaruleonly
used forcollectorpipes inacompositedrainagesystem.
38
Fig.18. Pipedrainoutletin
recessarea.
Forasingular system,withanoutletforeachlateral,theconstructionshould
beaninexpensiveone.Thereareseveralpossible constructions,suchas
- alongoutletpipethatcanberemoved ortelescoped intothedrainto

allowditchcleaning.However,inareaswithcoldwinters,protrudingpipesare
susceptible todamageby theloadof iceorsnow
-aprotective chuteagainst thesideslopeoftheditch,preferablymade

offlexiblematerial,e.g.plastic,reinforcedwith fiber,asotherwise thechute
islikely tobreak ifthesideslopeerodesorasaresultoffrost.
InTheNetherlands,asarule,noprovisions aremade toprevent theentryof

animals intooutletsof5cm-pipes.Forgreaterdiameters,however,itisadvisable
toprotect thepipewithvertical rods.Toallowthedrain tobecleaned,a
removable construction isrecommended.
Junctions
Junctionsbetweenlateralandcollectorpipesmaybemadedirect ("blindjunctions")
orbymeansofaninspectionchamber (junctionbox). Inblind junctions itis
anadvantage tohavethelateralatahigher levelthanthecollector and tomake
theconnection inthetopofthecollector.Often,specialjunctionpipesare
used (Fig.19).
@ J lateral @ | lateral
CROSS PIECE ; T-PIECE
collector collector
:S^ =5^
Fig.19. Specialjunction
pipesforclosedjunctions
^5= ^3(F ^5= between lateralsand col-
lectors.A:crosspiece.
B:T-piece.
39
COVERABOVEGROUNDSURFACE BURIED COVER
® ®
0.75m
H
lateral lateral
3.10m O
-collector-
~TTT°-3°™4 \
5
- — silt trap— - \
Fig.20. Inspectionchamberjunctionsbetween lateralsandcollectors.

A: cover above ground surface. B: buried cover.
Inspectionchamberjunctions (Fig.20)areusuallyprovidedwithasilttrap,the
bottomofthechamberbeing some30cmbelow thebottomofthelowestpipeenter-
ingorleaving thechamber.Itisadvisable tohavethebottomofthelaterals
some 10cmabove thetopofthecollector toenablethedischargeofthelateral
tobeinspected.Thecoverofthechambermaybeaboveorbelowgroundsurface.
Provided itisatasufficientdepthnottointerferewith soilcultivation,
placing itbelowsurface ispreferablebecause thechamber isthenprotected
againstdamageandabuse (farmers sometimesusejunctionboxesasoutletfor
excess irrigationwater).Thechambersmaybemadeofconcretecastatthesite
orbuiltofbricks.Theymayalsobeprefabricated.
Drainbridges
Whereapipedraincrossesanunstable stripofsoil,e.g.arecently filledin

ditch,itmaygetoutoflineorbecomedamaged asaresultofsoilsubsidence.
Asaprecaution,thepipedrainshouldbesupported across thestripbyabridge,
whichmaybeeitherawoodenconstructionorasteelpipe (Fig.21).
Fig.21. Drainbridge.
After Theobald, 1983.
40
Surface-water-inlets
Surface-water-inlets canbebuilt intothedraininplaceswheresurfacewateris

likely toaccumulate.Therearetwopossiblesystems,viz.
-blind inlets (Fig.22)consisting ofacoverofstonesandgravelextending

fromtheground surface tothedrainpipe
-openinlets (Fig.23)preferably settoonesideofthepipelineandpro-

videdwithasilt trap toreducethesiltinghazard.Anopeninletshouldbe
protected by someformofgrateatthegroundsurface.
Fig.22. Blind inletofsurface

water topipedrain.
(S)
5 ^ 1 1IIII"li J g » * ^ ' *^^l^M|3||-13iggg*
Fig.23. Openinletsforsurfacewaterinto
drain. A: built to one side of the drain.line.
silttrap
B: built in the drain line.
27.6 CONSTRUCTION OFAPIPEDRAINAGESYSTEM
27.6.1 REVIEWOFMETHODS
Thenormalprocedure inconstructing apipedrainage system isto
-excavate atrenchattherequired depthandgradient
- install thepipes inthetrench,withorwithoutcoverorenvelopematerial
-backfill thetrenchwith theexcavated soil.
Althoughconstructionbymanual labour isobsolete inmany countries,itmaystill

beofimportance inareaswheremachines arenotreadily availableorwheresmall
drainageworksaretobe implemented.
41
Of themachinesused fordrainage,thereare twomain types: continuous excavating
machines and back-acting excavators.
Trenchless drainage isafairly recentdevelopment.With thistechniqueapipeis
installed inthesoilbymeansofamoleplough typemachinewithout thenecessity
ofdigging atrench.Amachine for installingdrainsatvery greatdepths (4.50
metres)wasdeveloped inrecentyearsasamodificationofthenormal trench-
excavatingmachinewithendlesschain.
Inthe followingpages theabovetechniqueswillbediscussed inmoredetail.
27.6.2 MARKINGALIGNMENTSANDLEVELS
Before theworkstarts,eachdrainline ismarkedbyapegplaced ateachendof

theline (Fig.24).Thepegsareplaced atagivenheight abovethefuturetrench
bottom.Thismeans that ifapipedrain 160metres long istobelaidwitha
gradient of0.1%,thenthetopofthe"upstreampeg"is 16cmhigher thanthatof
the"downstreampeg".Pegsshouldbeplacedwith thehelpofalevellinginstrument.
Betweentheupstreamanddownstreampegs,thelevelismarkedbymeansofsighting
targets,whichwill serveasareferenceduring installationofthedrain.The
systemisbasically thesameforbothmanualandmechanicalwork.
27.6.3 MANUAL INSTALLATION
Theefficiency ofpipelayingbyhand dependsverymuchonthetoolsandthe

diggingmethod applied.
Fig.25shows thesetoftools thatwillberequired. Itisusual tostartdigging

adrain lineatthedownstream end.Thenifanywaterenters thetrench itis
drained away immediately. Inthiswaywork canproceed underreasonably drycon-
ditions.
The trenchwillusuallybe30to40cmwide.Thedeeper50to60cmofthetrench
canbemadeverynarrowwith theaidofthelong-blade spade.Thebladeofthis
spade isconcaveand isapproximately 70cmlong.Using thisspade,theworker
canstandontheground surfaceoronaledgeinthetrench (seeFig.26).
The trenchbottom issmoothedwith thehelpofthedrainscoop.Thisandallother

operations (pipelaying,applying covermaterial,backfilling thetrench)canbe
donewhile theworkerremainsonthegroundsurface.
42
©
proposed pipe drain line
peg for indicating
location and depth
&
open collector drain
Fig.24. Marking alignments and levels. A: locations and depths of proposed

pipe drains are marked by pegs at beginning and end of each drain. ---- pro-
posed pipe drain line. A =peg marking location and depth. B: length section
A-B; the use of sighting targets (boning rods) for checking trench depth for
excavation. C: length section A-B; machine sighting targets.
Fig.25. Some Coolsused

forinstallationofdrains
byhand.
43
/AW/XI f f / Â W A W W /
0.30- D=0.50m
0.40m
worker stands
rr
0.50m
at this level
dug with long

narrow blade spade
OÏ5m Fig.26. Diggingatrenchbyhand.
Itisadvisable tohaveasetofdrainage toolsevenwhenoperatingwith adrainage

machine.Threeofthetoolswilldefinitelyberequired ifamachine islaying
deepdrains (>1.20 m). Theseare
-hoe,forslightlydeepening thetrenchinstiffsoil
-pipetongsforremovingbrokentiles
- soilpincer forremoving smallquantities ofloosesoil.
27.6.4 EXCAVATINGMACHINES
Thereare twotypesofexcavatingmachinesused indrainage
- continuous excavating machines, witheitherarevolvingdiggingwheelor

anendless chainwithknives (Fig.27).Generally thosemachinesexcavate andfinish
thetrench totherequired depthandgradientandhaveattachments forpipe
installationand theplacingofcovermaterial.The trench isrefilled byasepa-
rate implement,eitherofthedozer-orscrew-type.Therearealsoexcavating
attachments thatcanbemounted onafarmtractor.Theyworktoashallowerdepth
andatalowerspeed thanthespecialdrainagemachines,butcanstillproduce
good qualitywork
- back-acting excavators (Fig.28).
Theworkingrateof thesemachines ismuch lower thanthatofcontinuousexcava-

torsnorcantheyfinishthetrenchbottom,whichhastobedonebyhand.They
areuseful,however,forwork instony soils,wherenormaldrainagemachines
cannotworkproperly.Theyareoftenused asastand-bymachine,e.g.forexca-
vationwork forauxiliary structuresortoremovestonesandotherobstaclesif
thedrainagemachinegetsstuck.Theyarealsooftenused fordigging trenches
forlargesizecollectorpipes.
44
QQ eOö
(S) MACHINE IN WORKING POSITION sighting targets
NWS*2?
Fig.27. Continuously excavating drainagemachineandprincipleofadjusting

excavation depth. A: machine. B: detail of A. C: machine in working position.
Fig.28. Back-acting trenchexcavator.
45
Below somedatawillbegivenaboutcontinuous excavatingdrainagemachinesmade
inTheNetherlands and inotherWestern-European countries.Thedatagivenare
approximate,since therearemanydifferent typesofmachines
-mostmachinesmoveontracks,sometimeshalf-tracks.The trackwidthof
most typescanbeadjusted.For transportontheroad thewidthisapproximately
2.50m.Inthefield agreaterwidth isneeded toallowthedisposalofexcavated
soils.Dependingonthetypethemaximumwidthmaybe3.2 to5.0m
- excavation: byarevolvingwheelorendlesschainwithknives.Thelatter
type ispredominant,since itiseasierandcheaper torepair
- width of tvenah: standard 20to25cm.Wider trenchesofup to35or40cm

arepossiblebyreplacing thechainandplates
- maximum excavation depth: standard 170to 180cm.Somemachinesmaygoas

deepas2.50m
- engine: 100to200H.P.Inrecentyears thereisatendency towardsgreater

enginepowers.Certain typesofmachineshave twoengines:onefortheexcavation
work (about 100H.P.)andonefortheforwardmovement (about50H.P.)
- depth regulation: usuallybyhydraulicmeans;thedriverhastokeep abar

inthe lineofsight (Fig.27).Occasionally remotegradecontrol isapplied.
Theprinciple isthatacertainmarkonthemachine istobekept inabeam(light,
laser,etc). Correction signalsaregiveneitherautomatically ormanuallyby
amanwithalevelling instrument
- total weight: 7,000to 12,000kg
- ground pressure, depending on track size: 0.20 to0.30kgpercm2.Often,

alternative tracksizesareavailable
- working speed: up to1,000mperhour
- net output: thisdependsverymuchonexcavationdepth,soil type,weather

conditions,lengthofdrain lines,sizeofparcels,etc.Foradraindepthof
1.00m to 1.20minamarine soilwithaclaycontentofapproximately 25%,afair
netoutput is300to400m/hour,agood output is600m/hour
- pipe laying: foreachmachinedifferentattachments areavailablefor

laying clay,concrete,smoothplastic,orcorrugated plasticpipes.Conversion
fromone typeofattachment toanotherrequiresonlyasimpleadjustment
- plastic pipes foralateraldrain lengthof250mcanbecarried onthe

machine (totalweight ofpipes isof theorderof50kg)
46
- 5cm clay tiles for250mdrainlengthweighmore than 1,000kgand
cannotallbecarried onthemachine.Methods forsupplyingpipes tothemachine
are
• acarriagewithpipes,pulledbythemachineorbyaseparatetractor
• smallpilesof tilesareputalongside thefuture trenchbefore thework
starts.Theyareloadedbyhandontothemachineasitpassesby
•pallets ofabout 150mof tiles (approximately 650kg)arepacked inthe
factoryandputinafewplacesalongthetrench.Theyarepickedup
withacraneandplaced onthemachineasitpassesby
- application of cover material: bulkmaterial suchaspeat litter isspread

onthedrainbyhand.Itisoftentransported onacarriage,pulledby themachine.
Gravelandothergranularmaterial ismostlyappliedbymeansofahopper,either
mounted onthemachineorasaseparate tractor-drawnimplement.
Sheetsormatsarecarried onthemachine inrollswhichunrollasthemachine
movesforward
-an anchor orsimilardeviceisoftenattached onthemachineatacertain

level inthetrenchinorder tocover thedrainwith somesoilofthebestprofile
layer (mostly topsoil).
Working conditions
Afirst requisite forefficientwork isthatthedrainagemachineoperatesas

continuously aspossible,whichcanbepromotedby
-propermachinemaintenance andanadequatesetofspareparts
- areliable supplyofmaterials (pipes,covermaterials)
- timelymarking ofdrainlinesand clearingofobstacles inthefield.
Whendraining inheavy,stickyclay soils,itisoftennecessary tospraywater

continuously onthechaintopreventclogging.Awatertankwithspraying
equipment canbemounteaonthemachine for thispurpose.Drain installation
underwetconditions involvescertainrisksofthedrainsilting-uporofthe
soilpuddling,whichwillrestrict aready flowofwater into thedrain.Techni-
cally,mostdrainagemachinesareable tocontinueworkingonverywetandsoft
fields,especiallywheninstallingplasticpipes sincethisrequiresnoadditional
transportonthefield.Thisisnotrecommended,however,sinceacarefulcon-
structionundergood (dry)conditionsoffersthebestguarantee thatthedrainage
systemwill function satisfactorily.
4'7
27. TRENCHLESSPIPEDRAINAGE
Thetechniqueoftrenchlesspipedrainage,whichdeveloped fromtheideaoflining
moledrains,made itsadvent inabout I960.Theinstallationofaready-made
pipewithoutatrenchhaving tobedugbecamepossiblewithcorrugated plastic
pipes,whichareflexibleenoughtomake therather sharpcurveatthespotwhere
thepipeleavesthemachine.
Theprinciple oftrenchlessdrainage isshown inFig.29.Themachinepullsa

knifeorbladesimilartothebladeofamoleploughorasubsoiler throughthe
soil.Thecorrugatedplasticpipeisledintothesoilthroughordirectlybehind
theblade.Themachine isusuallymounted onacrawler tractor.Therearedifferent
typesofblades.Thetypeofbladewilldecide towhatextent thesoilispushed
asideorliftedup.Ifthesoil ispushed aside itmaybecompacted andthus
restrictthedrainagefunctionofthepipe.Abladewhich liftsthesoilistobe
preferred.
Fig.29. Trenchlesspipe
draininstallation.
Advantages oftrenchlessdrainageare
- themachine canbemaderelatively simplewithout anyrevolving andconse-

quentlywearingparts
- thetractor canbeused forotherpurposesoutside thedrainageseason
- theworking speed andnet-outputare,asarule,considerablyhigherthan
thoseobtainedwithanexcavating drainagemachine.Aworking speed of2.5km/hour
ispossiblewithadraindepthof 1metre.Thenet-output isupto600-700m/hour.
48
Disadvantages are
-ahigh tractivepowerrequirement.Requirementsvarywith thesoiltype:
thesandier thesoil,thehigher thetractivepower.Inafirmsandysoil,it
isverydifficulttogetthemachine through.Problemswillalsoariseifthe
ground surfaceiswet,thetracksthenbeing likely toskid
- compactionofthesoilaround thedrain.
Thedepthisusually regulatedbyremotecontrol.Depthregulationonthemachine
itselfisdifficult,mainlyduetoitsrelativelyhighspeed.Most trenchless
drainagemachinesaredesigned toinstallcorrugated plasticpipesonly,and
theapplicationofcovermaterials isonlypossiblebymeansofpre-enveloped
pipes.
Afewtrenchlessdrainagemachines,however,canalsolayclayorconcretetiles
and apply covermaterial inthenormalway.
27.6.6 DEEPDRAINAGEBYHORIZONTALPUMPEDWELLS
Thedeep installationofpipesfordirectpumping ("horizontalpumpedwells")

was initiallydeveloped asanalternativetoverticalpumpedwells.Thepurpose
wastolower thewater table temporarily fortheconstructionofpipelinesfor
gas,oil,etc (seeSCHEELEandDEWEERD, 1967).Liketheregulardrainagemachine,
the"deepdrainer"isacontinuousexcavatorwithpipe-laying attachment.With
thedeep-draineratwork,thechainisinanapproximatelyverticalposition
(Fig.30).Unlike thenormaldrainagemachine,therearenoplates toprotect
thetrenchfromcollapsingduringpipeinstallation.
Onlycorrugated plasticpipesareused.They leaveaclosed conduitright

behind thechain.Thetrenchmaycollapse (whichitusuallydoes)immediately
behind themachine.Covermaterial canonlybeused intheformofa
pre-enveloping.
49
o.
e
3
ft
50
27.7 MAINTENANCEOFPIPEDRAINAGESYSTEMS
27.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Maintenance impliesall thosemeasures thatserve toensurethatthepipedrainage

systemcontinues tofunctionsatisfactorily.Maintenancemeasuresmaybedivided
intotwocategories
-regular inspectionsofthesystem
-restoring theproper functioning iffoundnecessary.
Ifapipedrainage systemisnotfunctioning satisfactorily,thereareseveral

possible explanations
- thedrainage functionmayhavebeengradually deteriorating (e.g.dueto

agradualaccumulationofsediments inthepipes)oritmayhavebeen insufficient
rightfromthebeginning (e.g.duetoanimproperdesign)
- theproblemmaybedue toadefect inthedrains themselvesormayhavean

outside cause (e.g.impeding soillayers)atshallowdepthorinsufficientlydeep
water levels intheopendrains).
Thenatureoftheproblemwilldecidewhether repairsarepossible,and ifso

whatmeasures areneeded.Sometimes theproblemmaybeasimpleonetoovercome,
aswhen irondepositshave toberemoved frominside thepipes;sometimesthe
problemmaybemoredifficult,aswhencoarsesandhassettled inthepipes;in
stillother casesthere ispractically nochanceofremedying thefault,aswhen
water inflow intothepipe isimpededbecause thesoilaround thepipehasbecome
puddled.
27.7.2 CHECKINGADRAINAGESYSTEM
Within thecontextofmaintenance,itisuseful tooutline allpossibleproblems

and failures thatcanoccur inatiledrainage systemand toevolveamethod
ofsystematically checking thesystemand localizing thecauseoffailures.Agood
guideline tothisistoconsider theflowpath that thewaterhastofollowon
itsway fromthe land surface through theentiredrainage system.Thisflowpath
canbedivided intodifferent stages.Ifweplacepiezometers atthetransitions
fromonestagetoanother,wecanmeasure thehead lossineachstageandcan
divide thetotalhead lossofthesystem intowell-defined and localizedsteps.
Thecorresponding flowresistances canbedetermined by (seeChap.8,Vol.11)
51
h.=qw. (15)
l l
where
h.=head loss inthei-th stage(m)
q =dischargeperunitdrainlength (m3/mday)
w.=resistance inthei-th stage (days/m)
Theoverall flowresistance canbedetermined from
h=£h.=Zqw. (16)
Forourpurpose itisconvenient tomakeadivision intofourstagesasindicated

inFig.31,viz.
Stage 1: Vertical flow:infiltration ("unsaturatedflow")fromtheground-

surface tothegroundwater tableand "saturated flow"toapproximately
draindepth
Stage 2: Horizontal flowtowards thedrainandpartly radial flowinthe

vicinity ofthetrench
Stage 3: Flowfromthetrenchboundary totheinsideof thedrainpipe
Stage 4: Flowthrough thepipesystemtotheoutfall.
Suppose thatforsomereason (e.g.clogged pipes)adrainagesystem isnot

adequately controlling thewater table.Thismeans thatthetotalhead lossin
thesystemisgreater thantherequirement.Thepiezometermeasurements atthe
transitionswillreveal that in Stage 4oftheflowpaththereisanexcessive
head lossandacorresponding excessive resistance.Figure 32presentsadrainage
system thatisfunctioning properly.Figure33illustrates failures ineachof
thefourstages.
Experience inTheNetherlandshasrevealed thatfailurescanoccur inallfour

stages.Table3showshowthefailures aredistributed over thestages.
y/^v/^^///W4x^//Aïy//A^///ï >^X\\y//Ay'//^s>'//Aw/Aw«A' w^w
—-S.
:T?S: Fig.31. Stages intheflow

pathofwater toberemoved
byapipedrainsystem.
[,_leyel_of__i_^
drain outflow"
52
depth
cm
mmmmMmyMmmmswrn rœwmwÀm/Mmw//imimsyM N
30
60
90 - Fig.32. Potentiometrie
heads inadequatelyfunction-
120 Ü Ü ingdrainagesystem.
FAILUREIN STAGE 1 FAILURE IN STAGE 2 FAILURE IN STAGE 3 FAILURE IN STAGE 4

ponding water^
''hi
/n2
_£i_^_Jeyelçrtoytlet pipe
Fig.33. P o t e n t i o m e t r i e heads in inadequately functioning drainage system.
Table 3. DIAGNOSIS MADE IN 64 PIPE DRAINED FIELDS WITH FAILING

DRAINAGE BY MEASURING HEAD LOSSES IN EACH OF THE FOUR STAGES
AS INDICATED IN F I G S . 3 1 , 32 and 33 (AFTER CAVELAARS, 1 9 6 7 ) .
Nu mb er 0f f i e l d s
Failures in sports Total
"normal" "land prep."1 grounds
Stage 1 - 7 7 14
Stage 2 i - - 1
Stage 3 23 - - 23
Stage 4 9 - 2 11
Combination 3 5 3 11
Miscellaneous 4 - - 4
Total 40 12 12 64
1
"land prep. " - fields which had received some special form of land
preparation such as levelling, as a rule with heavy machinery.
Sports grounds always receive some form of land preparation such as
levelling, adding a top layer of sand, etc.
The c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n of p i e z o m e t e r s , both in t h e s o i l and in t h e

d r a i n p i p e , a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 3 4 (see a l s o Chap.21, V o l . 1 1 1 ) .
Often the h y d r a u l i c heads and head l o s s e s can be determined or e s t i m a t e d w i t h

s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by s i m p l e r methods than with p i e z o m e t e r s , e . g .
- by means of auger h o l e s . The inflow of water from t h e f i e l d s u r f a c e can

be p r e v e n t e d by p r e s s i n g a c y l i n d e r ( e . g . a p i e c e of d r a i n p i p e ) i n t o the s o i l
around t h e auger h o l e as shown i n F i g . 3 5 . In t h i s way i t can be v e r i f i e d whether
water on the f i e l d s u r f a c e r e p r e s e n t s the groundwater t a b l e or a perched water
table
53
-byobservingwater levelsinstructures,like inspectionpitsandsurface
inletsbuilt inpipelines.
Sometimes itisuseful tomakeafurtherdivisionofacertainstage. Stage 4

forinstance,mightbedivided intoflowthrough thelateralpipesandflow
through thecollectors.Thehead losses indifferent sectionsofacollectorcan
bedetermined fromthewater levels intheinspectionpits.
Thereliability ofpiezometersorothermeasuring facilitiescanbecheckedby
addingwaterorby takingwaterout.Theoriginalwater levelshouldberestored
inashorttime.
DRILLING A HOLE P I E Z O M E T E R IN PIEZOMETER IN

IN A DRAIN PIPE A DRAIN PIPE T H E SOIL
Fig.34. Installationofpiezo-
meters. A: drilling a hole in a
drain pipe. B: piezometer in a
drain pipe. C: piezometer in the
soil.
cylinder(e.g. piece of pipe)

„ p o n d i n g water_V _-
Fig.35. Makinganaugerholeinawetfield.
54
27.7.3 REVIEWOFDIFFERENTTYPESOFFAILURES,THEIRCAUSE,
ANDPOSSIBLECURES
Vertical flow (Stage 1)
Toinvestigate failures invertical flow,afurtherdivisionof Stage 1may

bemadebyplacingpiezometers todifferentdepths.
Theproblemmaybe intheformofaperchedwater tableonadistinct impeding

layer (Fig.36a)orthegroundwater tablemayreach tothefield surfacewitha
strong gradientdownward (Fig.36b).Thelatterislikely tooccurifamajorpart
oftheprofilehasalowhydraulic conductivity forvertical flow.Animpeded
vertical flowmaybedue tonatural soilconditionsormaybeman-made,e.g.by
improper tillagepracticesorlandpreparationwithheavymachinery onawet
field.
Sometimes animprovement canbeeffectedbyproper tillageorbybreakingupany

impedinglayers.Ifthisisnotpossible,additional surfacedrainagefacilities
willhavetobeprovided.
ponding
^—water
Fig.36. Twocasesofimpededvertical flow. A: a poorly pervious layer is

present at some depth in the profile. B: the upper part of the soil profile
has a lower hydraulic conductivity than the subsoil.
Horizontal andradial flow (Stage 2)
Theproblems in Stage 2 (horizontal andradial flow)areentirely theresultof

excessivelywidedrainspacings.Thiscanbeavoidedbyaproperdesign,including
aproperdetermination orassessmentof thehydraulic conductivity,thedepth
tothe impervious layer,and thedischarge.Theonlyremedy forfailuresin
Stage 2 istoinstall intermediatedrains.
55
Flowintothepipedrain (Stage 3)
Inpractice,mostdrainage failures inTheNetherlands arefound in Stage 3

(entrance flow).Foragoodunderstandingofthefactors thatmaybeofinfluence,
abrief theoreticaldiscussionfollows.
Concerning theflowintheimmediatevicinity ofapipedrain,thefollowingap-

proximations underliemostofthetheoriesofdrainage flow (Chap.8,Vol.11)
- thedrain isassumed tobean"idealdrain",intowhichwatercanenter

over itsentirecircumference
- themediumaround thedrainisassumed tobehomogeneous,withahydraulic

conductivity equal tothatofthesurroundingundisturbed soil.
Asaresultoftheseapproximations thereisanidealized flowpatternaspresen-

ted inFig.37.Therealsituationdiffers intwowaysfromtheidealizedpicture
- thepipedrainconsistsofawall,with arelatively smallareaofscat-

tered inflowopenings,e.g.jointsbetween individual clay tiles,sawslitsor
circularholes inplasticpipes (Fig.37A).Figure 37Bshows theflowpatternfor
-'. drainwith twoslots.
Due totheconcentrationofstream lines towards theinletopenings,therewill
beaconsiderable extra flowresistance ascompared totheflowtoanidealdrain
ofequaldiameter.ThisextraresistancewasdefinedbyENGELUND (1957)as"entry
resistance".CAVELAARS (1966, 1967)provided somedataaboutentranceresistances
ofsomecurrent typesofdrainpipes.Ifweconsider acircularareaaround the
drainwithadiameter approximately equal tothewidthofadrain trench (about
25cm)theninthisarea,theflowresistance toarealdrainpipe (depending
onthe typeofpipe), isof theorderof4to8times thatofanidealdrainof
equaldiameter
- themediumaround thedrain isnothomogeneous becauseoftheexistence

ofthetrench.Thedrain issurrounded bydisturbed excavated soilandoftena
special covermaterialhasbeenapplied (Figs.37Cand 38).Itisgenerally assumed
that themediumaround thedrain intherefilled trenchhasaconsiderably better
hydraulic conductivity thanthesurrounding undisturbed soil,somuch sothatthe
entrance resistance ismoreor lesscompensated for.
Asaconsequence,thehead loss in Stage 3willusuallynotbemore thanwould

beencountered ifthedrainwereanidealdrain,provided,thatis,thatthe
averagehydraulic conductivity of themedium inthetrench isoforderof4to8
times thatofthesurrounding undisturbed soil.
56
IDEAL DRAIN DRAIN WITH LONGITUDINAL SLOTS SAME DRAIN PIPE AS B BUT
NOW EMBEDDED
stream line ® _- ©
Fig.37. Patternsofflowinthevicinityofapipedrain. A: ideal drain,

stream line indicating direction of flow, --- equipotential line.
B: drain with longitudinal slots. C: the same drain pipe as B but now embed-
ded in pervious cover material.
trench
Fig.38. Drainpipeinatrench.
Thefollowingexamplemaygiveanideaofthepractical significanceoftheentry
resistanceproblem.
Supposeapipedrainage systemisfunctioningunderthefollowingconditions
-hydraulic conductivityofthesoilis0.25mperday;drainspacingis
15m;draindiameteris5cm;dischargeis7mm/day.
Fromtheidealdrainassumptionwemayexpectthat
hi=0,h 2=0.60m,h3=0.15m(seeFig.31)
Aconditiontothisisthatthehydraulic conductivity inthetrenchisofthe

orderof1.0to2.0mperday.Iftherewerenocompensationprovidedbyaper-
viousbackfill,h3wouldbeoftheorderof0.40mto0.80m,whichwouldresult
inanincreased elevationofthewater tableofbetween0.25mand0.65m, and
consequently insufficientdrainage.
57
Thesituationwouldbeevenworse ifthetrenchbackfillwere tohavealower
hydraulic conductivity thantheundisturbed soil.Ifthis islikely,twoimportant
precautions canbetaken
-avoidingbackfilling the trenchwithapuddled soil,asmayoccurifdrains

areinstalled underwetconditions
-applying aperviouscovermaterial ofsufficient thickness,i.e. 1cm

ormore.
Even though thislast itemismentioned,itshouldbenoted thatfield andlabo-

ratoryobservationshaveshown thatcovermaterial cannotsufficiently compensate
forpoor soilconditionsresulting frompoor installationwork (CAVELAARS,1966,1967).
Covermaterialsmaybecome cloggedbysoilparticlesorbychemicalprecipitates,
mainly ironand sulphurcompounds (FORD,1965;FORDandBEVILLE, 1970;FORDand
CALVERT, 1969).
Alsotheinletopeningsofthedrainmaybecomeblockedbysoilparticlesand
bychemicals (ironand sulphurcompounds).Thebestprecautions againstthis
happening aretoavoiddraininstallationunderwetconditions and toapplya
thickcovermaterial.
Failures resulting fromproblems in Stage 3areverydifficult tocure,ifatall.

InTheNetherlands cleaningmethodshavemetwithlittle successandoftena
completenewdrainage systemhashad tobeinstalled.
Flow through thepipesystem (Stage 4)
Impeded flowinthedrainpiperesults inanover-pressure inthepipe.There

areseveralpossiblecauses,viz.
- thepipediametermaybe toosmall (Sect.4.3)
- thepipelinemaybedamaged
- thepipemaybecloggedby soilparticles
- thepipemaybecloggedbychemicalcompounds
- thepipemaybecloggedbyplantroots.
58
Cloggingby soilparticles (silting-up)
Mostoftheinformationgivenbelowonthesilting-upofdrainpipeshasbeen
obtained fromunpublished fieldandlaboratory observations inTheNetherlands
- soilentering adrainpipeisbelieved tooriginatemainly fromaboveand

fromthesides,i.e.fromtheloosesoilintherefilled trench,butsilting-up
frombelowisalsopossible
-ahighrateofsilting ismost likely tooccur insoilsoflowstability,

i.e. sandyandsilty soils;draininstallationunderwetconditions favours
thisprocess
-ahighrateofsilting isoftenfound immediately afterdraininstallation,

especially ifdoneunderwetconditions;lateron,silting continuesbutata
lowrate
- inextremecases thedrainsneedcleaningwithinafewmonthsofinstal-
lation;ontheotherhand,therearemany drainsystems,mainly inheaviersoils,
thathaveonlyafewmillimetres ofsedimentsafter 20or30years,eventhough
nocovermaterialshadbeenused
- structures inthepipesystem (surfacewater inletsandinspectionpits)

arepotential sourcesofsilting.
Measures against silting-up consistofprevention (tobediscussed below),or

cleaning (seeSect.7.4).
Preventionofsilting-up
Ifconditions arefavourable forsilting,lateraldrainshave tobeprotectedby

filterorcovermaterials (Sect.5.2).Although soilparticles canalsoenterthe
pipe frombelow,acoveronly isoftensufficient,since itfilters theloose
backfill ofthetrench.Toensurefullprotectionhowever,especially insandy
soils,acompleteenvelope isnecessary.Pipesmay stayreasonably cleanwith-
outcovermaterials,particularly inheavier soils (claycontentof20%ormore),
ifdrainsareinstalledunderfavourable (dry)conditionsand thedrainpipes
arecoveredwithstable topsoil (see Onderzoek naar de vervuiling van plastic
drainage en het schoonmaken van plastic drains. 1970).
Collector drainsareusuallynotdesigned totakeupwaterdirect fromthesoil.

Therefore itisrecommendable touseclosedpipes toprevent theentryofsilt.
Aclosedpipecanbeobtainedby sealing thejointsbetween individualpieces
ofconcreteorclaypipingorbyusingunperforatedplasticpipe.
59
Ifsiltiscarried inthecollectors itcanbecaughtby silt traps (Fig.20).
Silt trapsarerecommended inanyspecial structureslike inspectionpitsand
surfacewater inlets (Fig.23),where there isariskofsoilentry.
Thelikelihood ofselfcleaningofadrainpipe isonly slight.Toeffectuate

aconsiderable transportofsandinadrainline,aminimumflowvelocityof
about0.35 mpersecond isrequired (DEJAGERandHAAYER, 1963).Clayparticles
aretransported atmuch lowervelocities,butoncesedimented andconsolidated,
theyarenotlikely tobetakenupagainbythestream.Sandmayalsobeconso-
lidatedwith clayparticles.
Asaresult,aflowvelocityof0.35m/secwillmostprobablynotbesufficient
fortheselfcleaningofdrains.Aflowvelocity of0.35 m/secisrealizedat
adischargeof60m/dayina5cm-pipeandadischargeof240m /dayina 10cm-
pipe (pipesrunning full).Thisamounts toadischargeof 10mm/day fromdrained
areasof0.6 haand2.4harespectively.Theseareverylargeareas tobedrained
byonepipeandarenotcommonly found.Moreover,theassumed velocityoccurs
attheoutletofthedrainline,theflowvelocity diminishing inupstreamdirec-
tion.
Thus,ifselfcleaning takesplaceatall,itwillonlybeinacertainsection
ofthedrainlineneartheoutlet;inthemajorpartofthelinethedeposits
willremain.
Cloggingbychemicaldeposits
Thechemicalsusuallyresponsible forcloggingdrainpipesareironcompounds,
sometimes iron-sulphur compoundsormanganesecompounds (GRASS,1969).The
mechanismofirondeposition isinprincipleasfollows:SolubleFe flows
intothedrainwiththegroundwater.Whenitcomes intocontactwithair,oxida-
+++
tiontoFe takesplace,leading toprecipitationofinsolublecompounds.
Themechanismofprecipitation isverycomplex;inmostcasesbacterialactivity
isinvolved andpHand temperatureareofinfluence.Therefore,thedepositsmay
beofvarying composition,depending onthecircumstances underwhich theywere
formed (KUNTZE, 1966). Insoilsrichinorganicmatter,sulphurplaysanimportant
role (FORD,1965;FORDandCALVERT,1969;FORDandBEVILLE, 1970).
60
Ironproblems arelikely tooccur ifdrainsare installed inreduced soillayers.

Oftentherateatwhich ironenters thedraindecreasesasthesoillayersconcerned
becomeaerated asaresultof thedrainage.Withinafewyears theproblemusually
comes toanend.However,irondepositionislikely tocontinue ifthedrains
receiveaconsiderable amountofseepage.
Alsoinverywetclimates theproblemmaybeacontinuousone,e.g.inFlorida
(FORDandBEV1LLE, 1970).
Therateofirondepositionmaybeveryhigh:inextremecasesadrainagesystem
canberendered ineffective inthecourseofafewweeks.
Attempts topreventprecipitation ofironcompounds indrainshavenotbeenvery

successful sofar.Pipecleaningisthemostreliableremedy (Sect.7.4).
Cloggingbyplantroots
Plantrootsgrowing intodrains isaproblemwhichdependsonplantspecies,depth

ofdrain,andclimaticconditions.
Theproblemoccurswhenplantrootsenterthedrainthroughthewaterinflow
openingsand fillupthecross-sectionofthepipe,thusobstructing theflow
ofthedrainwater.Experience inTheNetherlands isthatcertainspeciesof
shrubsand trees (e.g.populus)whichareused forwindbreaksaroundorchards
and sportsgrounds cancauseseriousrootgrowth intodrainpipes.Therootsof
asingleplantmayextend inthepipe lineoveradistanceofseveralmetres.
Problemswithrootsoffruittreeshavenotbeenreported sofar.
Whereadrainlinecrossesawindbreak,rootscanbeprevented fromentering
byusingaclosed pipeoveracertaindistanceorbysealing thejointsbetween
clayorconcretepipes.Otherwisedeeppipedrainsoropenditches shouldbe
applied.
27.7.4 PIPECLEANINGMETHODS
Therearetwomethodsofpipecleaning: scraping methods or flushing methods.
Scrapingmethods
Ahoseofhard p.v.c.orarodofbamboo sticks screwed togetherispushed into

thedrain.Adeviceisattached totheendof therodorhose tostirupthedirt
and/orremoveitfromthedrain (Fig.39). Therearedifferenttypesofattachments'
61
- iron tumbling flap (Fig.40A).Theflapliesflushwiththehose asitmoves
intothedrainand turns toaperpendicular positionasthehoseisdrawnback,
thusscrapingthedirtoutofthepipe
- hollow pipe (bailer) withalengthof70cmorless (Fig.40B)andslightly

smaller indiameter thanthedrainpipe (seereport Onderzoek naar de Vervuiling
van plastic drainage en het schoonmaken van plastic drains, 1970).'Thebailer
fillsitselfwithdirtasitispushed into thepipe
- brushes forlooseningand stirringup thedirt,whichwill thenberemoved

by thewater flowinthepipe.
W / W
Fig.39.Cleaningdrainpipes.
iron
rigid plastic hose tumbling flap tumbling
flap
wmmmÊMMm
®
vf7^0^M
© Fig.40. Draincleaningattachments.
A: Iron tumbling flap. B: Hollow pipe
(bailer). C: Jetting nozzle.
Flushingmethods
Withaflushingmachine,water ispumped into thedrain throughahosewith

jettingnozzle (Fig.40C).Thehosewithnozzlemoves through theentiredrain
line.Thedirt isloosenedbythejetactionand iscarried awaywith thewater
fromthehose.Therearevarious typesofnozzles,mostofthemdeliveringwater
jetsboth forwards andbackwards.
Theoperationcanbedoneunderhighorlowpressure
- ahighpressure flushingmachineworkswithapumppressureofapproximately
80to 100atmospheres.Thehosemoves forward into thedrainby thereaction
forceofthebackwardwater jets.Thepump isdrivenbyafarmtractorofabout
62
40HP.Thehose iswound onareel,which canberotated inbothdirectionsby

thetractor
- alowpressure flushingmachineworkswithapumppressureofapproximately
20atmospheres.Thepump isdrivenbyamovablemotor.Thehosehastobemoved
intoandoutofthedrainbyhand.
Bothflushingmachinescantreatdrainlinesofupto350metres.
Clayandsiltdeposits cansatisfactorilyberemovedbyflushing,evenwhenthe
clogging issevere,ahighpressuremachinegiving thebestresults inextreme
cases.
Theremovalofsand isverydifficult.Arecentinvestigationon5cm-plastic
pipes (see Onderzoek naar de vervuiling van plastic drainage en het schoonmaken
van plastic drains. 1970) yielded thefollowingresults
- flushingwillremoveonlyasmallpartof thesand.Furthermore,ina
sandy soilflushingmay createquicksand-conditions around thepipe,resulting
inanimmediateentryoflargeamountsofsand.Thisappliesespecially tohigh-
pressuremachines,whichwould thushaveanadverseeffectinsandysoil
-witharodand tumbling flap,sandcanberemoved,butonlyasmallquantity

(about0.5 litre)atatime.Sotherodhastobemoved intoandoutofadrain
linemany timesbefore thedrainiscleaned
-withahollowpipe (bailer)similarresultswereobtained aswiththe

tumblingflap.Thebailerdoesnotwork satisfactorily ifthesandiseithertoo
wetortoodry.
Removing irondeposits
Irondeposits canberemovedeasilybyanycleaningmethod.Inawetperiod itis

enoughtoloosenthedepositsbymeansofarodwithaplugorbrush.Thedrainage
waterwillthencarryawaytheiron.
Thereisalsoachemicalmethod toremoveiron:bymeansofsulphurdioxydegas
(SO2).Duringawetperiod,thegasisbrought intothedrainlinethroughapipe
attheupstreamend.Aftersome time (about 15to30minutes),thegasappears
attheoutlet.Thedrainpipe isthenclosedbyaplugatbothendsandleftfor
some24hours.Afterthattheplugattheoutletisremoved;theironhasbeen
dissolved and flowsawaywiththedrainagewater.TheS02_methodhasnotbeen
appliedonalarge scalebecause itisaratheronerous tasktofind theupstream
endofthepipedrainandtomake theinlet.
63
LITERATURE
BLAISDELL,F.W.andMANSEN,Ph.W. 1967.Energy lossatpipejunctions.J.ofthe

Irr.andDrainage Div.ASCE.93(IR3):59-78.
BLASHYZ,B. 1965.Methodsofpipedrainagecalculations.In:Proc.Symp.Hydro1.
Techn.ProblemsinLandDrainage.Prague,143-145.
BRINK,N.andNILSSON,S. 1965.DasLeistungsvermögenvonDränrohrenausKunst-
stoff.Z.fürKulturtechnik 6:44-51.
BUSCH,Ch.D. 1958.Lowcost subsurfacedrainage.Agric.Engin.39(0:92-93.
CAVELAARS,J.C. 1966.Hydrological aspectsoftheapplicationofplasticdrain

pipesand filtermaterials.Hydrol.and Techn.ProblemsofLandDrainage.
Contributions tothediscussionofSymp.,Prague7th-12thOct.Czechoslovak
Sei.andTechn.Soc.Agric.andForestrySection.
CAVELAARS,J.C. 1967.Problemsofwaterentry intoplastic andotherdraintubes.

Paperpresented attheAgric.Engin.Symp.,National CollegeofAgric.Engin.
Silsoe,Bedford,England.5/E/46:13pp.
CAVELAARS,J.C. 1971.Het samenstellenvaneendrainreeksuitsectiesmetop-

klimmendediameters.Kon.Ned.HeideMij.Afd.Onderzoek.Arnhem.Mimeo.7pp.
CAVELAARS,J.C. 1971.Verhoudingsgewijzeafvoercapaciteitenvanverschillende
buisdiameters.Kon.Ned.HeideMij.Afd.Onderzoek.3pp.
DEJAGER,A.W.andHAAIJER,B.M. 1963.Transportvanzandenslibindrains.
Tijdschr.Ned.HeideMij,74:151-159.
DIERICKX,W.,VANDERBEKEN,A.andLEYMAN,N. 1970.Technologischonderzoek
vanenkeuringseisenvoorgebakkendraineerbuizen.Min.vanLandbouw.Bestuur
voor landbouwkundig Onderzoek.WerkgroepvoordeStudievandeTechn.der
Waterbeheersingsmaterialen.Med.RijksstationvoorLandbouwtechniek,Merel-
beke-Gent (Belgium).Publ.43/W.B.-6, 151pp.
EDE,A.N. 1957.Continuously formedconcretetubefordrainage.Agric.Engin.

38(12):864-866.
ENGELUND,F. 1957.Thewatertableinequilibriumwithrainfallorirrigation
water.In:LUTHIN,J.N. (ed.)1957.Drainageofagricultural lands.Am.Soc.
ofAgronomy,Madison,USA.
FEICHTINGER,F. 1965.Techniqueofmoledrainage.Hydrologicalandtechnical
problemsoflanddrainage.Proc.ofSymp.Prague7th-12thOctober1965:297-304.
Czechoslovak Sci.&Techn.Soc.Agric.andForestrySection.
64
FORD,H.W. 1965.Bacterialmetabolites thataffectcitrusrootrevival insoils
subject toflooding.Proc.Am.Soc.HorticulturalSei.86:205—212.
FORD,H.W. and BEVILLE,B.C. 1970.Methodsofdraininstallation tocontrol

sediment andchemicaldeposits inFloridawetlands.ASAE.Paperpresented
atAnnualMeeting.Minneapolis,July7-10,8pp.
FORD,H.W. and CALVERT,D.V. 1969.Theformationanddepositionofhydrogen

sulfideonasaw-dustdraintilefilter.Proc.SoilandCrop Sei.Soc.
Florida.29:1-7.
FOUSS,J.L. andDONNAN,W.W. 1962.Plastic-linedmoledrains.Agric.Engin.43(9):

512-515.
GRASS,L.J. 1969.Designofstableopenchannelsusingcritical tractive-force

concept.Trans.ASAE12(5):642-645.
HEESE,K.andHOLJEWILKEN,H. 1962.EinneuesMaulwurfrohrdränverfahren.Dtsch.
Agrartechnik. 2:84-89.
HUDSON,A.W.,HOPENWELL,H.G.,BOWLER,D.G.andCROSS,M.W. 1962.Thedraining
offarmlands.MasseyAgric.College,Univ.ofNewZealand.Palmerston.
2nd.rev.Ed.319-pp.
JUUSELA,T. 1960.Moledrainagewithplastic striplining.4thCongr.onIrr.and

Drainage,Madrid. ICIDCommunications,C387-390.
KUNTZE,H. 1966.StandderErfahrungenimErkennenundVerhütenvonVerockerungen.
Wasser&Boden 18(5):158-163.
ONDERZOEKnaardevervuilingvanplasticdrainageenhetschoonmakenvanplastic
drains. 1970.Unpublished Report.11pp.,withannexes.Cultuurtechnische
Dienst,Prov.ofZeeland (TheNetherlands).
SEGEREN,W.A.andF.C.ZUIDEMA. 1969.Ontwikkelingen indedrainage-techniek.

Cultuurtechn.Verhand.Staatsuitg. 's-Gravenhage,pp.325-353.
THEOBALD,G.H. 1963.Methodsandmachines fortileandother tubedrainage.

Rome.FAOAgric.DevelopmentPaper78.104pp.
TREUDE,0. 1964.ExperimentelleUntersuchungenüberdiehydraulischeLeistungs-
fähigkeitvonEntwässerungsleitungen.Thesis.RheinischeFr.WilhelmsUniv.
Bonn.
WESSELING,J.andHOMMA,F. 1967.Hydraulic resistancesofdrainpipes.Neth.J.

ofAgric.Sei. 15(3):183-197.
65
28. S U R F A C E F I E L D D R A I N A G E S Y S T E M S
S. RAADSMA
Land Drainage Engineer
International Land Development Consultants,
Arnhem
F. E. SCHULZE
Land and Water Management Engineer
F. E. Schulze (1962 - 1968)

International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
J. M. Groot (1969)
International Land Development Consultants, Arnhem
S. Raadsma (1970 - 1973)

PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Adescriptionoftheprincipal techniquesofsurfacedrainageandadiscussion
ofsomemethods forcomputingdesigndischarges.
CONTENTS
28.1 INTRODUCTION 69
28.2 NEEDFORSURFACEDRAINAGE 70
28.3 LANDFORMINGFORSURFACEDRAINAGE 71
28.3.1 Land smoothing 73
28.3.2 Landgrading 73
28.3.3 Methods forcomputingcutsand fills 75
28.4 SURFACEDRAINAGESYSTEMSFORFLATAREAS 78
28.4.1 Bedding system 78
28.4.2 Parallel fielddrainsystem 81
28.4.3 Random system 83
28.4.4 Parallelopenditchsystem 84
28.5 SURFACEDRAINAGE SYSTEMSFORSLOPINGAREAS 85
28.5.1 Cross-slopeditch system (Nicholsterrace) 85
28.5.2 Standard erosioncontrolterrace (Mangumterrace) 86
28.6 WATERDISPOSALANDDIVERSION 88
28.6.1 Waterdisposal inflatareas 88
28.6.2 Waterdisposal insloping areas 89
28.6.3 Diversion 90
28.7 DESIGNDISCHARGECOMPUTATIONS FORSLOPINGAREAS 91
28.7.1 Therationalmethod 92
28.7.2 TheCookmethod 96
28.7.3 Thecurvenumbermethod 99
28.8 DESIGNDISCHARGECOMPUTATIONSFORFLATAREAS 111
28.8.1 TheCypressCreek formula 111
28.8.2 Simplified hydrologieprocedures 116
LITERATURE 119
Surface field drainage
28.1 INTRODUCTION
Surfacedrainageistheevacuationofexcesswateroverthegroundsurface-
sometimes inpart through thetopsoil-toanopendrainage systemwithan
adequateoutlet.
Inflatareas themainproblem isthetimelyremovalofstagnantwater inshallow

topographicdepressions.Inslopingareasitisusually theremovalofexcess
waterwithout causingerosion.
Althoughsurfacedrainageistheoldestdrainagepracticeintheworld,ithas
hardly everbeenstudied systematically,andwas,untilrecently,regarded asa
farmer's cultivationpractice.InEurope,themethodwas firstapplied inthe
16thand 17thcenturywith theconstructionofdead furrowsorgripsinreclaimed
areasandbyploughingarablelandsintobeds.InEngland,wherethebedding
systemwasverypopular,machineswereconstructed tomeettheprevailingbed
width.During thelastdecades,surfacedrainagefoundwidespread applicationin
themid-westernpartoftheUSA,where itcametofulldevelopment and isstill
beingapplied onalargescale.
Theolddrainagepractices,however,oftenhamperedmechanized farming.Thismay,
inpart,explain theincreased interest thatresearchworkersoflateareshowing
inefficient surfacedrainagemethods.Another stimulushasbeenprovided bythe
development of land forming forthepurposeofirrigationanderosioncontrol,
atechnique thathascontributed considerably tothesolutionofsurfacedrainage
problems.Inspiteof this,however,surfacedrainagepracticesarestilllargely
based onthefield experienceofpractisingengineers.
Thischapterdealsbasicallywithtwoaspectsof surfacedrainage:drainagetech-
niques (Sects.3to6)andmethodsofdesigndischargecomputation (Sects.7and8).
Thesecomputationmethodsgobeyondwhat isstrictlyneeded forthedesignof
surfacefielddrainage systems,andextendtocovermethods thatareused inthe
designofmaindrainagesystemsinareaswheremostof theexcesswateroriginates
fromdirect (surface)runoffcaused byexcessrainfall.Asthesemethodsare
closelyrelated tomethodsused inthedesignofothermaindrainage systems,it
wouldhavebeen logical tohave treated themtogether.Assuch,Sects.7and8
mightberegarded asanintroduction toChapter 29:MainDrainageSystems.
69
28.2 NEEDFORSURFACEDRAINAGE
Theneed forsurfacedrainage istheresultofacombinationofcertainclimatic,

hydrologie,and soilconditions,andoftopography and landuse.Excessprecipi-
tation,surfacerunoff fromupland areas,andoverflowfromriversmayresultin
theponding ofwaterontheland.Thisisespecially soifthesoilshavealow
infiltrationrateorapoor internaldrainage.Inconsidering therelation
betweenprecipitation,soilconditions,andsurfacerunoff,twoconceptsare
recognized
- the threshold conoevt, i.e.therateofrainfalldoesnotexceed thebasic

infiltrationrate.Thesoilwillabsorbwatertillitissaturated.Onlythen
willwaterstart toflowover theground surface
- the infiltration oonoevt, i.e.therateofrainfallexceedstheinfiltration

rateand stagnantwateroccursatthesurfacebeforethesoilissaturated.
Theneed forsurfacedrainagecanbeillustratedbythefollowing examples
- IntheRuziziValley (CentralAfrica)aheavymontmorillonitic soil,almost

impermeablewhenwet (hydraulic conductivity lessthan 1cm/24hours)andwitha
thicknessofseveralmetres,overliesasandier subsoil.Thegroundwater table
isatadepthof 10to20mbelowtheground surfaceand staysthereevenduring
prolonged inundations inthewetseason.
-Asimilar typeofsoil (veryheavy,low-lyingbasinclay soil)isfoundin

theDeltaoftheMississippiriver,whereitissubjecttorainfallofahighin-
tensity (about 225mm in24hoursonceintenyears).Theretootheneed forsur-
facedrainage isevident,butoftenasub-surfacedrainage systemisrequired
(ifeffective)tocontrol thehighgroundwatertable.
- Intensiverainfall (about 175mmin24hoursonceintenyears)createsa

need forsurfacedrainageonthepermeablesandy soilsalong thesouth-eastern
coastoftheUnited States.Withthegroundwater tableatanaveragedepthof
aboutonemetrebelowsurface,astoragecapacityofsome75mmisavailable,
which isquicklyfilled.Asub-surfacedrainagesystemonlyisnot sufficientto
dealwiththelargevolumeofwatertobedischarged inashorttime.
-Largeareasinthemid-westernpartoftheUnitedStates (witharainfall
ofaround 100mm in24hoursonceintenyears)alsorequirebothasurfaceanda
sub-surfacedrainage system.Theretheneed forsurfacedrainage iscausedbythe
presenceofapoorlypervious layer (claypanorrockybarrier)inthesubsoil.
70
Theexistenceofsuchalayermaybetheresultof structuraldeclinecausedby
thefrequentuseofheavy farmequipment orbyalternating freezing andthawing
inwinter.
Intropical and sub-tropical regionswhererainfallofahighintensity iscommon,

surfacedrainagewillbeanecessity,especially onheavier soils.Ingeneral,
wecansay thatsoilsneed surfacedrainagewhen (COOTEandZWERMAN,1969)
-water stands intracksand lowplaces formore thanafewdaysafterheavy

rain
- thecolourofthesubsoil starting from20to40cmdownismarkedbygray
orbluewithmottlingsofbrownandyellow
-ahardpanortightlayerexists intheupper subsoil
- thesubsoilwithinadepthof 100cmissurprisingly dryevenafteran
extended rainyperiod
-rushes,weeds,andotherhighmoistureplantsgradually takeoverolddead
furrows andotherminordepressions.
28.3 LANDFORMINGFORSURFACEDRAINAGE
Theconstructionofasurfacedrainage system,inthesenseofasystemofchan-
nelstoconvey surfacewater,isusuallynotsufficient toguarantee thetimely
removalofexcesssurfacewater.Water islikely toremainstagnantonthelandin
pocketsorshallowdepressions.Therefore,inadditiontotheconstructionofchan-
nels,themicro-topography ofthelandnearlyalwayshastobechanged.Thisope-
rationisreferred toaslandforming.Itnotonlypromotes theorderlymovement
ofwaterover theground surfacebutcontributes toanefficientuseoffarmma-
chines.Indrainage,land forming isarelativelynewpractice,comparedwithits
applicationinirrigationanderosioncontrol.
Inplanning land forming operations,oneshould takeintoaccount thetimeover

whichexcesswaterhas toberemoved fromthesoilsurface,thespecificculti-
vationneedsofvariouscropsandcroprotations,andtheuseofmechanized farm-
ingequipment.Furthermore,allowance shouldbemadeforsoilstructureandna-
tural soil fertility andforexisting requirementsofirrigationandoferosion
control.Besides thetechnical feasiblity oftheoperation,itseconomicjustifi-
cationisanimportantconsideration.
Inland forming twoprocessesarerecognized:land smoothing and landgrading,the

latterrequiringmoreearthmoving thantheformer.Forconditions intheUSA,
COOTEandZWERMAN (1969)presented atable (seeTable 1)foruseasaguidein
choosing appropriateoperations onthebasisofthesoil'shydraulic conductivity,
thetopography ofthearea,and thecropsgrown.
71
3 ^ 0
W O ^ "XS
oc G ^ 1 \
G O 03 <M E
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U 6-S V-i
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co eva £
O -H T3 - H
3 Q Ö
U) O c oj a a>
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*-)
« E
u •r-i
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o
rt «
T - i 6-5
»4-1 CN en
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11) § S;
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<o
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72
28.3.1 LANDSMOOTHING
Land smoothingmeans theplaningoftheland surfacewithout changing itsgeneral

topography.The smoothing operationeliminates smalldifferences inelevationand
ensuresacontinual slopefromallpoints inthefield toasurface fielddrain.
Land smoothing onirregular topography improves surfacedrainageandallowsef-
ficientmechanization. Itisalsothefinishingoperationforlandgradingand
allother land formingpractices tocorrectminor surface irregularities.For
properland smoothing thesoilhastobedryandcrumbling.Theoperationcanbest
beperformed onceayearaftercompletionofothertillageoperations forseedbed
preparation.
Land smoothing isthecheapest andyetoneofthemostproductive surfacedrainage

practices.Thework canbedonewithanold typeofwoodendragbehind afarm
tractor aswellaswithmore sophisticated equipment likeland levellersandland
planes.
28.3.2 LANDGRADING
Land grading forsurfacedrainageconsistsofforming thelandscapebycutting,

filling,and smoothing toplanned continuous surfacegrades.Landgrading isa
one-timeoperation,carried outbysuchmachinesasbulldozers and scrapers,and
involving thetransport ofearthaccording tospecified cutsandfillsbasedon
thepredetermined grades.Thechoiceofmachinery dependsonhaulingdistances,
depthofcut,and soilconditions.Land grading forsurfacedrainagediffersfrom
land levelling for irrigation inthat,fordrainage,nouniformgradeisrequired.
Thegradescanbevaried,especially therowgrades,asmuchasisnecessaryto
providedrainagewith theleastamountofgrading.Thegradeinthedirectionof
thedrainsmustbecontinuouswithaminimumof0.05%,preferably 0.1%,andamax-
imumof0.5%.
Themaximumpermissible rowlength isdetermined by thegrade,the.permeability

ofthesoil,and theerosionhazards.Forconditions intheUSA,Table2(after
COOTEandZWERMAN,1969)givessomerecommended gradesandrowlengths.Disregard-
ingdifferences insoil,flatterslopesaregenerallydrained inshorterlengths.
Inareaswith littleornoslope,gradescanbeestablished orincreased bycreat-
ingauniform gradebetween theparalleldrainsorbycreatinganartificial ridge
midwaybetween theparalleldrains (Fig.I).
73
TABLE 2. Row grades and row lengths for land grading insurface drainage
(after COOTE and ZWKRMAN, 1969)
Soil type Grade Row length

(m)
Humid regions Coarse-textured soil (sandy) 0.1-0.3 300

Fine-textured soil (clayey) 0.1-0,3 120
Minnesota Fine-textured soil (clayey) 0.1-0.5 200 (flat)
(Eed River Valley) with high organic matter 400 (gently
sloping)
Iowa Medium-textured soil (loamy) 0.05-0.25 300
(river bottom lands) Fine-textured soil (clayey) 0.05-0.25 200
Indiana Medium-textured soil
(silty loam)with impervious
hardpan at depth
Medium-textured soil 0.2 (min) 60
(silty loam)with shallow
impervious clay Bhorizon
Virginia Moderately coarse-textured 0.15 (min)200
soils (sandy loam)with
structured clay Bat depth
©
__nd<35 _fl.
Fig.]. Methodsofgrading land surfaces fordrainage.Typicalcrosssections

ofground surface thathas littleornogeneral slopeand iscoveredwithmany
smalldepressions andpockets (NationalEngineeringHandbook, 1971).
A: Smooth OP grade area between field drains by filling depressions and removing
barriers. B: Establish a continuous grade by cutting on the lower end and fil-
ling on the upper end. C: Establish a continuous grade to a developed ridge
midway between field drains by cutting from drains and filling toward center of
land between drains.
74
The removal of topsoil by grading causes a reduction in crop yields because the
subsoil will contain fewer nutrients than the topsoil. Fertilizer and manure have
to be applied to newly graded land. A method of retaining topsoil is to deep
plough the cut areas before, and the filled areas after, grading.
In land grading, the soil will become compacted. Compaction is less when the soil
is dry and crumbling and also when the hauling distances are short. Compacted soil
can be loosened by ripping the area with appropriate implements.
After grading, soil will settle in the filled areas and expand, after being
ploughed, in cut areas. To take this into account, calculations for cuts and fills
must be adjusted prior to grading. Table 3 shows some recommended cut/fill ratios.
TABLE 3. Cut-fill ratios forvarious soils (afterCOOTE and ZWERMAN,1969)
Soils Cut-fill ratios
Fine-textured soils (clayey) 1.3:1 to 1.4:1 or 130 to 140%

Coarse-textured soils (sandy) 1.1:1 to 1.2:1 or 110 to 120%
Medium-textured soils (clay-loam) 1.2:1 to 1.3:1 or 120 to 130%
Organic soils 1.7:1 to 2.0:1 or 170 to 200%
28.3.3 METHODS FOR COMPUTING CUTS AND FILLS
A land grading design comprises estimating from a topographic and soil survey
the best slope of the field, taking into account plans for the irrigation and
drainage systems and the field roads. The area should be cleared of vegetation
and the surface prepared for the operation.
Land grading is an intensive practice and much expense can be saved by carefully
dividing the area into sub-areas that have about the same slope and soil condi-
tions. This will require a topographic survey, preferably a grid survey because
it permits staking the field according to the grid and marking the cuts and fills
on the stakes. The size of the grids is not critical,but for drainage 9 grid
points/ha and for irrigation 16 grid points/ha is usual. Calculations will be
simpler when the first line of grid points in each direction is started at half
the grid size from the boundary. The origin of the grid system is thus situated
half a grid size outside two boundaries of the area, and each grid point becomes
the centre of a square.
Of the several methods of computing the cuts and fills, the plane method and
the profile method will be discussed here.
75
The plane method
Theplanemethod,issocalledbecause theresulting land surfacehasauniform

downfield slopeandauniformcross slope.Theplanemethod,alsocalledthe
method of least squares, makes itpossible tocomputeirregular aswellasregular
fieldswithbalancecutand fillnear aminimum.
Theprocedure isasfollows
-Complete thedesignandconstructionsurvey
-Determine theinitialelevationateachgridpoint (E.)
- Subdivide theareainto sub-areas,eachofwhichcanbelevelled toa

planesurface
-Locatethecentroid ofthesub-area (X,Y)

c c
Togiveequalcutand fill,theplanemustpassthrough thecentroid.The
centroid ofarectangular field islocated attheintersectionofitsdiagonals.
Thecentroid ofatriangular field islocatedattheintersectionoflinesdrawn
from itscorners tothemidpoints oftheoppositesides.
Thecentroid coordinatesofanirregular field aregivenby thefollowing
equations
ïmX Im Y
X = — 2 - and Y =—2- (1)
e n e n
where
X ,Y = coordinatesofthecentroid of thesub-area
c c
X,Y = coordinatesofthegrid lines
m = numberofgridpointsongrid lineinXdirection
m = numberofgridpointsongrid lineinYdirection
n = totalnumberofgridpoints (Im =Im =n)

x y
- Compute theaverageelevationofthesub-areaatthecentroid
IE.
E =-i (2)
c n
where
E =averageelevationofthesub-areaatthecentroid
c
E.=initialelevationofgridpoint
n =totalnumberofgridpoints
76
With thedesired S andS slopes,inXandYdirectionrespectively,andthe
x y
averageelevationE (mostlyE has tobelowered 1or2centimetres tosatisfy
thedesired cut/fillratio),thenewelevationsofthegridpoints cannowbe
calculated.Thenewplanepasses through thecentroid and thereforetheelevation
oftheorigin,E ,willbe
E = E - S X - S Y (3)
o c xc yc
The new e l e v a t i o n s of the grid points w i l l be
E = E + S X + S Y (4)
n o x y
-Using themethod ofleastsquaresweavoidunnecessary earthmovingand
find thebestfittingplane toanyarea.Ifitisobvious fromthetopography
that thebestfitting slopeisoutside thelimits,imposed forinstancebyero-
sionhazards,weomitthenextcomputation.Fornon-rectangular fieldsthebest
fitting slopeS andS canbefoundfrom
x y
S E(XY) - n X Y = EX E. - n XE (5)
y [_ c cj l cc
S (EY2 - nY2 ) + S X E(XY) - n XY = ï ï E. - n ï E (6)

y c L ccj ï ce
where
EX = sumofthesquareabscisofeachgridpoint
2
EY = sumofthesquareordinateofeachgridpoint
E(XY)= sumof theproductsofthecoordinatesofeachgridpoint
EXE. = sumoftheproductsofabscisandelevationofeachgridpoint
EYE. = sumoftheproductsofordinateandelevationofeachgridpoint
n = totalnumberofgridpoints
Forrectangular areasthetermE(XY-nXY )becomeszero.
-Compute theearthworkvolume.
Knowing theinitialandnewelevation,thecutand fill ineachgrid square
canbedetermined and thetotalvolumeofsoiltobemoved canbecomputedac-
cordingly
y. lC xA
(7)
(,J
100
77
where
V =volumeofsoil tobemoved (m)
IC =sumofallcuts (cm) (C=E.-E >0)
l n
A =areaofgrid square (mz)
The profile method
Theprofilemethod isparticularly appropriate forlandgrading oncomparatively

flat lands.Itisnot soaccurateastheplanemethod,butforsurfacedrainage
itshouldbeadequate.Thenewgradeofthefieldwillnotbeuniform,butwill
becontinuous tothefielddrains.Withthismethod,ground profilesareplotted
andagradeisestablishedwhichwillprovideanapproximatebalancebetween
cutsand fillsandwillrestricthauldistances toreasonablelimits.
Theprocedureisasfollows (seealsoFig.2)
-Complete thedesignandconstructionsurvey
-Plot theelevationsof thegridpointsoneachgrid line inthedirection
of thegreatest slopeorthedirection inwhich rowdrainage isdesired
-Drawaprofile forexisting land surfacealong thegrid line
-Drawanewprofile inforeachgrid linebytrialanderror,knowingthe
allowable slope limitsand thedesired cut/fillratio
-Plotthecrossprofiles tocheckwhether theyexceed thelimits
-Compute theearthworkvolume.
28.4 SURFACEDRAINAGESYSTEMSFORFLATAREAS
The surfacedrainage systemsapplied inflatareas (maximum slope2%)differfrom

those insloping areas.Inflatareasthelackofsufficient slopeisalimitation
while insteepareas themain limitationistheriskoferosion.
Inthefollowing sections fourdrainage systemsforflat landswillbediscussed:

thebedding system,theparallel field drainsystem,therandomdrainsystem,and
theparallel openditchsystem.
28.4.1 BEDDINGSYSTEM
Inoneof theoldest surfacedrainagepracticesmostlyused onflatpoorlydrained

soilswith lowpermeability,theland isploughed inthecourseofanumberof
yearsintobeds,separated bydead furrowswhich runinthedirectionof thepre-
vailing slope (Fig.3).Except forploughing,whichmust alwaysbedoneparallel
tothefurrows,allfarming operations canbedoneeither across thebedsorpa-
©
10.10, 1030 1020, 10.40, 1010J

+ +
I Q 15C 0 IOC X>
-05C 1
10.00, 1025 99 5 , 10.10, 10.10, I

I "*i5C 40C 05C "IOC 20C
.20C
9.60, 9 9 0 , 9 . 9 0 , 10.00, 9.9C

1 + T5C ~*20C .20C ^.2QC "'ÎOC
20C
9.50 9.40 9.50 9.60, 9.50

+
I T6G 10F "Ô 0 " 1
.15C
5 cuts 4 , 6 0 - 7 5 . . 3 0 - .40 - 3 5 - - 2 2 & 2.40

2 f , l l s . 4 . 3 0 - 6 5 * .10 - .30 > . 2 0 - 1 6 5 - 1-55
Fig.2, Theprofilemethod (afterCOOTEandZWERMAN, 1969). A: topogravhical

survey sheet. B: profiles in row direction. C: cross-slope profiles.
100
to
300
surface field drain
100
to
300
field
road:
AT 1A
CROSS-SECTION A - A
1 % .
20 to 40 c m .
8 to 30m
deadfurrow deadfurrow
Fig.3. The bedding system.

79
rallel tothefurrows.Beddinghasprovedpracticable onlandwithaslopeupto
1.5%.Thebedwidthdependsonthelanduse,theslopeofthefield and thatof
thedead furrow,thesoilpermeability,thefarmingoperations,and thewidthof
thefarmmachinery.Therecommended bedwidthforlandwitha
very slowinternaldrainage (K=0.5 cm/day)is8to 12m

slowinternaldrainage (K=5to10cm/day)is15to 17m
fair internaldrainage (K= 10to20cm/day)is20to30m.
Thelengthofthebedsvaries inpracticefrom 100to300m.Thebedheight(i.e.

thedifference inheightbetweenthebottomofthefurrowand thetopofthebed)
is40cmatthemostonlandused forpasturesand20cmonarablelands.Thisbed
height canbeobtained eitherbyrepeated ploughing,with theinitialfurrows
placed inthesamelocationeachtime,orbyusingearthmovingmachinery.
Water fromthedead furrowsdischarges intoafield drain,constructed atthe

lower endofthefieldandnormal tothedead furrows (Fig.3).Thefielddrains,
inturn,discharge intofield laterals,whichconvey thewater tothemaindrains.
Thefield drainsareshallow (averagedepth25cm),haveflatsideslopes (6:1to
10:1),andagradeofatleast0.1%.
Disadvantages ofthebedding systemare
- theslopeof thefurrows isnotalwayssufficient,especiallywhenmade

withaploughonly
- thetop soilisremoved fromthesideofthebedstothemiddle,which
maycauseareduction incropyieldsnear thefurrows
- thefurrowsrequireregularmaintenance,also topreventweed problems
- thesystemhampersmechanized farming.
Thebedding systemdoesnotprovideasatisfactory solutionforsurfacedrainage

whencropsaregrown inrowsparallel tothedead furrows.Thecropridgesprevent
overland flowtothefurrows,and consequently therowshavetodrainintoafield
drainorrowdrainshavetobemadeandmaintained.Therefore,thebedding
system isonlyrecommended forpasture orhayoranycropwhichallowsthe
surfaceofthebeds tobesmoothed.Eveninextremely flatareas,theparallel
field drainsystem isnowadayspreferred.
80
28.4.2 PARALLEL FIELD DRAIN SYSTEM
The parallel field drain system (Fig.4) is themost effective method of surface
drainage. It is particularly appropriate in flat poorly drained areas with many
irregularities. The success of the system depends on proper land forming to assure
a proper slope of the rows (small channels between ridges onwhich crops are
grown). These rows discharge their water into parallel field drains constructed
at convenient places in the field. Such field drains consist of shallow graded
channels with side slopes flat enough to allow farm machinery to cross. Field
drain dimensions are conditioned more by requirements of installation and main-
tenance than by those of hydraulic design. They will usually have side slopes of
8:1 to 10:1,aminimum depth of 25 cm, aminimum cross-sectional area of 0.5 m ,
and a grade varying from 0.1 to 0.3%. Table 4 gives some recommended field drain
dimensions.
TABLE4. Recommended field draindimensions
Typeof Bottom
Depth (m) Sideslope Utility
drain width (m)
V-shaped 0.15to 0.30 10:1 orflatter crossableand

easilymovable
Trapezoidal 0.25 to 0.50 2.50 8:1 orflatter crossableand
easilymowable
| surface
/ field drain
r"H" Jj--|i-~Jj
turn 11
strip I
500 to
2000
general
slope
|| c directie
-field -
^lateral "
field secondary
road CROSS-SECTION A-A
canal o g %
100m I 100m
200'm
Fig.4. The parallel field drain system.
Adistinction ismadebetween singlefielddrains (V-drains),trapezoidalfield
drains,anddoublefielddrains (W-drains).W-drainsconsistoftwoV-drains,
parallelandclose together,thespoil inbetweenthedrainsoftenbeingusedas
afield road.Double fielddrainsaremadewhenthespoilcannotbedisposedof
withoutblockingdrainageandareappliedmainlyonflat landwithfewirregula-
rities.Figure5showsacross-sectionofaV-shaped fielddrain.
Fig.5. Cross-section ofaV-shaped fielddrain.
Thedrainspacingdependsonthehydraulic conductivity ofthesoil,thecropsto

begrown,thetopography,and thegradeofthelandaftergrading.Itvariesin
practice from 100to200monrelatively flat land (slopeslessthan0.5%)which,
aftergrading,slopes inonedirection.Thecroprows leaddirectly intothe
fielddrainsand shouldhaveaslopeof0.1to0.2%.Ifthesoilisnotsusceptible
toerosion,theslopeoftherowsmaybeashighas0.5%.Theland shouldbe
ploughedparallel tothefielddrains,andallotherfarmingoperationsdoneper-
pendicular tothefield drains.Thesystem isthemostexpensiveofallsystems
butprovidesgooddrainageforeachpartofthefieldanddoesnothampermecha-
nized farming operations.Forturning farmmachinery,aturnstripislocated
within thefield awayfrom thedownslope fieldboundary.Theturnstripisa
usefulplacetospread spoilobtained from thedrains inperiodicclearing ope-
rations.
Aspecialadaptationofthesystem is land crowning onvery flat land,whereearth
ismoved tomake lowridgesorcrowns,withfielddrainsabout30to 100mapart.
Here,theland isgivenanartificial slope,whichprovidesexcellent drainagebut
involves considerable earthmoving andmanydrains tomaintain.
Thewater from thesurfacefield drains iscollected infield laterals,whichcan

beregarded aspartof thefarm'smaindrainage system.Thedesigncross-sections
offield laterals shouldmeet thecombined requirements ofcapacities,erosion
control,depths,sideslopes,maintenance and,ifneeded,allowance forsedimen-
tation (seeChap.29,Vol.IV).Table5givesrecommended field lateral sideslopes
incombinationwith theirdepth.Twotypesofcross-sectionscanbedistinguished:
the V-type and the trapezoidal type. Figure6givesacross-sectionofatrape-
zoidalfieldlateral.
82
Recommended field lateral dimensions
Type of Depth Recommended Minimum

drain (m) side slope side slope
V-shaped 0.3 to 0.6 6 1 3 : 1

V-shaped > 0.6 4 1 3 : 1
Trapezoidal 0 . 3 t o 1.0 4 1 2 : 1
Trapezoidal > 1.0 1.5 1 1:1
0.3m
•-, il _\!V o r a s r equired
bermwidth \ o
min 1.5m \v.
a 5
Ii re
Q<-
j
ired i
*i
Fig.6. Cross-section ofatrapezoidal fieldlateral.
28.4.3 RANDOMSYSTEM
Therandomdrainsystem ismostwidelyusedwhere smallscattered depressions
occurover thearea.Wherethesedepressions aretoolarge,economically speaking,
tobefilledby land formingpractices,theycanbedrainedwith randomdrainsor
ditches (Fig.7).Wherepossible,thedrainsconnectonedepression toanotherin
conveying thewater toasuitableoutlet.Thedepthofthedrainsdependsonthe
topography oftheareaandonthedesigndischargeand shouldbeatleast25cm.
The side slopes shouldbe8:1 or 10:1 iftheyaretobecrossedbymachines.If
farming operations arecarried outparallel tothedrains,sideslopesof4:1are
allowed.Thespoilfromthedrainscanbeused tofillsmalldepressionsnot
connected tothesystem.
Fig.7. Therandomdrainsystem.
Theapplicationoftherandomdrainsystemislimitedby thenumberofdepressions
tobeconnected astoomanydrainshampermechanized farming and increasethe
amountandcostofmaintenancework.Randomdrainsaresometimesused together
with thebedding systemwhentheland isflatand thesoilhasavery lowperme-
ability.Where thepermeability allows it,thesystem issometimesused incon-
junctionwithasub-surfacedrainagesystem.
28.4.4 PARALLELOPENDITCHSYSTEM
Theparallelopenditchsystem (Fig.8)isapplicable insoilsthatrequireboth

surfaceand subsurfacedrainage.Itissimilar totheparallel fielddrainsystem,
except thatnowthefielddrainsarereplaced byopenditches.Theseditchesare
at least 60cmto 1mdeep,and aregivensteepsideslopes,lessthan4:1,
usually 1:1 or 1.5:1,dependingonsoilconditions.Themaximumspacingapplied
varies inpracticebetween60and 200m.Astheseditches cannotbecrossedby
farmmachinery,allfarmingoperationsmustbedoneparallel totheditches.
Dischargeofexcesssurfacewater fromtherows ismadepossiblebyrowdrains.
Themethod isoftenapplied inpeat andmuck soils.Inmineral soilsitwillbe
moreconvenient toapply theparallel field drainsystemforsurfacedrainageand
a tubedrainage systemfor subsurfacedrainage.
^....{ i .it.. «... iL,..^^^-.Â^sÂ-,:.-,a«,«a*.»i
general
slope
200 to
500m
open
ditch
turn
strip
..$ >?..^«fe^.«S;out'et . . ! t e i k . ^ t e j « w S
"^TditcFP^
secondaryr
canal
AT CROSS-SECTION A-A "V

6 0 - 200
Fig.8. Theparallelopenditchsystem.
84
28.5 SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS FOR SLOPING AREAS
Surface drainage methods applied in sloping areas (slopes exceeding 2%) are closely
related to problems of erosion control. The methods comprise the creation of sui-
table conditions to regulate or intercept the overland flow before it becomes ha-
zardous as an erosion force. This usually means some form of terracing.
Drainage and erosion control are not the only reasons why sloping lands are ter-
raced. Sometimes the objective iswater conservation. If so,bench type terraces
or step type terraces are constructed (Fig.9). The original slope of the land is
altered to form anumber of vertical steps. Such terraces are given a level sur-
face and the terrace channels have no slope. The rice sawahs in Asia are examples
of step type terraces (for drainage of rice fields, see Chapter 35, Vol.IV).
The terraces applied for drainage and erosion control are basically of two types:
the cross-slope ditch system (Fig.10)and the standard erosion control terrace
(Fig.11).
original land slope

-7.5 m— '
s l o p e 25°/o
^
7 ^t
level orreversed -^. o
•rsed
slope I --^
horizontalreferencelevel Fig.9. Cross-section of bench terrace.
28.5.1 CROSS-SLOPE DITCH SYSTEM
The cross-slope ditch system is a channel type graded terrace also called Nichols
terrace and is used on lands with a slope up to 4%,where flat land systems would
be impracticable in view of erosion hazards. Cross-slope ditches can also be used
with success on lands that slope as little as 0.50 to 0.75%. The system is effec-
tive on soils with poor internal drainage and where the overall slopes are rather
long and regular but where many minor depressions occur.
The ditches should run approximately parallel to the contours of the land with
a uniform or variable grade of between 0.1 and 1% (or amean of 0.5%), depending
on the topography. The use of a variable grade often permits a better alignment
of the terrace and a better fit of the terrace to the field. The soil surface
between the ditches must be smoothed and all farming operations should be done
parallel to the ditches. Spoil from the ditches can be used to fill up minor
depressions or can be spread out to form a low layer of not more than 7 cm on the
downslope side of the ditch (Fig.10).
85
excess material
original surface (max 7cm high)
horiz'ontal ^T
reference level ^ ^ depth min 2 5 c m
original surface
-V
reference level M.5m-J-Jx depth

^ o n min 15 c
Fig.10.Cross-sections ofcross-slopeditches.
Cross-slopeditchescanhaveeitheratriangular oratrapezoidal shape,with

sideslopesranging from 1:4 to 1:10.Their cross-sectional areacanvary from 0.4
to0.7m 2 .Depthswillbebetween 15and 25cmand thetopwidthfrom5to7m.
Themaximumlengthofaditchdraining toonesideonly isabout350to450m.
Thedistancebetween theditchesdependsontheslope,therainfall intensity,

theerodibility ofthesoil,andonthecrops thatwillbegrown.Itvariesbe-
tween30monlandswitha4%slopeand45monlandswith0.5%slope.
With thecross-slopeditch system,between80and 100%ofthewatercontained in

theditchisbelow theoriginal landsurface,whichreduces theharmfuleffects
ofapossiblebreak inthedownslopebank.
28.5.2 STANDARDEROSIONCONTROLTERRACE
Thestandard erosioncontrol terrace isaridgetypegraded terracealsocalled

Mangum terrace and isused onlands that slopeasmuch as 10%(Fig.11).
Thedifferencebetween thecross-slopeditchand theerosioncontrol terraceis

thatwith thelatter thespoilfromthechannels isused tobuilduparelatively
highridgeonthedownslope side.Insuchchannelsonly 50%ofthewater iscon-
tainedbelowtheoriginalland surface.Greater storageswould requiregreater
amounts ofearthmoving andwould increase theriskoftheridgesrupturing.
Like thecross-slopeditches,thechannelsoftheerosioncontrolterracesshould
runapproximately parallel tothecontoursofthelandwithauniformorvariable
gradeofbetween0.1 and0.6% (orameanof 0.3%),dependingonthetopography.
Natural impedimentsand sharpcurves shouldbeavoided.Ifthereisasudden
break intheslopeoftheland,achannel shouldbe located directly aboveit.
86
30 m
land slope 6 °/o fill
horizontal reference level
original surface
ridge
Fig.11. Cross-sectionofstandard erosion

horizontal reference level
controlterrace.
Thedistancebetween thechannels isgoverned bythesamefactorsasthecross-

slopeditch:slope,rainfall intensity,soilerodibility,and thecropstobe
grown.Thefollowing empirical formulahasbeendeveloped foruseintheUSA
VI=aS+b (8)
where
VI=vertical intervalbetweencorresponding pointsonconsecutive

terraces (ft)
S =average slopeoftheland (%)
a =empirical constant,whichvariesfrom0.3 to0.6
b =empirical constant (b= 1forerodible soilandpoorcoverand
b=2forresistant soilandgoodcover)
Thelengthoftheterraces,and thusofthechannels,willusuallydepend onthe

locationofasuitabledisposalditch.Terraces shouldnotbesoshortthatthey
impedefarming operations,norsolong thatthechannelswouldrequire toogreat
acut.Themaximum lengthofaterracechanneldraining toonesideonly isabout
350or450m.
With thelengthandthelocationoftheterracesknown,theareabetweentwo
channelscanbecalculated.Ifthedrainagecoefficient isalsoknown (seenext
Sections)thedischargecanbecalculated.Manning's flowformulacanthenbeused
tocalculatethecross-sectional areaofthechannel
1„2/3 1/2
v=—R s (9)
87
where
v=flowvelocityofthewaterattheoutlet (m/sec)
1/3
n=roughness coefficient (asanaverage,n=0.04) (sec/m )
R=hydraulic radius (m)
s=slopeofthechannel (dimensionless)
Theflowvelocity attheoutlet shouldnotexceed acertaincriticalvalue.Ava-

lueoftenused is0.60m/sec,althoughonsandy soils0.45m/sec isapplicable
and0.30m/sec onpuresands.
Thedepthofthechannelswilldependonthelengthoftheterraceand theslope
oftheland.Onlandsthat slope2%,depthswillvaryfrom25cmfor terraces60m
long,to35cmforterraces300m long.Iftheland slopes 10%,channeldepths
willvary from20cmfor60m terraces to30cmfor300m terraces.Sideslopes
canrangefrom 1:10onlandwith a2%slope to 1:4onlandwitha 10%slope.
Channels canbeeither triangular ortrapezoidal and theircross-sectional area
canvarybetween0.35 and0.90m 2 .Afreeboard ofabout 10cmshouldbemaintained
inthechannels.
Whenthedischarge isknownand thesideslopesandcritical flowvelocityhave

beenchosen,themost suitablecombinationofwaterdepth,bottomwidth,and
channel gradient canbefound.The locationofthetop terraceisveryimportant.
If thetop terracefails,itoftencauses thefailureofthelowerterraces.The
watershed areaabove thetopterrace shouldnotexceed 1to 1jha.
28.6 WATERDISPOSALANDDIVERSION
28.6.1 WATERDISPOSAL INFLATAREAS
Runoff fromarow,arowdrain,oraplanefield shouldneverbeallowed toflow

straight intoafield lateralasthiswould causethesideslopesofthelateral
toerode.Runoffmustbecollected inafielddrainwithflatsideslopesand
conveyed from there tothemaindrainage system.
Itwillprobablybenecessary toinstall somekind ofdrop structure atthepoint

ofconnectionbetween thecollector drainand thefield lateral toprevent thebed
ofthelateralfrom scouring.Toeconomizeonthenumber ofdrop structures,it
issometimespossible tocollect thewater fromseveral fielddrains intoasome-
whatdeepercollector and todischarge thewater throughonesingledrop
structure.
Problemsmaybeencounteredwith thedisposalofwater inareaswithscattered

depressions.Itmayhappen thatthedepressions aresolarge thatdrainingthem
with therandomditch systemwould requiretoogreatacut.Theproblemcansome-
timesbesolvedbyproviding asurface inlettoatubedrainatthelowestpoint
of thedepression.Anotherpossible solutionistoreplace theditchentirelyor
partlybyatubedrainwhichwill convey thewater toanotherdepression,afield
ditch,orasuitableoutlet.Ifthegroundwater levelisatgreatdepthandthe
subsoil sufficientlypervious,averticaldrainorinvertedwellmaybefeasible.
Ifnoneofthesemethods isapplicable,thewaterwillhavetobecollected ina
vertical sumpatthebottomofthedepressionand thenpumpedout.
28.6.2 WATERDISPOSAL INSLOPINGAREAS

Insloping areas,where thefielddrainsrunapproximately parallel tothecon-
tours,thewatermustbedisposed ofbyadrainagechannelwhich runsdownslope.
Theslopeisusually sosteep thatsuchchannelswillhavetobelinedorfitted
withoverflowsordrop structures topreventscouring.
Incertaincircumstances,vegetatedwaterways canbeused toadvantage.Thevege-
tational cover reduces theflowvelocity ofthewaterwhileatthesametimeal-
lowingacomparatively highvelocity.Permanent,dense,sod-forming grassesare
themost suitablevegetationfor suchchannelsbut thechoice,ofcourse,will
depend onclimate,soil,andavailablespecies.
Allowablevelocities inerosionresistant soilcovered bydensegrassvegetation

are2m/sec forslopesof0to5%and 1.75m/secforslopesof5to 10%.In
easily erodible soils,theallowablevelocities indensely grassed channelsare
1.50m/secwith slopesof0to5%and 1.25m/secwith slopesof5to10%.
Vegetationother thangrasses canbeused onslopesofupto5%and theallowable
velocities arethen 1m/seconerosionresistant soiland0.50m/seconeasily
erodible soil.
Inthedesignofvegetatedwaterways,theroughness coefficient istakenasn=0.04,
avaluecorrespondingwith thatforfreshlycutgrasses.Where themaximumrunoff
occurs inperiodswhen thevegetationhasahigherretarding capacity thanfreshly
cutgrass,oneshouldadd some 10to 15cmtothecalculated designdepthto
ensure thatnoovertoppingoccurs.
Thewaterway canbeparabolic,triangular,ortrapezoidal.Side slopesshouldnot
besteeper than1:4toallow thepassageoffarmmachinery.Minimumbottomwidth
is2.5m.When thedischarge isknownand theside slopesandallowable flowve-
locityhavebeenchosen,themost suitablecombinationofbottomwidth,water
depth,andgradecanbecalculated.
Otherpointstoconsider arethat
-avegetatedwaterway shouldnotbecontinuouslywet,soastopreventthe
vegetation cover fromdeteriorating.Ifgroundwater isflowing intothewaterway,
itshouldbeintercepted byatiledrain.Surfacewatercanbecarried offbya
smallconcreteorasphalt tricklechannel constructed at thebottomofthewaterway
- thefertilityofthesoilinthevegetatedwaterways shouldbemaintained
(manuring)
- seedingmixtures should includequick-growing annualsandhardyperennials;
sometimes soddingmaybenecessary
- thevegetation shouldproperlybemaintained and thewaterway shouldnot
bepassedwithfarmmachinerywhenitisstillwet
- specialattention shouldbepaid totheterraceoutlets;thevegetation
covermaybeextended overasmalldistance intotheterracechannel.
28.6.3 DIVERSION
Toprotect flatareasfromfloodingbysurfacerunoff fromadjacenthighergrounds,
adiversionorinterceptionditch isconstructed atthefootoftheseuplands
(Fig.12).Forareasnot larger than2to2Jhaatmost,thediversionorinter-
ceptionditchesmaybeconstructed soastoenclose terraces;forlargerareas
theyshouldbeconstructed asgrassedwaterways.
* « J*
Fig.12. Thediversionditch.
Withregard totheirdesign,thesamemethodscanbeapplied asfor terraceditches

orvegetatedwaterways discussed earlier.Topreventdiversionorinterception
ditches fromsiltingup,itisnecessary toconstruct afilter stripontheupslope
sideoftheditch.Adepthof0.45mfortheditchesandacross-sectional area
ofabout0.70m areconsideredminimumvalues.
90
28.7 DESIGNDISCHARGECOMPUTATIONSFORSLOPINGAREAS
Themethodsusedincomputingdesigndischargesvary considerablywiththetopo-
graphyofthearea.Surfacedrainage systemsinflatareasaredesignedtoremove
acertainvolumeofexcess surfacewaterwithinaneconomicallydetermined period
oftime.Surfacedrainage systemsinsloping areashavetohandlepeakrunoff
rateswithacertainprobabilityofoccurrence.Thesepeakrunoffratesaremainly
conditionedbythenaturaldrainageofthebasin.Sincetheapproachappliedin
computingdischargesinthetwotypesofareasisbasicallydifferent,theywill
bediscussed separately.
Themethods thatwillbepresented inthissectionareapplicabletosmallagri-

culturaldrainagebasinsunderconditionsoffreedrainage subjecttohigh-inten-
sityrainfallsofshortdurationwheretheeffectoflanduseonrainfall-runoff
relationsisnotsurpressedbychannelorgroundwater storage.Bythisdefini-
tionthesizeofasmallbasinmaybefromafewacresto1,000acres (approxima-
tely400ha)orevenupto50sq.mi. (morethan 10,000ha;CHOW, 1962).Notethat
themethodsandmodelsdiscussedinChap.15,Vol.11generallyapplytolarger
drainagebasinswithpronounced channelorgroundwater storageeffects.Forcon-
siderationsofamore fundamentalnature,thereaderisreferred tothatchapter.
Thethreemethodswhichwillbedescribedbelowaretherationalmethod,theCook
method,andthecurvenumbermethod.Allthreemethodsweredeveloped inthe
United Statesandtheoreticallymayonlybeappliedforthespecificconditions
forwhich theyweredeveloped.Theyhavenofirmtheoreticalbasis,butmaypro-
videatoolinestimatingpeakrunoffsforsmallagriculturaldrainagebasins,
wherehydrologicaldataaregenerallylacking.
Note
In this and the following section metric units are used alternatively with the
Anglo-American type of units. The authors are aware that this will cause certain
inconveniences to the reader. Although it is possible in theory to convert the
units of one system into the other, preference was given to an alternative use
in order to remain as close as possible to "recognizable" expressions often met
with in literature. If the reader feels the need to convert the units, the fol-
lowing conversion table might be useful:
one inch {in.) = 25.4mm
one foot (ft) - 0.3048 m
one mile = 1.6093 km
one acre = 0.4047 ha
one sq.mile = 259 ha = 2.59 km2
one cubic foot (cf) 28.32 I = 0.02832 m3
one cfs/sq.mile = 0.1093 l/sec ha = 0.01093 m3/sec km2 =
= 0.9444 mm/24 hrs
91
28.7.1 THERATIONALMETHOD
Thebasiccharacteristics oftherationalmethod intermsoflinearsystemshave

beendiscussed inChap.15,Sect.6.2,Vol.11.Ourremarkswill thereforebelimi-
ted tothepractical applicationof themethod.
The rational method wasoriginallydeveloped forurbancatchmentsforwhichthe
basicassumptions ofthemethod approximately hold.Themethod canbeapplied
tosmallagriculturaldrainagebasinsiftheydonotexceed 100acres,orpossibly
200acresatthemost orapproximately 40to80ha (CHOW,1964).
Principle
With thesameprobability ofoccurrence,themeanpeakrainfall intensitywill

decreaseastheintervalconsidered increases (rainfall intensity frequency
curves).Whenthedurationoftherainfallexceeds thetimeofconcentration,
(i.e.thetime intervalbetween thebeginning oftherainfalland themomentwhen
thewholeareaabovethepointofoutletcontributes totherunoff),themean
rainfall intensitywillbeless thanthemean intensity overaperiod equalto
thetimeofconcentration;thus,while thewholeareacontributes totherunoff,
therateofrunoffwillbe less.If,ontheotherhand,therainfalldurationis
less thanthetimeofconcentration,therainfall intensity tobeconsidered
willbehigher,butonlyapartoftheareawillbecontributing totherunoff.
Sowecome totheprincipleoftherationalmethod,which saysthat themaximum
rateofrunoff (peakrunoff rate)hastobeexpectedwhen therainfallduration
equalsthetimeofconcentration ofthecatchment,orexpressed algebraically
by therationalformula
Q =CIA (10)
P
where
Q =thepeakrunoff rate (m/hrorcfs)

C =therunoff coefficient
I =meanrainfall intensity overaperiod equal tothetimeof
concentration (m/hrorinch/hr)
Determination of the time of concentration (To)
Thetimeofconcentrationhasbeendefined asthetime intervalbetween thebegin-

ningoftherainand themomentwhen thewholeareaabovethepointofoutletcon-
tributes totherunoff.
92
RAMSER (1929)hasdefined thetimeofconcentration asthetimerequired forthe

water inthechannel atthegauging stationtorisefrom thelowtothemaximum
stage.
Anempirical formulaforthetimeofconcentration according toRamser'sdefini-

tionisgivenbyKIRPICH (1940)
Tc=0.0)95K 0 - 7 7 0 (II)
where
K= and S=— (slope)
Tc=timeofconcentration (min)
L =maximumlengthoftravel (m)
H =difference inelevationbetweenmostremotepointandoutlet (m)
Themostaccurateestimateofthetimeofconcentrationaccording toRamser'sde-
finitioncanbeobtained fromdirectwaterlevel recordings onthebasinitself,
provided naturaldrainage conditionsabovethepointofoutletwillremainun-
changed.Theprojectmaynotbeimportant enoughnor thetimeavailableforana-
lysissufficient tojustify suchrecordings.Insuchcircumstancesusecanbe
madeoftheaboveempiricalrelationship.
Determination of the rainfall intensity (I)
Foragivenfrequency,theintensity IwithdurationTccanberead fromtherain-

fall-frequency-durationcurves (seeChap.15,Sect.6.2,Vol.11).
Determination of the runoff coefficient (C)
All factors affecting surfacerunoff,apartfromthoseincluded inAand I,are

lumped inthevalueofC.Therunoff coefficient isdefinedas
C __\
AI
Bymeasuring therainfall intensity Iand thepeakrunoffrateQ ,thecoefficient

Ccanbecalculatedwith theaboveequation.Under idealized conditions thevalue
ofCrepresents theratioofrunoffvolume torainfallvolume (Fig.13).
93
2Tc 4Q
F volumeofrunoff
c= AI AITc volumeofrainfall
Fig.13. Rationalmethod.Relationbetweenrainfall,runoffandrunoff
coefficient,underidealizedconditions.
Conditionswillrarelybe ideal,however,andconsequently thevalueofCcanbe

significantly lower thantheratioofvolumeofrunoff tovolumeofrainfall.For
instance forconditionswhere theaveragedimensionlessunithydrographdeveloped
by theU.S.ConservationService (tobediscussed inSect.7.3)isapplicable,five
consecutiveunit stormperiods,eachofaduration equal toonefifthofthepe-
riod ofrisewill result inavalue forQ/AIequalto
P
p n ,,volumeofrunoff
(12)
AI ' volumeofrainfall
Smallagriculturalwatersheds orrunoffplots canbeused todetermine thevalue

ofC,under theconditions that thedurationoftherainfall equalsorexceeds
thetimeofconcentration.Runoffplotshave theadvantage thatevery rainexceeds
thetimeofconcentration andalsothatthesoilconditions (asaturated soil)
canbecontrolled toalargeextent.
Smallwatersheds ontheotherhand,areoftenmorerepresentative forthegiven

conditions,buttheyhavethedisadvantage thatonehastowaitforrainsfalling
onasaturated soiland forarainfalldurationexceeding thetimeofconcentration
ofthecatchment.
Adifficulty ininterpreting thevalueforCisthatitvariesfromonemoment

toanotheraccording tochanges inthefactorsaffecting surfacerunoff,especial-
lythesoilmoistureconditions.Inthedesignofsurfacedrainage systemsusually
thatvalueofCisconsidered pertaining toasaturated soilatthetimethe
rainfall starts.Thismeans theintroductionofanunknownsafety factordueto
thefact thatnotevery rainisfallingonasaturated soil.
Values fortherunoff coefficient Cwidelyused intheUSAaregiven inTable6.
94
TABLE6. ValuesfortherunoffcoefficientCinQ =CIA

P
Sandy Clayand Tight
Slope
loam silt loam clay
Forest
0-5% 0.10 0.30 0.40
5-10% 0.25 0.35 0.50
10-30% 0.30 0.50 0.60
Pastures
0 - 5% 0.10 0.30 0.40
5 -10% 0.15 0.35 0.55
10-30% 0.20 0.40 0.60
Arable land
0-5% 0.30 0.50 0.60
5-10% 0.40 0.60 0.70
10-30% 0.50 0.70 0.80
Example 1
Determinethedesignpeakrunoff ratefora10-yearreturnperiod stormfora
watershed inthesouthernpartofTheNetherlands containing 20haofflat (0to
5%)cultivated sandy loamand30haofrolling (5to 10%)clay loampastureland.
Themaximum lengthofflowis600m and thedifference inelevationbetweenthe
most remotepointoftheareaand thepointofoutflow is6m.
ThevalueofTccanbecalculated accordingto
A A , nxc (s, , L) N0.770

Tc=0.0195 .. i xn ,
=0.0195 ., . _
(v , 600).0.770= 16minutes
/H/T /6/600
A 10-year 16minutes rainfall inTheNetherlandshasamean intensityof0.052m/hr.
Theweighted averageofthevalueCcanbeobtained from

P _ (2QXQ.30)+ (30*0.35)_n ,,
L- 50 U.JJ
Fromthisfigure thepeakrunoff ratecanbecalculated as
Q =0.33 x0.052x50x 104=8.580m3/hr=2.38m3/sec
Itshouldbenoted thatfor suchshort timeintervals theresult isgreatlyin-

fluenced by theestimateofthetimeofconcentration.This isshownbelow,where
forthesameareathedesigndischargewascalculatedwithdifferentvaluesfor
thetimeofconcentration
forTc=12minutes,Q =3.00m3/sec
forTc= 16minutes,Q P =2.38m3/sec
forTc=20minutes,Q P =2.06m3/sec
P
95
28.7.2 THECOOKMETHOD
The Cook method isanempiricalmethoddevelopedbytheU.S.SoilConservation

Service foruseintheUSAandcanonlybeapplied forareaslessthan600acres
(or250ha).Aswiththerationalmethod,theCookmethod allowsanestimationof
peakrunoffrateswithacertainprobability ofoccurrence.ThebasisoftheCook
method isthat thepeakrunoff rateQ iscalculated asaproductofthreefactors;
theunadjusted peakrunoff rateP,therainfall factorR,andthefrequency factor
F,oralgebraically
PRF (13)
Determinationof theunadjusted peakrunoff rate (P)

ThevalueofPisfoundbyassigningnumericalvaluestofourrunoff-producing
characteristics:relief,soil infiltration,vegetalcover,andsurfacestorage.
WiththehelpofTable7thesumofthenumericalvaluesofthesefactors,EW,can
becomputed.
Giventhewatershed area,theunadjustedpeakrunoffratePfora50-yearreturn
period canthenbederived fromFig.14.
p for50 year recurrence
cfs
10000
7500 qqz^
2W=100///
5000
/JQ///
'/SO/' / ,
/ss//
/,45 /
1000 K^ 40
750 '//A
-v% /
x35 /
30 /
çA
100
75 '/////
y/// / /
/
'/JZ,
///
1000 2500
acres
drainage area
Fig.14. Chartfordeterminationofunadjusted peakrunoffrate

bytheCookmethod.
96
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97
Determination of the rainfall factor (R)
Themaindifficulty inusing theCookmethod outside theUSA isthatnorainfall

factorsareavailableelsewhere intheworld.ForanylocationinsidetheUSAa
rainfall factorcanbederived fromarainfall factormapgivenbyHAMILTONand
JEPSON (1940).Bycomparing therainfall intensity-frequencychartsasgivenby
theU.S.WeatherBureau (1961),with therainfall factormap ofHAMILTONandJEPSON,
arough estimateoftherainfallfactormaybeobtained by takingRashalfofthe
10-year30minutesrainfall ininches.Deviationsoftheorderof !0%,however,
arenotexceptional.
Determination of the frequency factor (F)
ThevalueofPderived fromFig.14holdsforarecurrence intervalof50years.

ReductionofthevalueofPcanbemadewith theaidofTable8,where thefre-
quency factor isgivenasafunctionoftheweighted values for infiltration (I)
andvegetal cover (VC)according toTable7and theaverage annual precipitation
ininches.
TABLE8. FrequencyfactorsforusewithCook'smethod (afterCHOW,1964)
Averageannual rainfall (inches)

(I+VC) 10 20 30 40 60 80
Ratio: 25-year / 50- year
5 0.31 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.48 0.51
10 0.41 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.63 0.66
15 0.50 0.59 0.64 0.68 0.73 0.77
20 0.55 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.82 0.87
25 0.60 0.71 0.78 0.83 0.90 0.92
30 0.64 0.76 0.83 0.89 0.92 0.92
35 0.67 0.81 0.89 0.92 0.92 0.92
40 0.71 0.85 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Ratio. 10-year / 50 year
5 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.17
10 0.10 0.16 0.21 0.24 0 30 0 34
15 0.16 0.25 0.31 0.37 0 45 0 51
20 0.21 0.33 0.42 0.49 0 60 0 68
25 0.26 0.41 0.52 0.61 0 75 0 80
30 0.31 0.49 0.62 0.74 0 80 0 80
35 0.36 0.58 0.73 0.80 0 80 0 80
40 0.42 0.68 0.80 0.80 0 80 0 80
Example 2
Theexample isthesameasthatinSect.7.1.
Theprocedure fordetermining ZWisasfollows

Surface fie ld drainage
„,• r (20X10)+ (30x20) ..

Relief : — ~ = 16
T*-i • , , (20x10)+ (30X10)
InfiltrationT (I) : ~~^rT =1n 10
,, ., r ,„M (20X15)+ (30x5) .,i

Vegetal Cover (VC) : — — = 15•
c f „ (20X15)+ (30X15) ..
Surface storage : ^ 15
TO
According toFig.14anareaof50ha (or 125acres)gives,forZW=56anda
returnperiodof50years,anunadjustedpeakrunoffratePequalto300cfsor
8J"5m3/sec.Anestimateof therainfall factor isobtained by takinghalfofthe
10-year 30minutesrainfall ininches.Forconditions prevailing inTheNether-
lands thiswouldmeanR=0.66.
Thefrequency factorcanbetakenfromTable8forconditions thatI+VC= yS 'a.
and theaverageannualrainfall isapproximately 30inches.Ifweconsidera
returnperiod of 10years,thisresults inF=0.JJ2.Nowthevalueofthepeak
runoff ratecanbecalculatedas
Q =8.5 x0.66 x0.52 =2.92m3/sec

P ., ,-
)2_JM -* O-iG * 0.'< L ~- ; . i j
Thedifference inpeakrunoff rateascomputed bythetwomethods illustratesthe

difficulty and theneed forjudgement thatmustbeexercised inestimatingrunoff
rates.Thereforeestimatesbybothmethodsareoftendesirable.
28.7.3 THECURVENUMBERMETHOD
Thecurvenumbermethod,developed by theU.S.SoilConservationService,is
applicable for larger areas thantherationaland theCookmethods.Itconsists
essentially of twoparts.Inafirst stepanestimation ismade ofthevolume
ofrunoffresultingfromarainfall.Inasecond stepthetimedistributionof
therunoff isdetermined,including thepeakrunoff rate.Thesetwodifferent
stepswillbediscussed successively.Theprinciplesofthefirststepofthe
curvenumbermethodhavealreadybeenexplained inChap.15,Sect.4.3,Vol.11.
Forpractical reasons theywillberepeatedbrieflyhere.
Estimation of the amount of runoff from an amount of rainfall
Themost generally available rainfalldataaretheamountsmeasured atnon-re-

cording raingauges.For theuseofsuchdatatherainfall-runoffrelationwas
developed.Thedataaretotals foroneormore stormsoccurring inacalendar
99
day,andnothing isknownabout thetimedistribution.Therelationtherefore
excludes timeasanexplicitvariable.Byplottingrunoffversusrainfall,one
generally getsarelationship asindicated inFig.15.
Fig.15. Curvenumbermethod.
Relationshipbetweenrainfall (P)
anddirectrunoff(Q).
Forrainfall (P)smaller thantheinitialabstraction (I) ,norunoff (Q)occurs.

I mainlyconsistsofinterception losses,depressionstorage,and infiltration
beforerunoffoccurs.Forincreasingrainfallamounts,thecurveQversusP
approaches asymptotically astraight lineparallel tothelineP=0.Theverti-
caldistancebetween these twolines (S)iscalled potential maximum retention.
Thisisthemaximumamountofrainfall thebasincanabsorb.Itisworthwhileto
notethatthisisonlypossiblebecausetimeasanexplicitvariable isexcluded.
Nowtherearemany curveswhich fulfill therequirements ofgoing through (I,0)
andapproaching asymptotically toQ=P-S.'Soinorder todefine theshapeof
thecurve,another requirementhastobe introduced.This isdonebythestatement
that theratioofactual retention (P-I -Q)andpotentialmaximumretention
(S)equals theratioofactualrunoff (Q)andpotentialmaximumrunoff (P-I),or
(P-I)-Q Q
P-I
(P-I ) '
(14)
(P I )+S
a
Practical experiencehas shownthattheinitialabstraction I isabout20%of
thepotentialmaximum retention,soI =0.2 S.Introducing this,therunoff
100
equationcanbewrittenas
= (P-0.2 S ) 2
(15)
^ P+0.8S
Nowfunctionally thevalueofS (ininches)isrelated totherunoffcurve

number (CN)bythedefinition
1000
CN= (16)
10+S
Forpaved areasSwillbeequal to0andCN= 100.Forconditionswherenosurface

runoffoccurs,Sequals infinityandCN=0.Figure 16presents therunoffequa-
tioningraphical formfordifferent curvenumbers.
direct runoff
Q,inches
10 11 12
rainfall P, inches
Fig.16. Estimating directrunoffamountsfromstormrainfall

(afterMockus, 1955).
Todetermine thevolumeofrunoff,anestimationofthevalueforCNhastobe
made.ThevalueofCNdependsonbasincharacteristics suchasland-useandsoil
conditionandonthemoistureconditionofthebasinatthemoment therainfall
occurs.
101
Three d i f f e r e n t a n t e c e d e n t m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n c l a s s e s (AMC) a r e r e c o g n i z e d , s e e
Table 9.
TABLE 9. Seasonal r a i n f a l l l i m i t s for AMC c l a s s e s

( a f t e r U . S . S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e , 1964)
Antecedent moisture 5 day t o t a l antecedent r a i n f a l l (inches)

condition classes
dormant season growing season
I less than 0.5 lessthan1.4
II 0.5 to1.1 I.4to2.1
III over1.1 over2.1
For the influence of basin characteristics on the value of CN, see Table 10.
TABLE 10. Runoff curve numbers forhydrologie soil-cover complexes
(forwatershed condition IIand I - 0.2S ) .
After U.S.Soil Conservation Service, 1964.
Hydro- Hydro logic

Land use or cover Treatment or practice logic soil group
condi-
tions A B C D
Fallow straight row poor 77 86 91 94

Row crops straight row poor 72 81 88 91
straight row good 67 78 85 89
contoured poor 70 79 81 88
contoured good 65 75 82 86
contoured & terraced poor 66 74 80 82
contoured & terraced good 62 71 78 81
Small grain straight row poor 65 76 84 88
straight row good 63 75 83 87
contoured & terraced good 59 70 78 81
Close-seeded straight row poor 66 77 85 89
legumes or rota- straight row good 58 72 81 85
tional meadow contoured poor 64 75 83 85
contoured S terraced good 51 67 76 80
Pasture range poor 68 79 86 89
fair 49 69 79 84
good 39 61 74 80
contoured fair 25 59 75 83
Meadow (permanent) good 30 58 71 78
Woodlands (farm poor 45 66 77 83
woodlots) fair 36 60 73 79
good 25 55 70 77
Farmsteads 59 74 82 86
Roads, dirt 72 82 87 89
Roads, hard-surface 74 84 90 92
102
Besides landuse,cover,and treatmentpractice,adistinction ismadebetween

poor,fair,and goodhydrologieconditions and fourhydrologiesoilgroups.The
hydrologie conditions areprimarily determined by thedensityofthevegetation.
Heavily grassednativepasture,forinstance,isclassified as"poor".Ungras-
sedpermanentmeadow is"good".Formoredetails seeCHOW (1964)or theUSSoil
ConservationServiceNationalEngineeringHandbook,Section4.Thehydrologie
soilgroupsareclassified according totheirability totransmitwater (infilt-
ration);GroupAhasahighrateofwater transmission,Bmoderate,Cslow,and
Dveryslow.
With theaid ofTable 10andquiteabitofexperience thecurvenumberfor

AntecedentMoisture ClassIIcanbeestimated foraparticular spotinthe
drainagebasinand thuswith theaid ofFig.16theamountofrunoff fromaparti-
cularamountofrainfall.Togetthetotalrunoff fromthewholedrainagebasin,
therunoff fromeachparticular sub-areawith itsownCN-valuehavetobeadded.
Anothermethod istotakeaweighted averageoftheCN-valueforthewholedraina-

gebasin,although thisusuallygivessmallerrunoffvalues.
FinallyTable 11hastobeused toconvert theCN-valuesforAntecedentSoil

Moisture ClassIItoAntecedent SoilMoistureClassIorIII.
Bymeans ofthemethod described aboveitispossible toconvert seriesofdaily

volumes ofrainfall todailyvolumesofdirectrunoffwhicharetheconditions
forwhich themethod wasdeveloped.Aswillbeshownbelow,this isusuallynot
doneforpuredesignpurposes.
All theabovementioned tablesand graphshavebeendeveloped forU.S.conditions
andarenotnecessarilyvalid forotherpartsoftheworld.
Time distribution of the nmoff

Toobtain thetimedistributionofagivenvolumeofrunoff,useismadeofthe
dimensionless unithydrographdeveloped by theU.S.SoilConservationService.
Sothetimedistribution ispredetermined by theshapeofthisdimensionless
unithydrograph.The time scaleofthehydrograph isexpressed inunitsofperiod
ofriseofthehydrograph.Therunoff ratesareexpressed inunitsofpeakrunoff
rate (seeFig.17),orintabular form (seeTab.12).
103
TABLE 11. Runoff Curve Number ( C N ) ,Conversions and Constants
(after U.S.Soil Conservation Service, 1964)
CN for CN for AMC S values Curve starts

condition where P=
(inJ (inJ
II I III
100 100 100 0.000 0.00
98 94 99 0.204 0.04
96 89 99 0.417 0.08
94 85 98 0.638 0.13
92 81 97 0.870 0.17
90 78 96 1.11 0.22
88 75 95 1.36 0.27
86 72 94 1.63 0.33
84 68 93 1.90 0.38
82 66 92 2.20 0.44
80 63 91 2.50 0.50
78 60 90 2.82 0.56
76 58 89 3.16 0.63
74 55 88 3.51 0.70
72 53 86 3.89 0.78
70 51 85 4.28 0.86
68 48 84 4.70 0.94
66 46 82 5.15 1.03
64 44 81 5.62 1.12
62 42 79 6.16 1.23
60 40 78 6.67 1.33
58 38 76 7.21 1.45
56 36 75 7.86 1.57
54 34 73 8.52 1.70
52 32 71 9.23 1.85
50 31 70 10.0 2.00
48 29 68 10.8 2.16
46 27 66 11.7 2.34
44 25 64 12.7 2.54
42 24 62 13.8 2.76
40 22 60 15.0 3.00
38 21 58 16.3 3.26
36 19 56 17.8 3.56
34 18 54 19.4 3.88
32 16 52 21.2 4.24
30 15 50 23.3 4.66
25 12 43 30.0 6.00
20 9 37 40.0 8.00
15 6 30 56.7 II.34
10 4 22 90.0 18.00
5 2 13 190.0 38.00
Infinity Infinity
104
TABLE 12. Tabulated S.C.S. average
dimensionlesshydrograph
(afterMockus,1957)
t/T q
t/qp
0 0
q_
0.25 0.12 9p
0.50 0.43
0.75 0.83
1.00 1.00
1.25 0.88 0.8
1.50 0.66
1.75 0.45
2.00 0.32 0.6
2.25 0.22
2.50 0.15
2.75 0.105 0.4
3.00 0.075
3.25 0.053 |\
3.50 0.036 0.2
3.75 0.026
4.00 0.018
4.25 0.012 /
4.50 0.009
4.75 0.006
5.00 0.004
Fig.17. Theaverage dimensionless hydro-
graph (after US Soil Conservation Service).
To convert these dimensionless ordinates of thehydrograph to real values,one

therefore has toknow theperiod of rise and thepeak runoff. The latter is esti-
mated by using the following relationship originating from triangular hydrograph
synthesis (MOCKUS, 1957;Fig.18)
2Q
(17)
T +T_
P R
where
q = peak runoff rate

P
Q =volume of direct runoff
T =period of rise or time topeak runoff
T = time from peak runoff rate to end of runoff

K
Fig. 18.Triangular hydrograph

(after MOCKUS,1957)
105
By analyzing a large_number of hydrographs, Mockus found that in general
I = 1.67 T .Introducing this value inEq.17 yields
K p .-
q = 0.75^ - ' ^" (18)
P
Introducing drainage area A in sq.miles and runoff 0 in inches and expressing q

in cfs and T inhours gives \
q =0.75^ A ü = 484fâ"cfs (19)

P P
Thismeans thatforanareawithaperiodofriseof,forinstance,2hours,the
peakrunoff rateresulting fromoneinchofrunoff (rainfallexcess)inaunit
timeperiod equals242cfs/sq.mile.Ifareasareexpressed inkm ,runoffinmm,
q inm/sec,andT inhours,weobtain
P P
q . 0.75 M Z 7 1 A J 2 . 0 . 2 0 8 A _ Q m s/sec (20)
P
P P
The unit time period isusually taken asT Ik.

P
The period of rise can then be estimated from the time of concentration accord-
ing to the empirical relationship T = 0.7 Tc. It isbetter, however, tousea
measured value of T than touse this empirical relationship. Theuseofthe
method fordesign purposes will be illustrated bymeans of a simple example.
Example 3
Suppose we have adrainage basin with an observed period of rise equal to 2hours.
The weighted average of CN-values forMoisture Condition II equals 70.For this
basin we should like toknow the specific peak runoff rate in cfs/sq.mi.with a
recurrence interval of 10years forMoisture Condition III.According to Table
II the CN-value forAntecedent Moisture Condition IIIwould be85.
The usual procedure for finding thepeak runoff rate asked for is to start with
the 6-hour rainfall occurring once every 10year. Letus assume,for instance,
2.57 inches. Since nothing isknown about the distribution of the rainfall during
this 6-hour period, use ismade of dimensionless storm distribution curves (see
Fig.19). These curves canbe derived from studies of rainfall distribution during
storm periods.Now letus assume that forour example thenature of the storm
is such that Storm Distribution Curve B should be used.
The calculation procedure canbest be illustrated bymeans of Table 13for determ-

ining thevolume of direct runoff, andby Table 14for the rate of the runoff.
106
ratio of Aaintall at anytime \

\ total storm rainfall/
1.0
Fig.19.Dimensionless stormdistri-
ratio off .a"y * i r n e ,. , butioncurves (afterU.S.SCS,1958)
Vstorm duration^
TABLE13. Calculationprocedurefordeterminingpeakrunoffrate(q)
Timet t/6 Pt/P Rainfall (P) Runoff (Q) dQ q„
accumulated accumulated
hours Curve B inches inches inches cfs/sq.mile
(Fig.19)
0 0 0 0 0
0.5 0.08 0.02 0.05 0 0 0
1.0 0.17 0.08 0.21 0 0 0
1.5 0.25 0.15 0.39 0 0 0
2.0 0.33 0.22 0.56 0.02 0.02 5
2.5 0.42 0.60 1.54 0.47 0.45 109
3.0 0.50 0.70 1.80 0.64 0.17 41
3.5 0.58 0.78 2.00 0.78 0.14 34
4.0 0.67 0.84 2.16 0.90 0.12 29
4.5 0.75 0.88 2.26 0.98 0.08 19
5.0 0.83 0.92 2.36 1.061 0.08 19
5.5 0.92 0.96 2.46 1.14 0.08 19
6.0 1.00 1.00 2.57 1.23 0.09 22
Column 1givesthetimefrombeginningofrainfall inhalfhourintervals.

Halfhour increments arechosenasonefourthoftheperiod ofrise (T=2hours).
Column 2becauseastormdurationof6hours isconsidered,thevaluesofColumn
1have tobedividedby6inorder tomakeuseofthedimensionless storm
distributioncurves (Fig.19).
Column 3derived fromFig.19,CurveB,andrelated tothevaluesofColumn2
above.
Column 4 asthetotal6-hourrainfallwitharecurrence intervalof 10years
equals2.57 inch,thevaluesofColumn3havetobemultiplied by2.57.So
Column4gives theaccumulated rainfallasafunctionoftime.
107
Column 5usingaCN-valueof85,theaccumulated rainfall fromColumn4canbe
converted toaccumulated rainfallexcessbymeansoftherunoff equation (or
Fig.16).
Column 6gives thedirectrunoffvolumeproduced bytherainfallduringeach
unit stormperiod.
Column 7according torelationship (19)arainfall excessofoneinchoverone
unitperiodwould resultinapeakrunoffrateof242cfs/sq.milewhenT =
2hours.ThereforetherainfallexcessvaluesofColumn6havetobemultiplied
by242inorder togetthepeakrunoffratesresulting fromtherainfallexcess
ofeach separateunit stormperiod.
Once thepeakrunoffrateforeachseparateunit stormperiod isknown,therate

ofrunoff resulting fromaseriesofconsecutiveunit stormperiodscanbecal-
culatedbymeansof thedimensionlesshydrograph applying theprincipleofsuper-
position.Thisprocedure isillustratedbelow.
Suppose thatwewanttoknowtherateofrunoff3hoursafterthebeginningof
rainfall.Thehalfhourunitstormperiodpreceding themoment t=3hours,the
periodbetween2.5 and 3.0hoursafterbeginning ofrainfall,hasadirectrunoff
resulting inapeakrunoff rateequalto41cfs/sq.mile.At0.5hoursafterthe
commencement oftheunit stormperiod considered,or0.5/2 =0.25 timeunitsex-
pressed aspartsofT ,theratioofq/q equals0.12 according tothedimension-
lesshydrograph,soq=0.12 x41=4.9 cfs/sq.mile (seeTable14).
Theunit stormperiodbetween2.0 and2.5hours after thebeginningofrainfall

showsadirectrunoff resulting inapeakrunoffrateof 109cfs/sq.mile.The
commencement ofthisperiod issituated 1.0houror 1.0/2.0=0.50 timeunitsex-
pressed inT ,before t=3.Fort/T=0.50thedimensionlesshydrograph showsthat
q/q =0.43,orq=0.43 x109=46.9cfs/sq.mile (seeTable14).
Asimilar reasoning for theunit stormperiodbetween 1.5 and 2.0hoursafterthe

beginning ofrainfall,with aresultingpeakrunoff rateof5cfs/sq.mileand
commencing at 1.5/2 =0.75 timeunits expressed inT before t=3hours,yields
q=0.83 x5=4.2 cfs/sq.mile.Asnorunoffoccursduring stormperiodspreceding
t= 1.5,thetotalrateofrunoff att=3equals4.9 +46.9+4.2 =56cfs/sq.
mile (seeTable14).
Inthisway therateofrunoff iscalculated atvariousmoments.Theresult

showsapeakrunoff rateof 183cfs/sq.mileatt=4.5 hours after thebeginning
ofrainfall.
Inasimilarway thepeakrunoff ratecanbeestimated using the (dimensionless)
triangularhydrograph instead oftheaveragedimensionlesshydrograph.This
procedure isillustratedbelow.
108
109
Theunit stormperiodbetween2.5 and 3.0hoursafter thebeginningofrainfall
hasadirectrunoff resulting inapeakrunoff rateequal to41cfs/sq.mile.The
triangularhydrograph resulting fromtherainfall excessover thisperiod starts
att=2.5hours,thepeakrunoffof41cfs/sq.mileoccursatt=2.5+2.0=4.5
hours.Using theempiricalrelationshipT = 1.67 T ,therecession limbofthe
K p
triangularhydrograph endsatt=4.5+ 1.67 x2=7.84hours.With thesethree
points thetriangularhydrographcanbedrawn.
Byplotting inasimilarwaythetriangularhydrographproducedbyeachstorm
period andadding thedischarge,therunoffhydrographcanbeobtained.This
procedurehasbeenapplied toExample3 (6-hour/10-yearrainfallof2.57inches,
DistributionCurveBand CN=85) (seeFig.20).
Theresultingpeakrunoff equals 184cfs/sq.mile andoccursatt=5.0hours.
Fig.20. Triangularhydrographsynthesis.
Similarcalculationswerecarried outforotherrainfall distributioncurves.The

resultsaresummarized inTable15.
The tableshows relatively smalldifferences inresults obtainedwith thedimen-
sionlesshydrograph orwith thetriangularhydrograph.Thisdoesnothold forthe
differences inrainfalldistributions.Rainfalldistributions according toPattern
A give lowervalues forthepeakrunoff rate thanuniformrainfalldistributions,
ordistributions according toPatternA andB.Thehighest rateofdirectrunoff
isobtained forrainfalldistributionaccording toPatternC.
110
Surface fïeld drainage
TABLE 15. Peak runoff rates for four different r a i n f a l l - d i s t r i b u t i o n curves
Rainfalldi- Dimension!esshydrograph Triangular hydrograph

stribution
t t
curve p p
of's/sq. mile hours ofs/sq .mile hour's
130 4.0 138 4.0

183 3.5 190 4.0
183 4.5 184 5.0
225 5.0 226 5.5
uniform 176 6.5 178 6.5
28.8 DESIGN DISCHARGE COMPUTATIONS FOR FLAT AREAS
Flat areas,asmeant here,are generally small agricultural watersheds with ave-

rage land slopes of less than 1%. Under these conditions the question is not so
much what will be the peak runoff for a given return period, but what should be
the time interval for removing a certain volume of excess surface water occurring
with a certain probability. This makes the design discharge computations for flat
areas extra complicated.
Two methods for use in flat areas will be presented in this section. The first
has been developed on the basis of many years of experience in the USA; the
second is based on simplified hydrologie procedures for areas where local expe-
rience is completely lacking.
With particular reference to the first method it should be pointed out that indis-
criminate application of the empirical relationship could have serious consequen-
ces. Certain aspects of the method, however, are certainly valuable for the de-
termination of design discharges inhumid areas outside the USA. This is,apart
from the interest in approach, themain reason for mentioning themethod here.
Much of the information in Sect.8.1 is borrowed from the U.S.Soil Conservation
Service National Engineering Handbook No.16. For more details reference is made
to that publication.
28.8.1 THE CYPRESS CREEK FORMULA

Between 1935 and 1937 a large number of drainage basins in the USA, with average
slopes of less than 0.45%, were gauged. The measured discharges, complemented
by already existing data were processed, considering four different regions in
the humid part of the USA.
For each region the logarithm of the observed maximum 24 hours average discharge
was plotted versus thelogarithm of the area of each drainage basin.
Ill
Simultaneously aninquirywasmadeamongfarmers and fieldofficersconcerning
theiropinionontheadequacyofthedrainage system,takingintoaccountland
use,etc.Asaresultofthisvery laboriousundertaking,itappeared thatin
generalonecould drawastraight lineinthelogarithmic graphical representation
ofthedataabovewhich,undercertainconditions oflanduse,thedrainagesystem
wasconsidered adequate.Theselineswere takenasguides fortherequiredcapaci-
tyofnewdrainage systems.Sothegeneralexpressionforthederiveddesign
dischargeequals
Q=CA P (21)
where
Q=designdischarge (cfs)
C=coefficientdependingonlanduse (protectionwanted)
p=coefficient usuallyequal to5/6
A=area (sq.miles)
Thisformula,knownasthe Cypress Creek formula, isanentirely empiricalone,

taking intoaccounthydrological aswellaseconomicconsiderations.Thevalueof
thedesigndischargeQshouldnotbeconfusedwith thepeakdischarge.Itmayvery
wellhappenthat thepeakdischarge greatlyexceeds thedesigndischarge,under
conditionsoffloodingforinstance.ThechoiceofthevalueofQalready includes
acertaineconomic tolerance toinundations.
Inmany areasoftheUSAthevalueofthecoefficient Ctobeused inthegeneral
formulahasbeendetermined bymanyyearsof localexperience.STEPHENS andMILLS
(1965)haverelated thevalueofCtotherainfallexcess (Re)andderivedfor
thesoutheasternpartoftheUSA (Florida)thefollowing relationship
C= 16.39+ 14.75Re (22)
whereReistherainfallexcessofastormevent ininches,tobedetermined from

themaximum24-hour storm.Thisrelationshipwasderived fromobservationson
threeexperimentalwatersheds of98.6,78.0,and 15.6sq.miles.Although thevalues
mentioned aboveonlyhold fortheparticular regiontheywerederived for,itis
worthwhile toemphasize theapproach thatwasapplied.
Therainfallexcesscanbedeterminedbythecurvenumbermethodmentionedin
Sect.7.3.Inapplying thismethod toflatareasithas tobekept inmind that
thecurvenumbermethod isonlyapplicableunder circumstances offreedrainage
and onlyapplies tothedirect (surface)runoffcomponent.
112
Acommonunderstanding ofa24-hourremoval isthattherainfallexcessfroma

particular stormisremoved fromthewatershedwithin 24hoursafter thecessation
ofrain.Actually,removalbeginsassoonasanexcessdevelops.And sincethe
critical stormforflatareasmayoccuroveranextended periodoftime,theana-
lysisfordetermining therainfallexcessReshouldpreferablybemadebytaking
themaximum48-hourrainfall forthefrequency againstwhichprotection isdesired,
dividing theexcessfromsucharainbytwoandusing thisvalue inEq.22to
determine thecoefficient Cforthe Cypress Creek formula.
Forgeneral farmcropsthelevelofprotectionnormallyplanned isfromastormof

48hoursduration andwithafrequencyofoccurrencefrom2to5years.Forhigh
valuecropswith lowtolerancetoexcesswater,protection fromthe 10-year fre-
quency stormmaybedesirable,oraspecialanalysismaybewarranted toremove
theexcessfroma24-hourrainfall ina24or36-hourperiod.Thiswillresultin
higherCvalues.
Discussion
Although itisnotourintention topresentanexhaustivediscussionofthe Cypress
Creek method, itmightbeinteresting tomention someofthepoints thatarise
when themethod isused outside theUSA.Letustherefore apply themethod tothe
low-lying,low-permeable flatlandareasofTheNetherlands.Taking "contoured
and terraced"forflatlandareas,according toTable 10,therunoffcurvenumber
for Antecedent Moisture Conditions
(AMC) II and I =0.2 Sisabout80.According
a
toTable 11,thiswouldmeanCN=90forAMCIII (see Sect.7.3).
Knowing therainfall-frequency-durationrelationship,wecancalculate therainfall
excessfordifferentdurationsand frequencieswithEq.15orFig.1.6.Theresults
aresummarized inTable 16showing therainfall excessReininchesresulting from
a24-hoursdurationrainfallaswellashalfoftherainfall excessresulting from
a48-hoursdurationrainfall.
TABLE16. Relationbetweenrainfall(P)andrainfallexcess(Re)
fordifferentconditions
24--hours storm duration 48-hours storm duration

P Re P Re/2
inches inches inches inches

10 years CN = 90 1.79 0.92 2.14 0.60
10 years CN = 80 1.79 0.44 2.14 0.32
5 years CN = 90 1.23 0.48 1.47 0.33
5 years CN = 80 1.23 0.16 1.47 0.14
113
Forconditionsasmentioned above (low-lying,low-permeable flat landareas)the
normal (specific)designdischargeused inTheNetherlandsvaries approximately
from 1.0 to1.3 1/sechaorintermsofrainfall excessper24hours from0.34to
0.44 inches/24hours.Thesevalues correspond ratherwellwith thevaluesmentio-
ned inTable 16forastormoccurringonceevery 10yearsandAMC II (CN=80),
oronceevery5yearsandAMC III (CN=90).
Introducing Re=0.40 inches inEq.22givesC=22.Substituting thisvaluein

Eq.21 gives toohighvaluesfor thespecificdesigndischargeQ/Anormallyre-
garded asadequateunderDutchconditions.Thedeviationdependsontheareaand
liesforareasof 1sq.mile (or260ha)intheorderof 100%,forareasof 10sq.
miles (or2,600ha) at40%andat 10%forareasof40sq.miles (or10,000ha).
The same specificdischarges areobtained at80sq.miles (or20,000ha).
Themainreasonforthisdeviation isprobablybecause rainfall intensitiesin

Florida,forwhich theempirical relationshipwasdeveloped,aremuchhigher than
inTheNetherlands:the 10-year24-hourrainfall inFloridaequalsapproximately
8.0 inchesand inTheNetherlands only2.1 inches.Equation 22tends toreduce
thespecific designdischarge forhigh intensity rainfallareas (largevolumeof
Re)and increases thespecificdesigndischarge forlowintensityrainfallareas
(lowvaluesof Re), depending alsoontheareaconsidered.Thistendency isshown
inFig.21,based ontherelationship
= (16.39+ 14.75Re)A 5/6

K ó)
26.89ReA
where thevalueof26.89refers tothefact that 1inch/24hrs=26.89cfs/sq.mi.

andaisaconstant.
Without sufficient localexperience itisofcourseextremely difficult toanswer
thequestionofwhat the "most economical"designdischarge shouldbe.The Cypress
Creek formula applied inTheNetherlandswould give "toohigh"discharges,while
similar "toohigh"dischargeswould result iftheReAexpressionwereapplied
inFlorida.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymean that incomparing theresultsofthe
twomethods thesmallestvaluewill alwaysbethe"mosteconomical".
Asecond point tobementioned isthat intheCypressCreek formula thedesign

discharge isnotalinear functionofthearea,foritmakesadifferencewhether
atajunctionof2ditches theareasareadded orthedischarges areadded.Adding
thedischarges givesahigherdesigndischargeforthedownstream sectionthan
adding theareas.
114
'urfaae field drainage
Re
inches/day
10
Ainsq.mi0.2
Ainha 5 2
(16.39+14.75Re)A
Fig.21. Graphicalpresentationoftheformulaa= with
26.89ReA
ReininchesandA insq.miles.
Themethod recommended bytheU.S.SoilConservationService fordetermining the

designdischargebelowajunctionisthefollowing empiricalprocedureknownas
the 20-40 rule.
1.Where thetributary areaofoneoftheditchesis40to50percentofthe

totaltributary area,therequired capacityofthechannelbelow thejunctionis
determined byadding therequired designcapacitiesoftheditches abovethe
junction.
2.Where thewatershed areaofalateral isless than20percentofthetotal

watershed area,thedesigncapacityoftheditchbelow thejunctioniscalculated
by theformulausing thetotalwatershed areaabovethejunction.
3.Wherethewatershed areaofalateral isintherangeof20to40percent

ofthetotalwatershed area,thedischarge shallbeproportioned fromthesmaller
dischargeobtained byuseofmethod 2tothelargedischargeobtainedbyuseof
method 1at40percent.Inthisrangecompute thedischargesbybothmethods (see
1and 2)and obtainthedifference incfs.Theninterpolate thedesigndischarge
forthechannelbelowthejunction.
115
Anotherproblemariseswheredifferent C-valuesapply todifferentpartsofthe
watershed.Under thesecircumstances themethod ofequivalent drainage areasis
used.Thismeans thatby trialand error theareatobedrained according toone
C-valueis"converted"toahypothetical areatobedrained,according tothe
other C-value insuchaway that thetotallyrequired capacityremains thesame.
28.8.2 SIMPLIFIEDHYDROLOGICPROCEDURE
When localexperience iscompletely lacking,thedesigndischarge canbeestimated

byusingasimplifiedhydrologieprocedure.Thisprocedure speciallyapplies
tosmall flatareas,because itdoesnotconsiderdifferences inarealdistribu-
tionofrainfall.Theprocedurewillbeillustrated bymeansofasimplified
example forconditions asprevailing intheRuziziValley inCentralAfrica.
Inthevalley,cottonisgrownfromJanuary throughMayonaveryheavymont-
morillonitic typeofclay (blackcotton soils,vertisols).Wewant toknowthe
designdischarge forasurfacedrainage systemtoprotect thecottoncropfrom
inundation resulting fromexcessrainfall.Theprocedure isillustrated byTable
17andFig.22.
TABLE17. RainfalldataoftheRuziziValley
DURATIONOFSTORMPERIOD
RETURNPERIOD 90min. 24hrs. 48hrs. 72hrs
annual (mm) 45 66 94 110

seasonal (mm) 39 54 79 94
1x2 years excess 1,CN=90 (mm) 18 31 53 67
excess 2(mm) 8 21 43 57
annual (mm) 55 85 120 139
seasonal (mm) 50 75 107 124
1x 5 years excess 1,CN=90 (mm) 27 49 79 96
excess 2(mm) 17 39 69 86
annual (mm) 63 100 145 172
seasonal (mm) 59 91 129 150
1x 20 years excess 1,CN=90 (mm) 35 64 100 121
excess 2(mm) 25 54 90 111
Theannualrainfall isderived fromtherainfall-duration-frequencycurvesgiven

by themeteorological department.Ascotton,however,isgrownintheperiodfrom
January throughMay,wearemuchmore interested intherainfall-duration-fre-
quency curvesforthatparticularperiod.Thesedatawerenotavailable.Itwould
bepossible todrawupthesecurvesbygoingback totheoriginalrainfalldata.
Butwecould content ourselves alsobynoticing thatthemeanrainfallfrom
January throughMay equals506mmwithanannual totalof858mm.Soroughly
116
speaking the hazard that a 1x 2-year rainfall will occur in the period from January
through May is approximately once in 858/506 = 1 . 7 years. By applying this proce- |
dure we need not go back to the original data. By graphical interpolation, the
rainfall-frequency distribution for the period from January through May can be
found in this way. The results are shown in Table 17under "seasonal". The Rainfall
Excess 1is then calculated by means of the curve number method considering ava-
lue of CN = 90 for AMC II asmost representative (see Table 1 0 ) .This excess is
reduced by an amount of 10mm for water storage in ditches,etc. The result is shown
under Excess 2 inTable 17.
Fig.22. Ruzizi valley. Number of hours required to remove excess surface water.
Rainfall excess ,drainage capacity .
The values of Excess 2 are plotted in Fig.22. In this figure lines of certain
discharge capacities have also been drawn. This permits us to determine the time
in hours which is needed to remove the excess surface water from the field, given
a certain drainage capacity. The results are summarized in Table 18.
TABLE 18. Numberofhoursrequired toremoveexcess surfacewater
DRAINAGECAPACITIES (inmm/24hours)
30 40 50 70
1x 2 years 10 6 5 4
1x5 years 66 22 13 10
1x ioyears ? 61 30 19 14
117
Suchatableshouldbetakenasabasis fordiscussionwithagronomists.Forthis
particular crop (cotton)itwasconcluded onthebasisofpersonal judgementthat
adrainage capacityof601/sechaor52mm/24hourswould provide "adequate"pro-
tectionagainstinundations.
Ifanothertypeofcropisgrowninrotationwithcotton,asimilarcalculation
hastobemade forthegrowingperiodofthatparticular second crop.Then themos
criticalperiod (depending onclimatologicalconditionsaswellasthedifferent
typesofcropsgrown)willprobablyhavetobeconsidereddecisive.
Remarks
Withreference tothediscussionsofSect.8.1,itisinteresting tonote,that,

forarateof52mm/24hoursor2.0 inches/24hours (seeFig.21),theCypress
Creek formulawithC= 16.39+ 14.75Re,would givethesame specificdischarge
foranareaof0.4 sq.milesor 100ha.ForlargerareastheCypressCreekformula
will givelower specificdischargevalues.Ifone takes,forinstance,anarea
of 1sq.mileor259ha,thevalueof awouldbe0.85.Theresulting specificdis-
chargewould thereforebe0.85 x52=44mm/24hrs.Foranareaof 10sq.miles
(2,590ha),a=0.58 and thespecificdischarge0.58 x52=30mm/24hrs.
Itisalsointeresting tonotethatfor
a 1x5years,24-hours stormduration forAMCII (CN=90),

a 1x)oyears,48-hoursstormduration forAMCII (CN=90)and,
a 1x5years,48-hours stormduration forAMCIII(CN»96),
rainfallexcessvalueswillbefound thathavethesameorderofmagnitudeasthe
abovecalculated 52mm/24hours.
118
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121
29. M A I N D R A I N A G E S Y S T E M S
J. A. VAN DORT
Head Department of Water Management
Land Improvement and Reclamation Company,
De Bilt
M. G. Bos
Irrigation Engineer
International Institute for Land Reclamation
and Improvement, Wageningen
Lecturers in the CourseonLand Drainage
H. van Rossum (1962-1966)

Government Service for Land and Water Use, Utrecht
J. A. van Dort (1967-1971)

Land Improvement and Reclamation Company, De Bilt
S. A. de Boer (1972-1973)
Land Improvement and Reclamation Company, De Bilt
G. Hekkett (1962-1969)
University of Agriculture, Wageningen
M. G. Bos (1970-1973)
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen
PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Thedesignofamaindrainage system,therelevanthydraulic structures,andthe
bank-protection required for thecanalsaretreated.Thelimitsofapplication
ofvarious typesofpumpsaredescribed.
CONTENTS
29.2 GENERALASPECTS 125
29.2.1 Sloping landsadjacent toorsurrounding anagricultural area126
29.2.2 Flatareas 129
29.2.3 Pointsofevacuation 130
29.2.4 Polders 130
29.2.5 Retentionreservoirs andregulating structures 131
29.3 HYDRAULICS 132
29.4 DESIGNCRITERIA 147
29.4.1 Thecross-sectionofthecanal 147
29.4.2 Discharge 149
29.4.3 Water level 154
29.4.4 Hydraulic gradient and flowvelocity 156
29.5 INSTALLINGAMAINDRAINAGE SYSTEM 156
29.6 THESTABILITYOFDRAINAGECANALS 158
29.6.1 General 158
29.6.2 Shapeofthecross-section 158
29.6.3 Minimumpermissiblevelocity 161
29.6.4 Limitingtractiveforce 162
29.6.5 Groundwater flowthrough thebank 167
29.6.6 Maximumpermissiblevelocity 168
29.6.7 Protectionagainst scour 173
29.7 FLOWVELOCITYCONTROL 178
29.7.1 General 178
29.7.2 Straightdrop structures 179
29.7.3 Inclined dropsorchutes 184
29.7.4 Drainage inlets 187
29.7.5 Baffled aprons 189
29.8 CHANNELTRANSITIONS (SUBCRITICALFLOW) 190
29.8.1 General 190
29.8.2 Changes inwetted areas 191
29.8.3 Elbows andbends 195
29.8.4 Friction losses 197
29.9 PUMPSANDPUMPINGSTATIONS 198
29.9.1 General 198
29.9.2 Pump types 200
29.9.3 Static andmanometrichead 208
29.9.4 Selectionofpumps 209
29.9.5 Manometric suctionhead 211
29.9.6 Power todriveapump 214
29.9.7 Numberofunits 217
29.9.8 Thelocationofapumping station 217
LITERATURE . 220
Main drainage systems
29.1 INTRODUCTION
Certainvolumesofwatermay enteranagricultural areafromoutside intheform

ofprecipitation,groundwater inflow,indraining streams,surfacerunoff,andim-
ported irrigationwater.Thetotalvolumeofthiswaterfromoutsidewilloften
exceed thearea'sagriculturalneeds,particularlywhentheareaisservedby
irrigation.Hence,inspiteofévapotranspirationand sometimes groundwaterout-
flow,therewillfrequentlybeexcesswaterwhichwillhavetobedrainedoff.For
thispurposeasystemofcanals,called the main drainage system, willbeneces-
sary.
The functionofamaindrainage systemis
- tocollect thewaterfromthefielddrains
- totransport thewatertotheoutlet,and
- toevacuate thewater fromthearea.
Amaindrainage systemmayalsobecalledupontoperformotheragricultural
tasks,suchasmaintaining acertainrequired groundwater (water conserva-
tion), or supplyingwater tothecropsindryperiodsvia thesubsurfacedrains
(subsurface irrigation). Furthermore,amaindrainage systemmayhavetodischarge
urbanexcessandwastewater (sewage) orindustrialwater,and tosupplywater
fornavigation,e.g. forthetransportationofagriculturalproduce,orforre-
creation.
29.2 GENERALASPECTS
Therearetwodistinctkindsofmaindrainagesystems
- asystem tocollectandintercept flood-water fromsloping land surrounding

oradjacent totheagricultural area,toprotect theareaagainstinundations.
Themainproblem tobehandledbythissystemwillbethesurfacerunoffcaused
byperiodsofheavyprecipitation,whichresult inbriefperiodsofhighdis-
charge
-asystemtocollectanddraintheexcesswaterfromflatcultivatedareas.
Here,theprecipitationwillbedisposed ofmainlybyunderground drainageand
thedischargewillconsequentlybemoreregular.Withthissystemthemainpro-
blemwillbeprecipitationofapossibly lower intensitybutoflongerduration.
Ifoneisdealingwith sloping andflatareassimultaneously,onecandesigntwo

separate systemsorcombine themintoonesystem.Thechoicedependsonwhatthe
agricultural areaandadjacent landsaretobeusedfor.
125
29.2.1 SLOPINGLANDSADJACENTTOORSURROUNDINGANAGRICULTURALAREA
Ifanagricultural areaispartly surroundedbyhills,itisfirstofallneces-

sary toensure that thesurfacerunoff fromthesloping lands isinterceptedand
evacuated sothattheagriculturalareawillnotbeinundated.
Runoff ingeneral,butfromsloping lands inparticular,isstronglydependenton

thefollowing factors:precipitation,slopeof theterrain,shapeof thewater-
shed,patternof thewatercourses,infiltrationcapacityof thesoil,andvege-
tation.Itisessential tocollect sufficientandreliabledataonallthese
factorsbeforestarting tocompute therunoff.Estimationsmustbemadeofthe
effect thateachofthesefactorshasonthedischarge,aswellastheircombined
effect.
Thebiggestproblemofslopingareas isthatthewaterrunsoffveryrapidly
andcausesbriefperiodsofhighdischarge.Everything possiblemustbedoneto
curtail thisdirect runoff,toslowdownthecurrentsofwater,andtoletasmuch
ofitaspossible infiltrate intothesoil.
Infiltrationcanbestimulatedby
- ripping theimpervious layers inthesoil

-encouraging thegrowthofvegetationandplanting treesontheslopes
- contourploughing and terracing,thelatterconsisting oflevelling the
slopesalongthecontours,oftencombinedwiththeplantingofuseful
vegetation.
Suchmeasureswill considerably diminish theflowvelocitiesofsurfacewater

(andwillalsoreduceerosion).Theywillalsogreatly simplify thedesignof
themaindrainage system.
Thereareseveralmethodsbywhichrunoff canbeestimated (seeChaps.15and16,

Vol.11)
- the rational method, bywhich therunoff iscomputedwiththehelpofa

formulacustomary fortheareainquestionorselected fromahydrologically
comparableareainthevicinity;thisformulaisusuallyofanexponential type
- the statistical method, bywhichdischargemeasurementsarestatistically

processed toobtain thefrequencieswithwhichdischargesoccur (FULLER,HAZEN),
orbywhichconsideration isgiventothemaximummaximorum (GUMBEL)
- the unit hydrograph method, whichisbasedoncontinuousgaugingatthe

outletofthedrainagearea.
126
Main drainage sys terns
Insteeply sloping lands,itisnotusual toprovide canals fordrainage,and

measuresarerestricted toreshaping existing streamsand topreventfuturealte-
rations intheircourses.Thestructuresrequired forthispurposearegenerally
simple typesofweirsandlevees.Sometimesrockfilledbasketsofwiremesh
(gabions)proveverypractical.
The transition fromsteeply sloping terrains toflatareas isusuallygradual,

andascroppingwillprobablynotbeintensive inthesetransitionalareas,no
canalswillyetbecalled for.Existingwatercourses,however,shouldbecon-
stantlycheckedandmaintainedbysimilarmeasuresasinthesteeplyslopingareas.
Assoonasawatercoursereaches thefootofthehills,itwillhave tobe

intercepted andconnectedwith theultimatedischarge site.Ifthisconnection
consistsofacanalthroughtheagriculturalarea,precautionsmustbetakento
eliminate theriskof inundation inthatarea.Sometimes thewaterofseveral
watercourses iscollected ina"catch"canaljustoutside theagriculturalarea.
Thiscanal should runmoreorlessalongacontour line,bypassing theagricul-
turalareaanddebouching,forinstance,intoariver.
Ifthecanal istorunthroughtheagricultural area,thebestpossiblealignment

willhavetobechosen.Inthis,thetopography andtherequired slopewillbe
themostimportant factors tobeconsidered,butofcourse,theparcelling,the
roadnetwork,andtheirrigationsystemmustalsobe takenintoaccount.Ifawater
coursealreadyexists intheagriculturalarea,thiswillgive themostobvious
alignmentbecause itusually runsthrough thelowestpartsoftheareawhere
waternaturally collectsandwhereanypossible tributarieshavealreadyestablished
themselves.Moreover,itisunlikely thatsuchlowstripsoflandwouldbesui-
tableforcultivationanyway.
Adisadvantage ofchoosing thenaturalalignment fortheevacuationcanal isthat

itwillusuallyhavetocross several roadsand irrigationcanals.Ifallthetri-
butariesalsorunthrough thearea,thiswillmeanthatexpensive structuresare
required atthepointsofintersection (Fig.1).Whentherearemany tributaries
tobeconsidered,thecatch canal,whichwilldivert themaround thearea,maybe
themostpractical solution (Fig.2).
Whatever theultimate solutiondecided on,onemustwork totheprincipleof

keeping thecanalsoutside thecropped fieldsasmuchaspossiblesothatami-
nimumoffertilelandwillbelost.
127
~~^ c u l v e r t w i t h a u t o m a t i c valve
Fig.). Drainage schemeI.
Fig.2. DrainageschemeII.
128
29.2.2 FLATAREAS
Flatareasareheredefinedasareaswhoseslopeislessthansay3%.Theexcess
waterinsuchareasoriginates fromlocalrainfall,over-irrigation,runoffthat
couldnotbeintercepted fromsurrounding slopingareas,fromgroundwater inflow,
and fromcanallosses.
Suchflatareaswillprobablyneedafielddrainage system tostimulatetheeva-
cuationoftheirexcesswater (Chap.27,Vol.IV).Thiswillinvolveanetworkof
pipedrainsandasystemofcollectorditchesintowhich thepipedrainscan
discharge.
Thewaterfromtheditchesmust thenbecollected anddischarged intocanals,

whichwill conduct thewater tothemaincanals(s),whichwill transport itto
theoutletofthearea.Thesecanalsconstitutethe main drainage system.
Inacombined flood-controlanddrainage system,itispossible-thoughnot
advisable-tomakeadirectconnectionbetween fielddrainageditchesandthe
maincanal.Theobjection isthat,although thedrainageoffloodwateris
usuallyofshortduration,thiswaterwillgenerallyhaveahighmudcontent.
Consequently,anychannelcarryingfloodwaterwillbeafflictedwiththedepo-
sitionoflargequantitiesofmud.Thesamewillhappen inanyditches intowhich
floodwatercanenter.All thismeansalotofextramaintenance.Ifpipedrains
debouch into theditches,directconnectionswith themaincanal shouldbe
avoidedbecause anymuddeposited inpipedrainscanonlyberemovedatgreat
expense.
The solutionistoconnectditches tothemaincanalbymeansofculvertswith

automatic gatesorvalves thatcloseduring floods.Thissolution,however,
althoughpreventing theentryoffloodwater into theditches,will implyhigh
water levelsintheditchesbecauseofadelay inthedischargeofdrainage
water.Moreover,ifthemaincanal isdesigned forlargedischargesandconsists
ofamajorandminorbed,theculvertswouldbecomeveryexpensive structures
indeed.
Alignments ofditchesandcanals shouldbesuch that thewateriscarried tothe
outletby theshortestpossibleroute,although theroadnetworkand theirriga-
tionsystemmustbetakenintoaccount.Ifpossible thealignments shouldbechosen
sothatanevengradient isobtained.Iftheareaitselfhastoomuchslope,it
willbenecessary tobuildweirsatappropriate sitesbecauseotherwise thevelo-
city inthecanalsmightbecome toohighandcauseerosion.Thenumberofweirsto
bebuiltdependsonwhether itischeaper tobuildweirsortomoveearth.Fewer
weirsmeandeepercanalsandhigherearth-movingcosts.
129
29.2.3 POINTSOFEVACUATION
Thesitewhere thewater istobeevacuated shouldbecarefully selected toensure

anuninterrupted discharge.Possiblechanges inthehydraulic situationmustbe
takenintoaccount.Ifthere isachancethatsandbanksmay formorthatriver
banksmayerodeorchangetheircourses,theoutletsmustbestrongly fortified.
Iftheleveloftheoutsidewaterneverexceeds thewater level inthedrained
area,themaincanalwillbeabletodebouchwithoutmuchdifficulty.Buteven
thentheelevationsofthechannelbottomswillusuallynotbethesame,andthe
bedofthemaincanalwill erode.Thisbedmust thereforebeprotected toprevent
backwasherosion.
Water levelsinariverarealwayschanging,and theymay oftenbehigherthan

thesurrounding areasforprolongedperiods.Sometimes theseareasareseparated
fromtheriverbyadykeornaturalriverembankment.Attheevacuation sitethe
maindrainagecanalwill cutthrough theriver embankment.Topreventflooding
through thisopeningwhenriver levelsarehigh,thecanalcanalsobeembanked
and theconnectingditchesprovidedwithautomaticvalves.Another solutionis
tobuild anoutlet structure inthemaindrainagecanal itself.Inviewofthe
importanceofsuchastructure,itshouldbeprovided notonlywithautomatic
valves,butalsowithahand-operated gatetoserveincaseofemergency.Itis
recommended thatoutlet structuresbebuilt acertaindistanceback fromthe
river soasnot tobedamaged iftheriver should changeitscourse.Thestretch
ofcanalbetweentheoutlet structure and thepointwhere itdebouches intothe
rivermustbeprotected over theentirelengthofthatstretch.
Although anoutlet structurewillprevent theinflowofwater ifoutsidewater

stagerises,itwill atthesametimeinterrupt thedischargeofdrainagewater.
Ifonlyasmallarea isinvolved,thisriskmaybejustified,but iflargeareas
are likely tosuffer frompoordrainage conditions,onemust resort topumping
thewaterout.
29.2.4 POLDERS
Areas inwhich thewater iskeptatalower level thanthewateroutsidearecal-

led polders. Usually apolderissolow-lying thatithas tobe surroundedby
dykes toprevent itfrombeing flooded.Sometimesanaturalprotectionexists
intheformofdunes (alongthecoast)orhighnatural levees (alongariver).
130
Thedischarge fromapoldermaybe"natural"or"artificial".Naturaldischarge,
i.e.bygravity,maybepractical inthoseplaceswhere theoutsidewaterdrops
regularly toasufficiently lowlevelandremains thereforaperiod longenough
topermitdischarge.Thiswillbesoinpoldersbordering theseaortidalrivers.
Often,however,outsidewaterlevelsaretoohightoallownaturaldischargeand
excesswatermustbedischarged "artificially",i.e.byapumpingstation.
Asthewater levelinapolder islower thanthatoutside,therewillalways

beacertainamountofgroundwater flowintothepolder (Chap.13,Vol.11;Chap.21,
Vol.111). Thecapacityofapolderpumping stationshould thereforebelargeenough
totakethis"seepage"intoaccountandnotonlybedesigned tocopewiththe
dischargeofexcessrainfall.
Thecapacity ofthepumping station shouldnotbedesigned ondischargeresulting

fromtheheaviestdownpours thatarelikely tooccur.Thiswould callforvery
largepumpingcapacities,whichwouldnotbeeconomically justified.Instead,a
slightriseinthe"normalpolderlevel"willbe tolerated forshortperiods,
duringwhich theexcesswaterwillbe stored inthesoilandcanalsanddrained
awaygradually afterwards.Hence,thedesigndischargeofapumpingstationis
mostlybased ontherequirement that theprecipitation during asmallnumberof
days,say4or5,willhave tobeevacuated inthesamenumberofdays (seealso
Sect.4.2).
29.2.5 RETENTIONRESERVOIRSANDREGULATING STRUCTURES
Watercourses emerging fromthe hillsoftenhavehighdischargesofbriefdu-

ration.Toprevent inundations,thesecoursesmayrequireconsiderableimprove-
ments. Infact,theyareoftenturned intolargecanals,i.e.theyare"canalized".
Tosaveontheconstructioncostsofsuchcanalsthepossibility ofreducingthe
peakflowsby temporarily storing atleastpartof thesehighdischargesshould
beexamined.
Waterstoragewillinvolve theconstructionofretentionreservoirswhich,tobe
effective,musthavearatherlargecapacity.Thismeans thateitherlargeareas
have tobeavailableorhighdykeshave tobeconstructed.
Usually thetopographyandgeologyoftheterrainatcertainsitesinthesloping
regions issuch thatbydamming off thevalleyofastreamataplacewhere itis
rathernarrow,alargereservoircanbeestablished.
131
Ofcourse,onemustdecidewhether itismoreeconomical tobuildalargecanal
orareservoirwithasmallercanal.Storage reservoirscanoftenalsobeused
forthesupplyofirrigationwater,thewaterbeing collected during thewet
season(s)andavailable forirrigation inthedryseason(s).
Ifdownstream,thecanalhas torunthrougharableland,itmaybedesirableto
limit itscapacity inthatareatomakemore landavailable forcultivation.If
so,aregulating structure shouldbeinstalled upstreaminthecanal.Thecapa-
citydownstreammustofcoursenotbeexceededunderanycircumstances,asthis
would causeconsiderable damagetostructures inthecanalandwould inundate
thecultivatedareas.
Ifnocatch-canal isplanned,suchregulating structures shouldbeinstalledat

thefootofthehillsattheborderoftheagricultural area.Anyexcesswater
canthenbespilledby theregulating structureoverasideweiranddiverted in
adirectionwhereitwillcauseleastdamage;forinstance,throughanareaof
orchards (Fig.2).
Thedischarge inminorstreams canbereducedbyconstructing eitheraweir

oradamwithculvert.Themajordifferencebetween thetwoconstructionsis
thatthedischarge throughaculvert changes lessasafunctionoftheupstream
head thanthedischargeoveraweir.Thiscanbereadfromthegeneraldischarge
equations forculverts
Q=CAh 1 ' 2 (!)
and forweirs
CJ bh 3 ' 2 (2)
d
where
Q =dischargeof thestreamdownstreamof thestructure

A =wettedareaof theculvert
h =headover centreofculvertorweircrest
b =widthofweircrest
C andC,aredischarge coefficients
e forculvertandweirrespectively,
o d '
29.3 HYDRAULICS
Theflowinthecanals forming themaindrainage system isverycomplicatedbe-

causeitissubject tochangesresulting fromvariations inthevolumeofwater
suppliedbythefielddrainage system.Moreover,thecross-sectionofthecanals
willnotbeuniformalong theirentirelength,and theywillalsocontainstruc-
132
tureswhichinfluencetheflowconditions.Inthecomputationofthemaindrainage
canals,theflowcanbestudied inthefollowingway.Thecanalsaredivided into
sectionsbetween structuresand lateralcanals.Ineachsection,thedischargeis
considered constant.Thecomputation isthereforemade forthedischargeata
certainmoment,theflowbeing considered uniformforthisdischarge.Thismeans
thatinevery sectionofthecanal,discharge,wetted area,velocity,andwater
depthare takenasconstants,andconsequently theenergy-lines andthewater
levelswillbeparallel tothecanalbottoms,except ifbackwater curves,caused
bystructures,occur.
There,are severalconditionsofflow,dependingontheviscosity inrelationto

theinertialforces.
Laminar flow: theviscous forcespredominateover theinertialforces.The

waterparticlesmoveregularly inlayerswithoutturbulence.
Turbulent flow: theviscous forcesareofminor importancecomparedwith

theinertial forces.Thewaterparticlesmove inirregularpaths,whicharenot
fixed.
Transitional flow: thestateofflowbetween thelaminar stateandturbulent

state.
These flowconditionsaredeterminedby the Reynolds number, which isdefinedas
Re- f (3)
where
v=theflowvelocity
R=thehydraulicradius
U=thekinematicviscosityofwater (seeChap.6,Sect.2.2,Vol.1)
WhenReislessthanabout500,theflowislaminar,andwhenReislargerthan
about2000,theflowisturbulent.IfRerangesbetween500and 2000,thereis
transitional flow.Inopenchannels theflowisnearlyalways turbulent;only
rarelywilllaminarflowappearforexampleas sheet flow.
133
Re=
IT
16000 i- tranquil •£ rapfd
8000
subcritical supercritical
turbulent turbulent
4000
2000
1000 trans itI onal zone
500
250 subcritical supercritical

laminar laminar
125
i I i i i i I
0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16

V
Fr-
VgA/B
Fig.3. Statesofflowdetermined byReandFr.
Besides theeffectofviscosityupontheflowofwater throughopenchannels,

thereistheeffectofgravity,which canbestbeexplainedbyuseoftheconcept
of spécifia energy. Specificenergy isdefined astheaverageenergyperunit
weightofwateratachannel section,expressed relative tothechannelbottom.
Forsteady flow, (dy/dt)=0,with straightandparallel streamlines,wemay
express thetotalenergyintermsofhead
H=p/pg+z+v2/2g (4)
Since thepiezometrichead coincideswith thewatersurface,thepiezometrichead

relative tothechannelbottomequals thewaterdepthy,sothatthespecific
energy canbeexpressedas
H =y+v2/2g (5)
Wefind thatthespecificenergyatachannel sectionequals thesumofthewater

depth (y)and thevelocityhead,providedofcoursethatthestreamlinesare
straightandparallel.Sincev=Q/A,Eq.5maybewritten
H o =y +^! (6)
2gA2
whereA,thecross-sectional areaofflow,canalsobeexpressedasafunction
of thewaterdepth,y.
134
Fromthisequationitcanbeseenthatforagivenchannelsectionandaconstant
discharge (Q),the specificenergy inanopenchannel sectionisafunctionof
thewaterdepthonly.Plotting thiswaterdepth (y)againstthespecificenergy
(H)gives,whatisknownasa specific energy curve (seeFig.4).
Fig.4. Thespecificenergycurve.
The curveshows that,foragivendischarge and specificenergy,therearetwo

"alternatedepths"offlow.AtpointCthespecificenergy isaminimumfora
givendischargeand thetwoalternatedepthscoincide.Thisdepthofflowis
knownas critical depth (y) .
When thedepthofflowisgreater thanthecriticaldepth,theflowiscalled

subcritical, whereasifthedepthofflowislessthanthecriticaldepth,the
flow iscalled supercritical. Converselywemay saythat thecurveillustrates
howagivendischargecanoccurattwopossibleflowregimes;slowanddeepon
theupperlimb,fastand shallowonthelowerlimb,separatedby thecritical
flowcondition.
When there isarapid changeindepthofflowfromahigh toalowstage,a

steepdepressionwilloccurinthewater surface,which iscalleda hydraulic
drop. Ontheotherhand,when thereisarapid changeindepthofflowfroma
lowtoahighstage,thewatersurfacewillriseabruptly,whichphenomenonis
called a hydraulic Jump, or standing wave. Thestandingwaveshows itselfbyits
135
turbulence (white water), whereas thehydraulic drop islessapparent.However,
ifinastandingwave thechangeindepthissmallthewatersurfacewillnot
riseabruptlybutwillpassfromalowtoahighlevelthroughaseriesofundu-
lations (undulav jump), anddetectionbecomesmoredifficult.Therefore,the
normalprocedure toascertain thatcriticalflowoccursinachannelcontraction,
while thereissubcritical flowupstreamanddownstreamofthiscontraction,is
tocauseahydraulicjumptodevelop immediatelydownstreamofthechannelcon-
traction.
FromFig.4itcanbeseenthatifthestateofflowiscritical,i.e.ifthe
specific energyisaminimum foragivendischarge,thereisonlyonevaluefor
thedepthofflow.Therelationshipbetweenthisminimum specificenergyandthe
criticaldepthisfoundbydifferentiatingEq.6toy,whileQremainsconstant.
^£=1-0LdA_1_vldA (7)
dy gA3 d y gA dy
SincedA=Bdy,thisequationbecomes
dH
x!l (8)
Ifthespecific energy isaminimumdH/dy=0,andwemaywrite
,2 A
C c
= (9)
g" 2Ï
Equation9isvalidonlyforsteady flowwithparallel streamlines inachannel
ofsmallslope.Itstates thatatcritical flowtheaverage flowvelocity
v c = (gA c / B c ) 1 / 2 (10)
Itcanbeproved that thisflowvelocity equals thevelocitywithwhichadis-

turbancemoves inanopenchannel,asmeasured relative tothewater.Becauseof
thisfeature,adisturbanceorchangeinadownstream levelcannotinfluencean
upstreamwater level ifcritical flowoccurs inbetweenthetwocross-sections
considered.
Inliterature,Eq.9 isfrequently givenasadimensionless ratio,which isknown

asthe Froude number
Fr=v//g"A/B (11)
136
From theabove itwillbeclear thatifFr=1thereiscritical flow;ifFr>1

thereissupercritical flow,andifFr <1thereissubcriticalflow.
ForaverywideorrectangularchannelwhereA/B=y,we seefromEq.9thatat
criticalflow
v2/2g=A/2B =Jy
c c c c
sothat „
Yc=T H3 o (12)
IfbothsidesofEq.6aredividedby thiscriticaldepthweobtain
_3 _
max J
c f' y_ (13)
Plottingq/q againsty/y yieldsadimensionlessdiagramasshowninFig.5.

max c
O
V
0.2
0.4
0.6
H
o 0.8
\
1.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
/
y *
_q
Qmax
Fig.5. Dimensionlessy-q diagram (afterH.ROUSE,1950).
Thisdiagramshows that thedischargecapacityofacanal ismaximumiftheflow

iscritical.Italsoshows thattwoalternatedepths foranydischargewillbe
possible,oneless thancriticaldepthandtheothergreater.Further inspection
showsthat ifthespecificenergy (H)remainsconstantanddischarge isreduced,
thewaterdepthwill increaseforsubcritical flowandreduceforsupercritical
137
flow.Thisdepthofflowcanbevariedbychanging thehydraulic gradientofthe
canal,which foruniformflowequals thatof theslopeof thechannelbottom.
Wenowproceed toderiveasuitableresistance equationforuniformsteady

channel flow.Todosowecanconsiderachannel sectionofunit lengthasshown
inFig.6.
pgAcos at '
G-pgA
\
y A
niiii/i/iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinr. Fig.6. Definition sketchforthetractive
forceequation.
Forsteadyflowtooccur,theaccelerationofflowshouldbezero,sothataccord-
ingto Newton's second lau of motion, F - ma,theresultantofallforcesacting
ontheconsidered channelsectionshouldbezero.Sincethenethydrostaticthrust
onthesection iszero,thenetforceintheflowdirection iszeroif
T =pgAsina (14)
Ifweassumethatthecanalslopeisslight,wecanwrite
sina=tga=s
sothatperunit canallengththetotaltractiveforcemaybeexpressedas
T=pgAs (15)
Hence theaverage tractive forceperunitwettedperimeterPequals
T =pgRs (16)
138
Fromdimensional analysiswemayobtaintheinformation that themagnitudeof

T isproportional tothefluidmassdensitypandthesquareofv,sothatwe
maywrite
T =cpv 2 (17)
o
where cisadimensionlessnumberwhosemagnitudedependsmainlyontheboundary
roughness,Reynoldsnumber,and theshapeofthechannelcrosssection.Combining
Eqs.16and 17gives
v= ]/•&Rs (18)
Writing /g/casacoefficient Cwehave theequation
v=C /RS" (19)
which isgenerallyknownasthe Chézy equation sinceitwas introducedbyA.CHEZY

in 1768.Byaboutthemiddleofthelastcentury sufficient systematic observations
oncanalsandrivershadbeenmade toallowGANGUILLETandKUTTER (1869)topublish
arather complicated formulaforC.Nowadays themostcommonlyused semi-empirical
equation forCisthatproposedbyWHITEandCOLEBROOK (1939)whichreads
C=5.75 /g~log -~JJJ (20)
whereacharacterizes thebedroughness (m)and6,being thethicknessofthe

laminar sublayer (m),equals
6--i£L (21)
hRs
GAUCKLER (1868)andHAGEN (1881)arrived independently attheconclusionthat

thecomplicated equation forCproposedbyGANGUILLETandKUTTERcouldbere-
placedbyasimpleequation thatshowsCasafunctionofthesixthrootofR.
Thisconclusionwaswrongly attributedbyFLAMANT (1891)toMANNING,andheex-
pressed Cas
(22)
v=U 2 ' 3 s 1 ' 2 (23)

n
139
3
Iffoot-second unitsareused,afactor/3.28-1.49shouldbeinsertedgiving
1.49
R2'3 s 1 ' 2 (24)
IntheAnglo-Saxonworld thisequationisgenerallyknownasthe Manning equation.

InEurope itisknownalsoas Stviakler'e equation andsometimeswrittenas
v=1^R2'3 s 1 ' 2 (25)
wherek^=1/nisknownasboth Strickler's and Kutter's k -Value. TheManning

equationhasprovedverypractical forlined,unlined,andgrassedwatercourses
and isverypopularwithmostcivilengineers.
Then-value dependsonanumberoffactors:roughnessofbedandsideslopes,
vegetation,channel irregularity andalignment,hydraulic radius,andobstruc-
tionsinthechannel.Agooddescriptionofchannelswiththeirsuitablen-value,
based ontheworkofSCOBEY,waspublished intheU.S.Bureau ofReclamation's
HydraulicandExcavationtables (1957)and iscopiedbelow.
n = 0.014
Excellent value for conservatively designed structures ofwood,paintedmetal,
or concrete under usual conditions;cares foralignment about equal incurve and
tangent length;conforms to surfaces as left by smooth-jointed forms orwell-
broomed shot concrete;will care for slight algae growth or slight deposits of
silt or slight deterioration.
n = 0.015
Rough,plank flumes ofunsurfaced lumberwith curvesmade by short length,angu-
lar shifts;formetal flumeswith shallow compressionmemberprojecting into
sectionbut otherwise of classn =0.013; for construction with first-class sides
but roughly troweled bottom or for classn=0.014 construction with noticeable
silt or gravel deposits;value suitable forusewithmuddy gravel deposits;value
suitable forusewithmuddywater for either poured or shot concrete; smooth
concrete that isseasonally roughened by larvae oralgae growths takevalueof
n =0.015orhigher;lowest value forhighest class rubble and concrete combina-
tion.
n = 0.016
For lining madewith rough board forms conveying clearwaterwith small amount of
debris; class n=0.014 linings with reasonably heavy algae;ormaximum larvae
growth;or large amounts of cobble detritus;orold linings repaired with thin
coatofcementmortar;orheavy lime encrustations;earth channels inbest pos-
sible conditions,with slick deposit of silt,free ofmoss and nearly straight
alignment; true tograde and section;not tobe used fordesign.
n = 0.01/
For clear water on first-class bottom and excellent rubble sides or smooth rock
bottom andwooden plank sides;roughly coated,poured liningwith uneven expansion
joints; basic value for shot concrete against smoothly trimmed earth base;such
a surface isdistinctly rough andwill scratch hand;undulations of the order
of0.025m.
140
0.018
About theupper limit for concrete construction inany workable condition;very
rough concretewith sharp curves and deposits of gravel and moss;minimum design
value foruniform rubble;orconcrete sides andnatural channelbed;forvolcanic
ash soilswith no vegetation;minimum value for largehigh-class canals invery
fine silt.
n - 0.020
For tuberculated iron;ruined masonry;well-constructed canals in firmearthor
fine packed gravelwhere velocities are such that the siltmay fill theinter-
stices inthe gravel;alignment straight,banks clean; large canals of classes
n =0.0225.
n = 0.0225
For corrugated pipewithhydraulic functions computed fromminimum internal dia-
meter; average;well-constructed canal inmaterial which will eventually havea
medium smoothbottomwith graded gravel,grasson the edges,and average align-
ment with silt deposits atboth sides of thebed and a few scattered stones inthe
middle;hardpan ingood condition;clay and lava-ash soil.For the largest ofca-
nals of this type avalue ofn=0.020'willbe originally applicable.
n = 0.025
For canalswheremoss, dense grass near edges,or scattered cobbles arenotice-
able.Earth channelswith neglected maintenance have thisvalue and up;agood
value for small head ditches serving acoupleof farms; forcanalswholly in-cut
and thus subject to rolling debris;minimumvalue for rock-cut smoothed upwith
shot concrete.
n- 0.0275
Cobble-bottom canals,typically occurring nearmouths of canyons;valueonly
applicablewhere cobbles are graded andwell packed; canreach0.040for large
boulders andheavy sand.
n - 0.030
Canalswithheavy growth ofmoss,banks irregular and overhanging with dense
rootlets;bottom covered with large fragments of rock orbed badly pitted by
erosion.
n = 0.035
Formedium large canals about 50percent choked withmoss growth and inbad order
and regimen;small channelswith considerablevariation inwetted cross-section
and biennialmaintenance; for flood channelsnot continuously maintained; for
untouched rock cuts and tunnels based on "paper"cross-section.
n = 0. 040
For canals badly choked withmoss, orheavy growth; large canals inwhich large
cobbles and boulders collect,approaching a streambed incharacter.
n - 0.050 - 0.060
Floodways poorly maintained; canals two-thirds choked with vegetation.
n - 0.060 - 0.240
Floodwayswithout channels through timber and underbrush, friction slope 0.20 to
0.40 mperkilometre.
141
Inopenchannelswherebottomandbanksarecoveredwithgrassandalargepart
ofthewaterflowsthrough thevegetationatlowvelocities,theManningnwill
dependontheReynoldsnumberdefinedbyEq.3and thusontheflowvelocity.The
U.S.SoilConservationService (1954)hasrunvariousexperiments ingrassedwater-
coursesand theirresultsareshowninFig.7.
manning's n
0.4
X^B
0.1
0.09 -
0.07 -^^^
0.06
-
^ ^ E
-
1 1 1 1 1
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0
product VR
in m^/s
Fig.7. Behaviour ofManning'sningrassedwatercourses (adapted

fromF.M.HENDERSON, 1967).
Theclassificationof thevariousgrassspecies (Table 1)isbased ontheirstalk

length,andthevigourand thicknessoftheirgrowth.
TABLE 1.Classificationof grass
Average length ofgrass (m) Vigour and thickness of growth

good fair
more than0.75 m
0.30 to 0.60 m
0.15 to 0.25 m
0.05 to 0.15m
less than0.05 m
142
From Chehighn-valuesshowninFig.7itappears thatgrassedwatercoursesare

very suitable forpassinghighdischarges downsteepslopeswithout thedanger
ofscouring due tohigh flowvelocities.
Generally thedesignbeginswith thesupposition thatthecanal isnewlyexcavated
and thuscleanandwithasmoothalignment,i.e.nosharpcurvesandnoconsider-
ablevariation inshapeand sizeofitscross-sections alongthecanallength.
Then-valueselectedwill thenbebasedonthisshape.Thesenewly excavated
andunlined canals,however,willhardlyeverkeep theiroriginal shape.They
willdeterioratebecause oflocalsiltingand scouringorbyobstruction (branches,
etc.),butmainlybecauseofvegetationonbottomand sideslopesgraduallyesta-
blishing itself.Inpracticewewillbeconfrontedwithaconstantlychanging
situation.
Itistherefore impossible toleavethedesignasitwasinthatfirststage,

i.e.asrepresenting optimumconditions.Thenext step,logically,istoapply
corrections tothecross-section andpossiblyalso totheslopes.Itwillnot
alwaysbeclearnorasimplematter todecideupon then-value ultimately tobe
used inthedesignandwhichcorrections shouldbe introduced onthecross-sectio-
nal shapesasconstructed initially.
Fortunately,thefuturevalueofncanbekeptwithin certainreasonable limits

byregularmaintenance.Theeffectonnofmowing thegrasses inaDutchdrainage
canal isshowninFig.8.
manning sn cleaning-
0.12
Mai Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Okt. Fig.8. Influenceofmaintenanceonn.
Ofcourse,oneneednotbase thefinaldesignonthemostunfavourable conditions

thatmightbeexpected. InTheNetherlands,forexample,thedraindischargeis
maximuminwinter,duringwhichperiod then-value isrelativelylow.
Canaldimensions,however,should certainlybelarger thanthosecomputedfor

the"cleanstage".Theultimatechoicedependsonhowtherequired correctionis
tobeintroduced,sincethismayconsisteitherinapplyingsomeoverdepthand
overwidth asderived fromlocalexperienceoritmaybetheresultofare-com-
putationwithahighern-value.Economicsplayamajorroleindeciding thefinal
143
dimensionsbecause thesealsoinfluence theamountofmoney tobespentonmain-
tenance.
Soasearlyasinthedesignstage,thefutureprogrammeandmethodsofmainte-
nance shouldbedecided upon.Maintenance isanimportant itemthatisfrequently
overlooked. (Forfurtherdetailsonmaintenance seeChaps.30and 31,Vol.IV).
Itshouldbenoted thataftercanalshavebeencleaned,theirn-valuesarelower
andevenwithnoincrease inQ,higherflowvelocitieswill result.Thesehigher
flowvelocities cancausethecanals toerode,thechanceofwhich isevengreater
becausecleanbedsandsideslopeshavelessresistancetoscouring.Table2il-
lustrates thevariation inflowvelocity andwaterdepthwithdifferentn-values.
TABLE 2. Influence ofManning's factor (n)onflowvelocity (v)

andwater depth (y)
(b = 1.00 m, side slopes 1:1.5, s= 0.000S
and Q= 1.0 m3/s)
m/s
0.025 0.5A 0.82 1.85

0.033 0.43 0.94 2.25
0.050 0.32 1.18 3.25
Thevariation invandyasafunctionofnisalsoobvious fromFig.9.
y mm
1.1 1.2
O=1mvsec
s = 0.5 °/oo
b=1 m
sideslopes 1: 1.5
J
0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7
Vinm/sec Fig.9. Variationofvandywithn.
From theManning equationitappears thatthehydraulic radiusRhasasignifi-

cant influenceonvand thusonQ.Thiseffectmaybe illustrated byconsidering
achannel sectionwithfixedbottomwidthand sideslopeandaconstantn-value
asshowninFig.10,which showsanincreaseinvifybecomesgreater.
144
Fig.10. VariationofvandQasafunctionofthewaterdepthy.
Ifthesamecross-section (b=2.00m,sideslope1:1.5andn=0.033)isconsi-
deredagain,andifwechange intheManning equation thewaterdepthyand/or
thecanal slopes,thevariationofbothvandQmaybeobtained fromFig.11.
water depth
in m
2.50
0.0001 0.001 ».
n = 0.033 S
b- 2.00 m
side slopes 1 • 1.5
Fig.11. VariationofvandQasafunctionof thewaterdepthyand

canal slopes.
COWAN (1956)recognised thatseveral factorswereaffecting then-valueandhe

proposed thatthen-valuebecomputedwith
(n +ni+n 2 +n 3 +ni,) m5 (26)
Thismethod canbeapplied tounlined drainage channelswithahydraulicradius

ofless than4.50m.Thepropervaluesofn ton.,andm 5 forthegivenconditions
canbeobtained fromTable3.
145
TABLE 3. Channel conditions and corresponding n-values calculated with Eq.26
CHANNEL CONDITIONS
Earth 0.020
Rock cut 0.025
Material
involved Fine gravel 0.024
Coarse gravel 0.028
Smooth 0.000
Minor 0.005
Degree of
irregularity Moderate 0.010
Severe 0.020
Variations Gradual 0.000

of channel
cross Alternating occasionally 0.005
section Alternating frequently 0.010-0.015
Negligible 0.000
Relative Minor 0.010-0.015
effect of Appreciable 0.020-0.030
obstructions
Severe 0.040-0.060
Low 0.005-0.010
Medium 0.010-0.025
Vegetation High 0.025-0.050
Very high 0.050-0.100
Minor 1 .000
Degree of
meandering Appreciable 1 .150
Severe 1 .300
Itwillbeclearbynowthat itisnoeasymatter todecidewhichn-valueto

select inagivensituation,and somefield experience isrequiredbeforean
n-valuecanbeestimatedwithreasonableconfidence.Photographs,however,as
givenbyVENTECHOW (1959)and ILRI-Bulletin7(1964)formauseful supplement
tofieldexperience.
Numerousgraphsand tableshavebeendeveloped tohelp thedesignengineerin

usingManning's equation.Theycanbefound innearlyallhandbooksonhydrau-
lics.
146
29.4 DESIGNCRITERIA
Indesigningamaindrainagesystem,oneisconfrontedwithmanyandvariousfac-
tors.Itisalwaysacombinationofthesefactors that givesthedesign itsown
finalshape.Areaswhichlooksimilaratfirstglance,may turnouttobevery
different indeed insomeoftheirfactorsand thedesignof theirdrainage systems
mightbeequallydifferent intheend.Themanyrequirements areoftencontra-
dictoryandmeetingallofthemwillbeimpossible.Thefinaldesignwillthere-
forebeproducedbyweighing thevariouspossibilities,and theresultwillalways
beacompromise.Risksanddisadvantages canneverbeentirely excluded,butthe
aimistoensurethatthetotalnegativeinfluenceisassmallaspossible.An
excellent technical solutionmaybefound,which isprohibitivebecauseofits
high investmentcosts.Thebenefitshave topay forthecosts,sothequestion
wemustalwaysaskourselves iswhether theproject iseconomically justified.
29.4.1 THECROSS-SECTION OFTHECANAL
Since theaverage flowvelocity isdefined asv=Q/A,Manning's equationmay

alsobewrittenas
-2-=iAR2'3 (27)
SZ n
where—AR2'3 represents theconveyanceof thecanal section,i.e.itindicates

thedischargecapacityofthatpartofthecanal.WhenQand sareknown,the
conveyance isfixed.Ifweassumeacertainnforthedesign,then
SS=AR2'3 (28)
/i"
Thissection-factor |_m8 J isafixedvalueforthecross-section,inwhichonly
theshapemaybevaried.AtacertainAR-value,Rchangeswith theshapeofthe
cross-section.Thus thesection-factorwithaconstantA-valuebecomeslargeif
Rislarge.SinceR=A/P,thewettedperimeter (P)shouldbeassmallaspos-
sible.Consequently thesectionwiththesmallestPhasthelargestcarrying
capacity andistobeconsideredhydraulically thebestsection.Thegeometric
formforthatbest sectionisthesemi-circle.Forunlined canals thisform
hascertaindisadvantages asfarasexcavationandmaintenance areconcerned.
For thisreason thecanal isusuallygiventheshapeofatrapezium.
During excavationearth-moving shouldbekepttoaminimum tokeep costslow.
147
From thisconsiderationonemight conclude thatnarrowcross-sectionswithsteep
side-slopeswouldbemost favourable,but side-slopes shouldnotbe toosteep
because thiswould'affect theirstability.Ontheotherhandanarrowcross-section
givesalowerbottomelevation,because thewater level isusually fixed (Section
4.3).
Asanintermediate formbetween thesemi-circleand thetrapezium,thelower

partsoftheside-slopes aresometimesmadeflatter tolettheshapemoreclosely
approximate thenatural shapeofachannel.Such side-slopeswillbemore stable
thansteeper ones.Apart from this,thereareotherfactorswhichaffectthe
shapeofthecross-section.Thedepthofthecanalisoftendeterminedbythe
elevationoftheoutletsofthepipedrains,whichmaybesituated 1.50to2.00m
below thesurfaceoftheland.Asaconsequencecanals shouldbeatleast2to
2.50mdeep.But thedepth shouldbelimitedasmuchaspossible,particularly
when thesubsoil consistsofquicksand.
Ifthecross-section isnarrowand therearelargevariations inthedischarge,

therewillbelargevariations inthewaterlevelofthecanal.Yet ifthecross-
sectioniswideand lowdischarges occurfromtimetotime,theflowwillmean-
der,causing side-slopes tocave in.Thesolutionistogive thecanalacomplex
section:thedeeperpartnarrowand thehighpartwide.Thedeepersectionwill
serve forlowdischargeswhile theentirecross-sectionwillbeavailable forhigh
discharges.
Theangleoftheside-slopesofacross-section isanimportantpartofthe
design.Theangleoneshould selectdependsconsiderably onthetypeofsoil,i.e.
itsmechanicalproperties.Toobtainstableside-slopes,theymaycertainlynot
be toosteep (Table4;Section6.2)andwhentheybecomeveryhigh,ahalfway-berm
isrecommended,whichmaybeusedasaservice-path duringdryperiods.Itgoes
without saying that inthiswayacomplex sectionisformed.Oftentheside-slopes
ofearthencanalsarescouredbythewaterifthevelocitybecomes toohigh.
Consequently thevelocity shouldnotexceed thepermissiblevalues shownin
Table5 (Sect.6.6).Vegetationontheside-slopeswillprovide stabilityand
alsoresistanceagainst scouring.Groundwater shouldbeprevented,asmuchas
possible,fromseeping through theside-slopesabove thewater level (seealso
Section6).
Thedesigner shouldalsoprevent irrigationwaterfromseeping through theside-
slopes.Hecandosobyreserving astripofland,afewmetreswide,ateach
sideofthecanal.Thiscanbeturned intoaservice-road forinspectingthe
drains.
148
Toallowforapossible siltingupofcanalsandditches,theyaregenerally
givenagreaterdepthduringconstruction thanwouldberequired fromthehydraulic
computation.Theamountofoverdepthdependsontherateofsilting tobeexpected
andonthefrequencyoffuturemaintenance.Itusually amounts to 10to20cm
forcanals.
29.4.2 DISCHARGE
Themaindrainage systemhastoensure thetimelyremovalofexcesswatersothat

nodamage iscaused tothecrops.Thismeans that thewaterinthecanalsshould
notriseabovealevel thatwouldprevent thefielddrains fromdischarging.It
maynotalwaysbepossible tomeet thisrequirementwithout largeandcostly
works,butiftemporaryhighwater levelsofshortdurationaretoleratedbythe
crops,amoreeconomical though stillagriculturally acceptable solutioncanbe
found.
This isoneofmanyexamples showinghowtheagricultural requirementshaveto

be thestartingpoint inthedesignofamaindrainage system.Theserequirements
areusually formulated asfollows:acertainhighwaterlevelwillbeaccepted
provided itdoesnotlastlongerthanxdaysnoroccurwithafrequencyofmore
thanonceeveryyyears.Onthebasisofrainfalldata,onecanthencomputethe
discharge capacity thatcorrespondswith thechosenfrequency.Theresultwill
bethe"designdischarge",which isusuallyexpressed asaspecificfigure:
e.g.2litrespersecondperha.Ifthedesigndischarge isexceeded (highwater
levelsoccurringwithagreaterfrequency thanonceeveryyyears),theresult
maybedamagetocropsoreveninundations.Toeliminate theriskofthishappen-
ing,onewouldhave toincrease thedesigndischarge,butthiswouldalso increase
thecostsofthemaindrainagesystem.
Thetaskof thedesigner istoweigh themagnitudeofpossibledamageagainstthe

costsofthemaindrainage system (capital investments andyearlymaintenance).
Apart fromrainfall,theremaybeother factors thathave tobetakenintoaccount

incalculating thedesigndischarge.Irrigated areas,forinstance,mayrequire
acertainlowwater level intheirditchesduring theirrigation seasontoenable
salts tobeleached fromthesoilwithexcess irrigationwater.Attheselow
water levels,thisexcess irrigationwaterhasalso toberemoved.
Whichofthetworequirementswill serveasthebasisforthemaindrainagesystem,
willbecome evidentfromcomparativecomputations.
149
InTheNetherlands,standardvaluesforcertain soil typesandgroundwaterlevels
areoftenused forthedesigndischarge.Theseare:
1.2 to 1.33 l/s per ha (10.5 to 11.5 mm/dayJ for low-lying areas of peat and
clay, soils of low permeability, and peaty :'reclamation-soils" with parallel
drains.
0.9 to 1.0 l/s per ha (7.8 to 8.6 mm/day) for low-lying sandy soils and modera-
tely high-lying sandy soils with an impermeable layer at a depth of less than
80 em below surface.
0.6 to 0.7 l/s per ha (5.2 to 6 mm/day) for moderately high-lying sandy soils
and old arable lands.
0.3 to 0.4 l/s per ha (2.6 to 3.5 mm/day} for forests and sand dunes.
The frequencywithwhich these standard discharges occur isabout onceayear

during thewinterperiod.Acertainleewayhas tobeallowed inapplyingthe
above standards.Variationsmayoccurdue todifferences insuch factorsas:
thesoil'sinfiltrationrate,itsstorage capacity,groundwater level,theve-
getationandslopeof thearea.
Inaddition,itissometimesnecessary toprovide afreeboard correspondingwith

50%ofthedesign-discharge.
Occasionally thedrainage system isrequired tocopewith twice thedesign-
discharge,whichdischargehasavery lowfrequency ofoccurrence.
Astandard dischargeofabout 12mm/day,avalueoftenused inthedesignofmain

drainage systems forDutchpolders,doesnotdirectly correspondwith thedesign
valueforfielddrainage systems (Chap.11,Vol.11).Field drainsareoftenbased
onadischargeof7mm/dayandaminimumgroundwater tabledepthof0.50mbelow
surfacewhen thedepthofpipedrains is 1.00m.Afielddrainage systemdesigned
onthese standardshasanacceptabledischarge capacity.Thereasons forthedis-
|crepancyare:
-Thefrequency onwhich thedesigndischarge formaindrainagesystems

isbased isaboutonceayear, while that forthefield drains isseveraltimes
ayear.Inthese field drainage systems itisfound that thegroundwater table
rises toabout0.25 mbelowground surfaceonceayear.Thedischargeofthe
field drainsisthenabout 10.5mm/day,whichdoesnotdiffermuchfromtheca-
pacityofthemaindrainage system.
150
-Afterheavyrainfall,therunoff fromroads,buildingsandurbanregions
entersthemaindrainage systemdirect.Ifcanal levelsarehighasaresult,the
fielddrainagesystemwillnotbeabletodischarge into thecanals.Thefield
drainage system,however,canstoreacertainamountofexcesswater initsditches
until such timeaslowercanal levelspermit thisexcesstobedischarged.This
reduces therequired dischargecapacity ofthemaindrainagesystem.
Todeterminetherequireddischargecapacity foracertainagriculturalarea,the
startingpoint isthatapartoftheprecipitationonthefieldswillrunoff
directly totheditchesandtherestwillinfiltrateintothesoil.Therateat
which thewaterwill infiltratedependsupontheinfiltrationcapacityof thesoil.
Iftheintensityof theprecipitation isgreater thantheinfiltrationrate,part
oftheprecipitationwillremainonthefieldsorrunofftotheditches,depending
uponthesoil surfaceconditionsand thestoragecapacityof thesurface (called
surface detention asdistinct from storage in the soil). Apartofthesurface
detentionwillgradually penetrate into thesoilandapartwillevaporate.Of
course,thequantity ofwaterwhichcanfinallybestoreddependsupon thetotal
storagecapacityof thesoilandwhatpartthereof isalready saturatedbypre-
viousprecipitation orbyirrigation.
Thewatercollected inthesoilwillnotbedischarged until thesoilhasattained

field capacity,but itmaybeconsumed bytheplants.Ifsomuchwaterinfiltra-
tesinto thesoilthat field capacity isexceeded,thegroundwater levelwill
rise.Asaconsequence thedischarge totheditchesviathedrainswillincrease,
provided that theditchwater levelrisestosuchanextentthat thehydraulic
gradient over thedrainsincreases.
Thewater fromtheditches shouldbedischarged assoonaspossible topermit

drainagetocontinue.Thesurfacerunoff totheditcheswillcauseanimmediate
rise inditchwater level,and ifthislevel ishigher thantheoutletsofthe
pipedrains,fielddrainagewillbehampered andwillvarywithditchwaterlevel.
Asaresult theentireprocessbecomesvery complicated and inmostcasesacom-
putationcanonlybeaschematicalapproximation.Thecharacteristicsof thesoil,
themorphology oftherainstorms,and thesurfaceconditionsof thefieldsall
playtheir roles.Mostly,these,dataareinsufficiently knownandaverageand/or
rough figureshavetobeused.
Sometimes itisconvenient toconsiderwhatwouldhappen ifaratherheavydown-

pour,lasting anumberofdays,tookplace.Toillustrate,we shallassumethe
followingdata:
151
-asemi-arid areawith5successivedaysofprecipitation
DAY PRECIPITATIONMINUSEVAPORATION
first 70mm
second 20mm
third 15mm
fourth 5mm
fifth 5mm
-parcelling ditchesevery400m,bottomwidth0.50m,slopes 1to 1.5,

depth2.00m,tiledrains 1.50mbelowland surface
-betweenwiltingpoint (WP)andfield capacity (FC)thesoilcanabsorb

moisture to 15%ofitsvolumeandbetweenfield capacityandmaximumwaterca-
pacity5% (saturation);thevolumeofwaterbetweenWPandFC isknownas
available moisture.
Heshall furtherassume thattherainbeganhalfwaybetween twoperiodicalirriga-

tionsand thattheaveragegroundwater level is 1.20mbelow thesurface.Whenan
irrigation isdue,therewillbe,say,still40%oftheavailablemoisturepresent
inthesoil (moisturebetweenwiltingpointandfield capacity).Thus,immediately
after irrigationacorrectly irrigated fieldwillbeatfield capacityandwhen
itsnextirrigation turnisdue itwillhave lost60%oftheavailablemoisture.
Therefore,asanaverage,avalueequalto30%of theavailablemoisturewillbe
available forstorageofprecipitation.
This30%isequivalent to0.3 x15%=4.5 volumepercentof thesoil.Inthe

assumedheightof 1.20mabovegroundwater level,thisamounts to54mm.Conse-
quently,iftheentireprecipitation infiltrates intothesoil,thissoilwillbe
up tofield capacitywith54mmofprecipitation.
Ifthepipedrainsdischargenowater totheditchesonthefirstday,theexcess
of70-54= 16mmwould causethegroundwater level toriseby0.32m.The
rising groundwater level,however,will causeanincrease inthedischargefrom
thepipedrains totheditches.Using intervals inwhich thegroundwater levelmay
beassumed constant,thepipedraindischargecanbecalculated andcurvescanbe
drawn showingwhichportionoftherainfall flows totheditches andwhich
portionremains stored intheground.
152
Thisprocess isshownschematically inFig.J2.Itisimportant thatthewater

levelsintheditches remainbelow theoutletsof thepipedrains,sothepipe
drainscancontinuétofunctionatfullcapacity.
Fig.12. Dischargediagram.
Asthewater levelintheditcheswillbe 10to20cmbelowtheoutlets inthe

initial stage,acertainvolumeofwatercanstillbestored intheditchesbefore
theoutletsaresubmerged.Assuming thatthisvolume is1mm,thedischargethat
willberequired tokeep theditchwaterlevelsbelow thepipeoutletswillbe
11mmper24hours.
Theamountofrainfallingontheditchesand theirslopeswillconstitutea
directdischarge totheditches;onthefirstdayofrainfall,thisamountcan
besubstantial.
Ifthesituationisasdescribed above,fewdifficultieswillbeencounteredby
themaindrainage system,although slightlyraisedgroundwater levelsmightoccur
forabriefperiod.
Matterswillbemorecomplicated ifthesoilisalreadyatfield capacityatthe

startoftherainfall.This situation isshowninFig.13.Here,weassumethat
thesoil isatfield capacityand that theaveragegroundwater levelisfoundat
1.00mbelow thesurface.Partofthewaterrunsoffoverthesurface tothe
ditchesandnowater isstoredonthesurface.
Therainfallwillcause thegroundwater level torisetothesurfaceandwillalso

causearapidriseinthewaterlevel intheditches.Thesehighditchlevelswill
preventdrainage,which canonlybeginwhenthewater levelintheditchesdrops
again,butitwill takeatleastsomedaysbeforegroundwater levelshavereturned
tonormal.
Inthisexamplewefurtherassumethatthewaterlevelsintheditches shouldnot
risehigher than0.50mbelowland surface.Apartofthenetprecipitation(i.e.
153
afterevaporation)canbestored intheditches;here,thatamount is9mm.Our
problemnowistofindouttowhat level thewaterintheditches isallowedto
riseand forhowlong itcanstay there.WorkingwithFig.J3,wecandetermine
themaximumdischarge capacityofthemaindrainage system.Thedistancebetween
thelinerepresenting thedischarge capacityand therunoffcurveisatmaximum
9mm (storageintheditches).Thenecessary dischargecapacity isthusfoundto
beabout 18mm/day,taking intoaccountacertaindelaybetweentheriseofthe
waterlevel intheditchesand thestartoftheactualevacuationofwaterfrom
thearea.
Intheaboveexamples itwassupposed that thebulkof therainfallsduring

thefirstday,butofcourse,anyothersequenceofprecipitation ispossible.
Withthesamedischargecapacity,butthemaximumrainfalloccurringonthefifth
day,therewillbeanexcessofwaterfargreater thanthe9mmofstorageper-
mitted intheditches.Inthesecircumstances thewaterwill evenrisetotheland
surface.
I, -,,\&f(
\„VWi{x-: 'o\'
Fig.13. Dischargediagram.
29.4.3 WATERLEVEL
Theappropriatewaterlevel inanagricultural areawillbedecidedby theagri-

cultural requirements.Theseareoftenspecified asacertaindifference inele-
vationbetweentheditchwaterlevelsand thelandsurface.Thisdifference
dependsonsuchmattersasthecrops,thenatureof thesoil,and thefarmor
fielddrainage system.Ifpipedrainage isapplied,thewaterlevelintheditches
shouldpreferablynotriseabovetheoutletsofthepipestoguarantee thatthe
pipedrainagewill functionproperly.
154
Aspreviously discussed,ahigherwaterlevel thandesigndischargemaysometimes

beallowed inthecanals ifthisdoesnothappentoofrequently orlasttoolong.
Thehydraulic gradientofthecanalsofthemaindrainage systemshould correspond
asclosely aspossiblewith theslopeof theland.Iftheland inquestionhasa
gradual slope,theadaptionwillbecomparatively simple,whereas ifthetopo-
graphy isirregular,itwillbemoredifficult tomeet therequirement.Byusing
weirs,thegradientof thecanalscansometimesbebetteradapted totheslope
oftheland,but thesestructures,ofcourse,willmeanaddedexpenditure.
Different typesofsoilwithin theareawill result indifferences insubsidence
oftheland,because thefuturewater levelswillusuallybemuch lower thanthe
present ones;inpeat soilsthissubsidencecanbeconsiderable (Chap.32,Vol.IV).
Insalineareas,orinareas irrigatedwithbrackish orsaltywateranextralow
waterlevelwillberequired toallowleaching.Thiswill callfordeepdrainage
andditchwaterlevelsaslowas2.00mbelowland surface.Drainagecanals
designed onthisrequirementmayhavesuchlargecross-sections thattheirmax-
imumcapacitieswillnotbeattained at thedesigndischarge. \
Someareashaveacontinuous "free"dischargewhile inotherareas thedischarge

notonlyvaries considerablywith theoutsidewaterlevel,but isevenregularly
interrupted (seealso Sect.2.4).Therearealsoareaswheredrainagebygravity
isimpossible and theevacuationofexcesswaterdependsentirely andpermanently
onthepowerof thepumps.
Inflatareasandpolders thesituationmaybecome intricatebecauseveryoften

only little gradient isavailable and thewaternearlyalwayshas toberemoved
bypumping.Anadded complication inapolder isthat thewater leveltherewill
usuallybekepthigher thannormal indryperiods inorder toreplenish theground
waterbywater fromtheditches.Inthewetseason-ontheotherhand-the
water level isveryoftenkeptlower thannormalbecause rainwill supplysuf-
ficientwater for theplants,making infiltration fromtheditchessuperfluous,
while theextradepthmakes extra storageavailable forheavyprecipitations.
Thepumping stationhasacertainmaximumcapacitywhichcannotbeexceeded,so
thewater fromheavy rainfallwillhave tobetemporarily storedbefore itcan
bedischarged.Sometimes,becauseof thelowgradientavailable,intermediate
pumping stationshave tobeplaced along thecanals.Toprevent largefluctua-
tions inpolderwater levels,additional storagemustbeprovided inpolders
whichdischarge intotheseaortidalriverssince suchdischargemayonlybe
possible fortwoperiods ineach24hours.
155
29.4.4 HYDRAULIC GRADIENTANDFLOWVELOCITY
Thehydraulic gradientsortheslopesofthewatersurface inthecanalsare

determined by severalfactors:
- inflatareas themaximumlevelsupstreamwillbefixedby theminimum

drainage requirements and thelevelsdownstreambythelowest levelsatwhich
thepumping station(s)canoperate.Toattainsteepergradients,theexcavation
downstreamwouldhavetobecome increasinglydeep.Hence,ahigherliftofthe
water foritsevacuationwouldbenecessary,resulting inhighercosts.Flatter
gradients,ofcourse,resultinlargercross-sections.Consequently achoice
mustbemade fromdifferentpossible solutions.Inpolders ratherflatgradients
willbecustomary,sayfroms=0.0005toabout s=0.00015.Atthesiteof
thepumping station(s)awater levelof,say0.20 to0.50mbelownormalpolder
waterlevelmaybechosenatdesigndischarge;
- insloping areassteepergradientswillusuallybepossible,theirmax-
imumbeing limitedonlyby theflowvelocitieswhichwillnotadverselyaffect
thestabilityofside-slopesandbottomsofcanals.InTheNetherlands,themax-
imumpermissiblevelocity rangesbetween0.15m/sand0.80m/s.Fordetailedin-
formation seeSect.6.
29.5 INSTALLINGAMAINDRAINAGE SYSTEM
Whenamaindrainage system istobe installed,oneshould startdownstreamso

thatanywater thatmightbecomeanuisance canbegotridof.Thefirststruc-
turetobebuiltwillbetheevacuationsluiceorthepumpingstation.
Before startingwith thecanalexcavation,allother structures (weirs,etc.)

shouldbebuilt.Iftheseareinstalled after thecanalshavebeenexcavated,
thiswill cause scouringatthoseplaceswhere structureswouldhave tobein-
stalled.Canalscanbeexcavatedbymechanical equipment (ditchers,shovels,
draglines)orbymanual labour.Ifmachinesareused,itiscustomary tofinish
thecross-sectionmanually. Sometimesditchers canbe equipped with aspecial
bucket thathas theshapeofthedesired cross-section.
Itwillbemoredifficultworking insome soils thaninothers,excavationbeing

particularlydifficult ifasandy subsoil ispresent.Workingunderwetconditions
156
alsopresentsproblemsasitisthenalmostimpossible toprovide thecanalwith

therightcross-sectionandoftenthecanalswillhavetobeprotectedimmediately
afterexcavation.
Theexcavated earthwillhavetobedeposited aproperdistanceaway fromthe

canal toprevent itwashing-back intothecanaland tokeep thecanalaccessible.
Itcanalsobe takenawayandusedelsewhere.
Ifthegroundwater levelishigh,itwillbebettertoexcavate intwostages,

doingaroughcuttingonly inthefirststageandlater,whenthegroundwater
level islowered,giving thecanalitsdefinitivedepthandshape.
As surface waterandahighgroundwater levelhamperexcavationworkandmake

itmoreexpensive,itismoreeconomical toworkduringdryperiods.Ifthesoil
iswet,thewaterlevelinthecanals shouldbeloweredgradually,especially
during theperiod immediately afterexcavation,when theside-slopesarenotyet
stable.
Thiswillpreventgroundwaterfromseeping through theside-slopesofthecanal

abovewaterlevelandcausing scouring.For thesamereasonirrigationshould
notbepractised closetocanalsimmediatelyafter theirexcavation.Evenrain-
water falling into thecanalsmaycause theside-slopes todeteriorate ifit
happensbefore theyaresettledandprotectedby sufficientvegetation.
Slopesaremostvulnerable todamageimmediatelyafterconstruction,i.e.before
aprotectivelayeriseffective.Thesebaresurfacescanbegiventemporarypro-
tectionbymixing thetoplayerwithstraw (mulching),orbysprayingathin
layerofclay,blackearth,asphalt,orchemicalsonto theslopestogetherwith
thegrassseed.Growingandmaintaining avegetal coverofgrasses,clover,or
other such sod-forming plants istechnically andeconomically themosteffective
method ofprotecting aslope.Repeatedmowingwillkillweedsand stimulatethe
growthofsod-formingplants.Sod-forming ispoor ifthesideslopegradientis
steeper than 1:1.25.
Whenclimatic conditions inhibitthegrowthofavegetative cover,slopescan

beprotectedbyalayerofcoarsesand,gravel,crushed stones,tailingsof
minings,orother suchmaterial.
157
29.6 THESTABILITY OFDRAINAGECANALS
29.6.1 GENERAL
Intheprevious,sectionswehavenoted thatessentially therearetwo typesof

drains;i.e. collector drains (ditches) and conveyance drains (canals). The
designcriteriaofthe collector drain toamajor extentdependuponthefield
drainage systemasdiscussed inSect.4.The conveyance canals, however,aremainly
designed inaccordancewith themaximumexpected dischargeand topography.They
distinguish themselves fromcollectordrainsbecause theirhydraulic gradient
mayberather steepandbecause theirwater level isnotnecessarily governedby
field (pipe)drainlevel.Inpolderareasthewaterlevel intheconveyance
drainsmayevenbeabove land surface.Factorsrelevant tothedesignofacanal
and thechoiceofitsbankprotectionare thevariationofwaterlevelsinthe
canal,thechemical compositionof thecanalwater,thesoil inwhich thecanal
isexcavated,and thegroundwater flowtowards thecanal.Otherfactorsarethe
climate,localconstructionmethods,and thematerial available forbankpro-
tection.
29.6.2 SHAPEOFTHECROSS-SECTION
Earthencanalsusuallyhaveatrapezoidal cross-section.Theinclinationof
theirsideslopesdependsonthekindofmaterial inwhich thecanal iscon-
structed andthedepthoftheexcavation.Table4listssuitable side-slopesfor
canals invariouskindsofsoilmaterial.
TABLE 4. Suitable side-slopes for earthen canals indifferent soil materials
SIDE-SLOPE
SOILMATERIAL
VERTICAL : HORIZONTAL
rock ] :0.25
stiff peat 1: 1 to :2
stiff clay, loam, loesses 1 :0.75 to :2
sandy clay and cohesive sandy soil 1:1.5 to : 2.5
loose sandy earth 1 :2 to : It
sandy loam,porous clay 1 :2 to :3

softpeat 1 :3 to :4
Ineasilyerodiblematerial,thesideslopesshouldbecheckedagainst thecri-
terionofmaximumpermissiblevelocityand/orbytheprincipleoftractive
force (seeSection6.4).
158
The width-depth ratio foraconveyancedrain issometimes selectedbysimple

empirical rules suchastheoneproposedby theearlyU.S.ReclamationService,
whichreads
y=0.5 SR (29)
whereyisthefulldesignwaterdepthinmetresandAequalsthewettedcross-
sectionalareainsquaremetres.For trapezoidal cross-sections thisempirical
rulemayalsobewrittenas
b/y=4-p (30)
wherepistheside-sloperatio horiz./vert.
IndianandPakistani engineersuseasimilarempirical rulewhichmaybewritten

as
b/y=3-p (31)
The freeboard allowed inacollectorditch (Sect.4)dependsonfielddrain

outflow-levelandontherequired storagecapacity intheditch;itusuallyis
suchthat thedangerofovertopping isslightwhile thedamage tocropsbecause
ofincidental flooding islimited.Embankment overtopping ofmaindrainage
canals,however,will causeconsiderabledamage.Thispossibledamageisthemost
important factor intheselectionofafrequency ofoccurrenceofthemaximum
designcapacityof theconveyance canal.Afreeboard isthereforerequiredabove
thethusobtainedmaximumwaterdepth (y ).Estimatesofthefreeboardmaybe
J
max
madewithEq.28
W=/c y (32)
w max
whereWisthefreeboard inmetresandc isacoefficientvarying from 1.5for

w
acanalwithamaximumdesigncapacityof0.6m3/s to2.5 foracanalcapacity
of80m/sormore.For thosecanal sectionswhereprotective revetmentsare
required,theU.S.Bureau ofReclamationhasmadecertainrecommendationswhich
areshowninFig.14.
Detailsofthecanalcross-sectionandothercriteriasuchasspoilbanksand
bermswhichmaybeuseful fordesignpurposesare showninFig.15forcommon
drainsand inFig.16forhillsidedrains.
159
flow capacity
in m-Vsec
100
80- /
60- /
40
- /
-
&L.
4\
/
'y
- /
- i
/
-
1
1
\
1
0.8 1 / i
1
0.6
1
1
- 1
i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
metres above water surface
Fig.14. Recommendedminimum freeboard andheightofbankprotection

(afterU.S.Bureau ofReclamation).
Fig.15. Conveyancedraincross-section.
Fig.16. Hillsidedraincross-section.
160
Forcommondrains (Fig.15)thespoilbankmaybeonbothsidesifconvenient.
Aberm,separating thecanalfromthespoilbankordike,shouldbeprovidedon
bothsidesofacommondrainif
- thewidthatthenatural surfaceexceeds 10.0m

- thedraininvertismorethan 1.50mbelow topofbank
- thereisaconsiderable excesscut.
Ifnot,thebermmaybeomitted atoneside.
29.6.3 MINIMUMPERMISSIBLEVELOCITY
Theminimumpermissiblevelocity inaconveyancedrainisarathervaguebutstill
importantvalue,whichdependsonanumberof factors suchaspossiblesilting,
growthofaquaticweeds,andhealth control.Thevelocity atwhichnosedimenta-
tionwilloccurdependsonthediameter (d)ofthematerial transported.Some
informationontheaveragevelocity required topreventadrainfromsiltingup
isgiveninFig.17.
mean velocity (v )
m/sec
-,2
mm
diameter of sand grain (d )
Fig.17. Movementofgrainsinopenchannels (afterHjulström, 1939).

Related to mean velocity which is not determinative for flow conditions
at the bed. Design criteria should not be taken from this graph.
AsshowninFig.7,thegrowthofaquaticweedsandmosswil seriouslydecrease
thedischarge capacityofadrainchannel.Anaverage flowvelocityof0.75m/s
will,generally speaking,prevent suchgrowth.
Toprevent seriousdiseases likemalariaandbilharzia fromspreadingoverare-

gion,theaverage flowvelocity inopenchannels shouldexceed 0.40m/s.
161
Incollectorditches theseminimumvelocitieswill seldombefeasible sothat
weedswillhave tobemownmore frequently.Diseases canbefought toacertain
extentbydesigning collectors sothat theywillgodry ifnodrainageis
required.
29.6.4 LIMITINGTRACTIVEFORCE
Providednobed-load issupplied totheconveyancedrainagecanal,itshouldbe

designed sothat theforceexerted onthecanalbedbytheflowingwaterremains
belowapermissiblevalue.Thispermissible tractive forceisdeterminedbythe
graindiameterof thenon-cohesivebed-material.Inacanalwithuniformflow,
thetractive forceequals thecomponentofthegravity forceactingonthewater
body intheflowdirection,whichequalsperunit length (seeEq.I5).
P gAs (33)
w
Hence theaveragevalueofthetractiveforceperunitwettedperimeterequals
P„gRs (34)
Withatrapezoidal cross-section,theshear-stress isnotuniformly distributed

along thecanalboundary,butalong thebottom ithasmaximumvaluesofabout
P gRs andalong thesidesclose to0.75 p gRs(seeFig.18).
centre line
Pw 0y s of canal
for bottom boundary
1.0
^W/0^%%%5^0^
P w 9 ys
for side boundary
h- - - half width of canal bottom
Fig.18. Distributionoftractive forceinchannels (afterLane,1955).
162
'•'lain drainage systems
Fornon-cohesive canalbed-material therewillbeequilibrium,provided theratio
P
K w g RS
«tg (35)
G " a i ( p m - pw) g D
Rs «aitg (36)
AD
where
R =hydraulicradius
s =longitudinal canalslope
p =massdensityofthebed-material
m
ai=percentageof solidmaterial inalayerwith thicknessD
4> =angleofinternalrepose indegrees
Fig.19. Forcesactingonacanalbed
(twodimensional).
Aconsiderable amountofresearchhasbeendoneonthis subject,andasaresult

wecanstate thatcanalbed-materialwillremainstableprovided Rs/A d < 0.05
whereddenotes thegraindiameterofthebed-material.
Asoilparticleresting ontheside-slopeofacanal issubject totwomajor

forceswhich tendtomove it:thetractive forceand thegravity force (see
Fig.20).
Forequilibriumwemay thuswriteagainthattheratiooftractiveovergravity
forceshouldnotexceed thetangentsof theangleofinternalrepose.Hence
]/K 2 +
;tg (37)
Gcosa
163
Fig.20. Forcesactingonacanal side-slope
(afterL.vanBendegom).
l/(K/G)2 +sin2 a
Stg
„tg"(j)
(K/G)v22 S „ 2 , cos
_ _ 22a-sin2 a
1/
1/i
1-sin- 2a- sin2a
Stg
t g 2 <t>
Hence
2
K.
- S-.
_ jif
tg .1/ViI sin a (38)
G - 2 j.
sin d>
whereaequalstheangleof theside slopewith thehorizontal.Becauseofthe
influenceoftheside-slope,Eq.36changesto
hi «0.05 V]
y . _sin2a (39)
Ad
wherehequals thewaterdepthontheside-slope.Values ofthetractiveforce

ratio
164
areafunctionoftheinclinationoftheside-slope (a)and theangleofinternal

reposeoftheboundarymaterial (<()).TheU.S.Bureau ofReclamationhasprepared
curvesshowing theangleofinternalreposeasafunctionofthediameter (above
0.005m)and thedegreeofroughnessofthematerial.
angle of repose
in degreeswith horizontal
42
—,
/ s
^
/
' /
i, /
4
<$ /
4 <•> f/ /
A9
V
$A
y
0\ rJ0
£
/ A, *,/ /
/ J
v
/ J%
'1iL ,
è k/ i / Fig.21. Anglesofrepose fornon-
/
3 4 5 6 7 8 910 cohesivematerial (afterU.S.Bureau
particle size in cm ofReclamation).
Theparticle sizereferred toinFig.21 isthediameterofaparticle thatwhich

25% (byweight)of thematerial islarger.Valuesof thetractive forceratio
asafunctionofbothaand(j>areshowninFig.22..
Ifwater isrunningdownward overaside-slope,agravitycomponentand thetrac-

tiveforceareacting inthesamedirection (Fig.23).
165
side slopes
degrees (hor :vert.)
45 1:1
40
-
^ ^ 4 5 ° analeof reDose
35
\4tf -
30
-
^^30° - 2:1
25
^~^25° _2 i : 1
2i:1
20 " 3:1
0°
\ ^ \
—
^^\
^ i
^
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
7
V /1 sin'a
sin 2 0
a - angle of side s l o p e A -
§ - angle of repose ^ i _
Fig.22. Tractive forceratiofornon-cohesivematerial (afterLane,1955).
\Si' Fig.23. Flowoveraside-slope.
Againwemaywriteasacriterion forthestabilityof theslope that theratio
K+Gsina "' « tg<J> (40)

Gcosa
tgcpcosa-sina (41)
IfwewriteEq.41as
^ tg(J) (cosa-sina) (42)
166
wewill findagreatervalueforGandmaycombineEq.38withEq.32giving
Rs
S0.05 (cos a -sina) (43)
Ad
Thisrather simpleequationgivesasomewhathigherG-valueand thusagreater

diameter d.Thisisfavourablesince turbulenceonaside-slope is,ingeneral,
more thanonaflatchannelbed.Itmaybenoted thatifwesubstitute a =0
intoEq.43,thiscriterionequals thatofstability foraflatchannelbed.
29.6.5 GROUNDWATERFLOWTHROUGHTHEBANK
Becauseofgroundwater flowinto thecanal,aflowpressure,equaltop gi,is

w
exerted onthecanalboundarymaterial,where idenotes thepiezometricpressure
gradientover theboundary layer.Thedirectionofthispressure isabouthori-
zontal ifgroundwater outflowoccursabovecanalwaterleveland isperpendicular
totheside-slope iftheoutflowoccursatthewettedpartoftheside-slope
(seeFig.24).
(Pm-Pw>9
Fig.24. Groundwater outflowatside-slope. A: Groundwater outflow above

water level. B: Groundwater outflow at wetted -part of side-slope.
Other forceswhichactuponaunitvolumeofboundary layeraregravity pgand

adisplacement force pg.Theresultantoftheseforcesactsatanangle 0to
w
thevertical.Thecondition forequilibriumof theboundarymaterial isthesame
asusedbefore,thus
a+ß< (44)
167
Ingeneral,thiscondition iseasily fulfilled forslopesunderwater,while
forslopesabovewater,itisfrequently alimiting factor.Mostdamagecaused
by inflowing groundwateroccurs innewlyexcavated canalsbecauseofthehigh
hydraulic gradientover theside-slopes.Thisdamagecanbecounteractedby
-preliminary digging ofthecanal,followed byaslowdraining;theexca-

vationisthencompleted thefollowingyear
-excavation inreachesof,say,halfaday'swork,immediately followed
by flooding;damsbetween thereaches shouldberemovedaftertheentire
excavation isfinished;aslowdrainingfollows
-dredging,ifthecanalsarelargeenoughand thenecessary equipment
isavailable;dredging isoftenaneconomicalmethod ofsoilexcavation
and itintroducesonlyminorhydrostaticpressuresover theembankments
duringconstruction.
29.6.6 MAXIMUMPERMISSIBLEVELOCITY
Themaximumpermissible ornon-erodiblevelocity israthercomplexanddepends

onalargenumberofvariablesdescribing thehydraulicproperties andageof
thecanaland thematerial inwhich thecanal isconstructed.Agenerally accepted
wayofestimating themaximumpermissiblevelocity istouselocalexperience
and sound engineering judgment.Somedatawhichmay serveasaguideinaddition
tothetheoryinSect.6.4arepresentedbelow.
A still famousempirical equation forthemaximumpermissiblevelocitywaspub-

lishedbyKENNEDY (1895)andreadsforclearwater
v A =Cy0"5 (45)
Thecoefficient Cdependsonsoiltypeandisgivenforanumberofnon-cohesive
materials inFig.25.Thisfigurealsoshowsvaluesof themeanflowvelocities
used incanalsdesignedby theU.S.Bureau ofReclamation.
FORTIERandSCOBEY (1925)published anowwell-known tableofmaximumpermissible

canalvelocitieswhich showsvaluesofv forstraightcanalsofsmallslope
afteragingand forwaterdepths (y)of I.00m.Thetablealsoshowsaverage
n-valuesforuseinManning's equation forvarious soilmaterials.
ThereaderwillnotethatTable5alsogivespermissiblevelocities forcanals
excavated inmaterialswhere cohesionandnot theweight (diameter)ofagrain
isthefactordecidingwhether therewillbescourornot.
168
depth ofwater permissible bottom widths

metres in metres
3 9.0to18.0
' / /
KENNEDYformula modified for Clearwater / /
V A -c.yO-M
'/
(straight canals)
/1
A/ ' /<?/
/ O'/ /,
„>/ o/ //
/ # / > 7
vY
c
r //^
f°€<ff —
<
/&
— 1.20to2.70
/o° c _
# 0.60to1.50
'&
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 110
allowable flow velocity v^
in m/sec
Fig.25. Maximum p e r m i s s i b l e mean v e l o c i t y .
TABLE 5. Maximum permissible v e l o c i t i e s in non-vegetated canals

(after FORTIER and SCOBEY, 1925)
VELOCITY (in m/s)

ORIGINALMATERIAL EXCAVATED clear water trans- water trans-
water porting col- porting sand,
FOR CANAL loidal silts gravel or
fragments
fine sand,colloidal 0.020 0.45 0.75 0.45

sandy loam, non-colloidal 0.020 0.53 0.75 0.60
silt loam,non-colloidal 0.020 0.60 0.90 0.60
alluvial silts,non-colloidal 0.020 0.60 1.05 0.60
ordinary firm loam 0.020 0.75 1.05 0.68
volcanic ash 0.020 0.75 1.05 0.60
stiff clay,very colloidal 0.025 1.13 1.50 0.90
alluvial silts,colloidal 0.025 1.13 1.50 0.90
shales and hardpans 0.025 1.80 1 .80 1.50
fine gravel 0.020 0.75 1.50 1.13
graded loam to cobbles
when non-colloidal 1.50 0.90
graded loam to cobbles
when colloidal 0.030 1 .20 1.65 1.50
coarse gravel,non-colloidal 0.025 1.20 1 .80 1.95
cobbles and shingles 0.035 1 .80 1.80 1.50
169
LELIAVSKY (1965)madeavastnumberofmeasurements inEgyptian irrigationcanals
and foundmaximumpermissiblemeanvelocities forvariousclaysoils (seeFig.26).
Thesevaluesaregivenasafunctionofthevolumepercentageporespacefor
canalswithawaterdepthofy=1.00m.
pore space
ratio
0.80
0.60
0.40
Fig.26. Permissible flowvelocities

0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 )0 1.20 1.40 forcohesivematerials (after
m/sec
average permissible velocity Leliavsky)
Since scouring iscausedprimarily by theflowvelocities along thechannel

bottom,acorrection factorshouldbeapplied tothevaluespresented inTable5
andFig.26ifthewaterdepthdoesnotequal 1.00m.Thisisbecauseadeep
channelwill causelowerbottomvelocities thanashallowchannelwhenthemean
velocity isthe sameinboth channels.Thementioned correction factorfequals
meanvelocitywithwaterdepthy y
f= meanvelocitywithwaterdepth=1.0m vi
Provided weassumeaone-sixthdegreeparabolaastheverticalvelocitydistri-
bution,wemaywrite
1/6 (46)
v y =V l y
Consequently thecorrection factor (f)equals
f=y l/6 (47)
Valuesoffmayberead fromFig.27.
170
water depth
y in metres
10
/
f=y " 6 ;
^ / |
0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 Fig.27. Correction factoronthe
correction factor f permissible flowvelocity.
Thepresenceofgrassorvegetation inadrainage channelasaprotectivecover

of thebare soilsurface isoftenfound tobeadvantageous.Thegrasslining
willpreventhighvelocities along thechannelbed,stabilize thechannelcross-
sectionby itsdenseroot-system,andcheck scourand transportofbed-material.
Permissibleaverage flowvelocities thatwillprevent seriouserosion inachan-

nelforreasonably longperiodsdependonthechannelgradientand theerodibility
ofthesoil.Permissiblevelocities forgrass-lined channelsrecommendedonthe
basisofinvestigationsby theU.S.SoilConservation Service (1954)andthe
WaterResearchFoundationofAustralia (1969)arepresented inTable6.
The selectionof the typeofvegetal coverforchannel liningdependsonthe

combinationofclimateand soilconditionsunderwhich thegrasscandevelopa
densecover.
Allmaximumpermissiblevelocitiesmentioned sofarrefer tostraightchannels.

Toprevent scouratchannel curves,thevelocities shouldbeloweredbyenlarging
thewetted cross-sectional area.LANE (1955)suggested thefollowing approximate
percentages ofreduction inthemaximumpermissiblevelocity:5%forslightly
sinuous canals,13%formoderately sinuouscanalsand 22%forvery sinuouscanals.
The radiusofcurvatureatchangesofcanalalignment should,ingeneral,have
aminimumvaluewhichdependsmainlyonthecanal capacity.The followingminimum
empiricalvaluesmaybeused (seeTable7).
171
TABLE6. Permissible velocities forgrass-lined channels
(adapted fromU.S.Soil Conservation Service, 1941,
and Eastgate, 1969)
PERMISSIBLE VELOCITY
m/s
SLOPE
erosion easily
RANGE
resistant eroded
(sin%)
soils soil
Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum),Bermuda 0- 5 2.40 1.80

grassorAfrican star grass (Cynodon dactylon) 5 - 1 0 2.10 1.50
>10 1.80 1.20
Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides),Kentucky 0 - 5 2.10 1.50
bluegrass (Poapratensis), Smooth brome 5-10 1.80 1.20
(Bromus inermis),Blue grama (Bouteloua >10 1.50 0.90
gracilis), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana)
Grassmixture 5 1.50 1.20

10 1.20 0.90
Do notuseo n slopes steeper
than10%
L e s p e d e z a s e r i c e a , W e e p i n g love grass 1.00 0.75

(Eragrostis c u r v u l a ) , K u d z u (Pueraria t h u n -
Do n o tuseo n slopes steeper
b e r g i a n a ) , Queensland Bluegrass (Dichanthium
than 5 % ,except for s i d e - s l o p e s
s e r i c e u m ) , A l f a l f a (Medicago s a t i v a ) , C r a b -
in a c o m b i n a t i o n channel
grass (Digitaria s a n g u i n a l i s )
Annuals - used o nmild slopes oras temporary

p r o t e c t i o n until p e r m a n e n t coversare
Use oneslopes steeper than 5%
e s t a b l i s h e d , Common L e s p e d e z a (Lespedeza
is n o t recommended
s t r i a t a ) , Sudan grass (Sorghum s u d a n e n s e )
Permissible velocities apply to average, uniform stands of each type of

vegetal cover. Velocities over 1.5 m/s to be used where proper maintenance
can be obtained only
TABLE 7. M i n i m u m radius of c u r v a t u r e at changes of canal a l i g n m e n t
CANAL CAPACITY M I N I M U M RADIUS
up to 10 m 3 / s 3 x base w i d t h
10 to 14 m 3 / s 4 x base w i d t h
14 to 17 m 3 / s 5 x base w i d t h
17 to20 m 3 / s 6 x base w i d t h
20 m 3 / s and over 7 x base width
Radius to be rounded off to next highest metre. Minimum radius 5.0 m
172
Under fieldconditions thatdonotpermitthelistedradius,aminimumradius

equal tothreetimesbasewidthcouldbeused ifprotective lining isprovided.
This,however,istobeadoptedonlyinexceptionalcircumstances.
29.6.7 PROTECTIONAGAINSTSCOUR
Damagebyscourcanbepreventedorreducedbykeeping theflowvelocityofthe
waterbelowitsmaximumpermissiblevalue.This,according tothecriterion
Rs/Ad<0.05,canbedoneby installingdropstructures (reducings)orby
applyingaprotectivelayer (increasingd)alongthebedandside-slopesofthe
canal.Whichofthetwomeasures istobepreferreddependsonthetopography
oftheareaandoneconomic factors.Sincethecompositionofliningsfordrainage
canalsandthatoftransitionsorbatter-protectionatthedownstreamendof
structuresarealike,itisconvenient todiscussbankandbedprotectionbefore
dealingwithstructures.
Revetments indrainagecanalsareusuallynon-watertight toenable theflowof

groundwater intothecanal.Suchaperviouslininghastwofunctions:ithasto
resistforcesduetoflowpressure,wash,etc.,anditmustatalltimesfunction
asafilter.Dependingontheforcesexertedontheboundary layer,astone
diameter (orstoneweight)canbedetermined asshowninSects.6.5and6.6. For
itsfilterfunction,itshouldmeet thefollowingdemands.
Thepermeability towaterofthefilterconstructionasawholeandofeachsepa-
ratefilterlayermustbegreater thanthatoftheunderlyingmaterial.
12 3 4 5 <&=
\JZ^%MMZL
5SS
Fig.28.Permeabilityofafilter
-bad filter
- w e l l designed filter construction.
Forthistooccur
AH AH , AH „
n , n-1 . n-2
— < r — < J — etc.
n n-1 n-2
173
Tomaintain sufficientpermeability,asecondrequirementis
di5n layer diJ

5 layer
=5to40
di5(n-l)layer d15subgrade
wheredisequals thediameterofthesieveopeningwhereby 15%ofthetotal

weight ofthesamplepasses thesieve.Depending ontheshapeandgradationof
thegrains,roughly thefollowingratioscanbeused
-homogeneous round grains (gravel) 5-10

-homogeneous angulargrains
(brokengravel,rubble) 6-20
-well-graded grains 12-40
Toprevent thefilterfromclogging,itisadvisable thatdsofalayerbelarger

than0.75mm.
Toprevent the lossoffinematerial ofanunderlying filter layerorthesubgrade,

thefollowingrequirementswith regard toimperviousnesstosandmustbemet
d [5 n layer di51 layer

«5
da5(n-I)layer dessubgrade
and
dsonlayer dsol layer

5 to60
d5o(n-l)layer dsosubgrade
Asbefore,theratiodependsontheshapeandgradationofthegrainsasfollows:
-homogeneous round grains (gravel) 5-10

-homogeneous angulargrains
(brokengravel,rubble) 10-30
-well-graded grains 12-60
Therequirements inthis sectiondescribe thesievecurvesofthesuccessive

filter layers.Provided thatthesievecurveoftheboundary layer (nlayer)and
thesubgrade isknown,otherlayerscanbeplotted.Inpracticeone shouldavoid
theuseofmaterials thatarenotavailableonthelocalmarket,since itis
uneconomical tocomposeaspecialmixture.
174
M
ain drainage systems
°/o in weight remaining on sieve

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175
IMPERMEABLE REVETMENTS PERMEABLE REVETMENTS
— COVER STONE
- GRASS ON CLAY
_ SUCCESSIVE FILTER LAYERS
OF SAND AND GRAVEL
GRASS ONCLAY ARMOURED

WITH PITCHING STONE - ONE LAYER OF GRAVEL
?mm - NYLCN TISSUE
- COVER STONE
_ CONCRETE BLOCKS WIT
T TT T ASPHALTE BITUMEN LAYER OF BRAIOED AZOBÉ-
"~STRIPS ON FILTER
MATERIAL
CONCRETE BLOCKS ON -COVER STONE

^ ^ PLASTIC- SHEET
M •COVER STONE
- S R O - SAND
_ STONE PACKEDIN
- ASPHALT CONCRETE EXPANDED METAL
- FINE GRAVEL
REVETMENTS IMPERMEABLE FROM INSIDE
PERMEABLE FROM OUTSIOE
T I I j l CONCRETI E BLOCKS
^ 2 ^ ^ - F . N E G R GRAINED
A GRAVEL
L3E3QQ]-
PITCHING STONE
Fig.30. Examplesoffilters.
176
Toprovideastableandeffectively functioning filter,thesievecurves forsub-
gradeandfilterlayersshouldrunaboutparallel forthe small-diametergrains.
Toobtainafairgrainsizedistribution throughoutafilterlayer,eachlayer
shouldbesufficiently thick.Thefollowing thicknessesmustberegarded asa
minimum forafilterconstructionmadeinthedry
- sand,finegravel 0.05 to0.10m

- gravel 0.10 to0.20m
- stones 1.5 to2times thelargest stonediameter
Withfiltersconstructed underwater,thesethicknesseshavetobeincreased
considerably tocompensate forirregularities inthesubgradeandbecause itis
moredifficult toapplyanevenlayerunderwater.
Manyvariations canbemadeonthebasic filterconstruction.Oneormoreofthe

layerscanbereplacedwithothermaterials.Toillustrate,wecanmentionsome
protective liningswhereonly theboundary layer (nlayer)ismaintained,while
theunderlying layersarereplacedbyonesinglelayer.Forexample (seeFig.30)
- concreteblocksonanylonfilter
- stonesonbraided azobéslatsonplasticfilter
-gabionsonfinegravel
-nylon-sandmattresses
Theusualdifficultywith thesevariants istheirperviousness tounderlying

sand.Theopenings ineachlayer shouldnotbegreaterthan0.5 x desofthe
underlyingmaterial.Ifopeningsaregreater,one shouldnotreduceallunder-
lyinglayersbutmaintain somany layers (usuallyone)asareneeded toprevent
thesubgrade frombeingwashed through thecombinedlayer.
Agreatnumberoflocalandeconomic factorsultimatelydeterminewhattypeof
protective constructionwillbeselected.Tomentionsomeofthem:required
durability,destructivemechanical,chemical,ororganic influences,available
materials andmanpower,possibleconstructionperiod,maintenance,etc.
177
29.7. FLOWVELOCITYCONTROL
29.7.1 GENERAL
AsshowninSect.6.4,theflowvelocity inacanalconstructed innon-cohesive

materials,willcauseerosionproblems iftheratioRs/Adexceeds0.05,provided
there isnoinflowofsedimentsattheupstreamendof thecanal.
The transportofbed-material canbepreventedby
-usingalargerdiameter forthegrains thatcover thebottomandside-

slopesof thecanalashasbeendiscussed intheprevioussection
-designing acanalwithasmallhydraulic radius.Awatercoursewitha

wideprofilehasalower sediment transport capacity thanonewithanarrowand
deepprofile.However,fromaneconomicpointofview,awidecanalcanbepro-
hibitive since itwill takeupmore land surfaceandrequiremoreexcavation
-designingacanalwithflatterhydraulic gradient(s). Ifthelongitudinal

slopeofthelandsurfacewhere thecanal istobeconstructed issteep,special
structureswillbeneeded todiminish thehydraulic gradientofthecanal.
Different typesofstructurescanbeused forthispurpose.
Drop structures. Vertical dropsarebuilt inditchesandcanalswhereonly

aboutonemetreof fallisrequired.Inclined drops-usuallyreferred toas
chutes-canbeinstalled ineither small-orlarge-capacitycanalswhere
theloweringofheadmayvaryfrom0.25 mtomorethan 10m.
Check structures. Iftheupstreamwater levelhastobecontrolled,adjus-

table gatescanbeinstalled atthecontrol sectionsofthedrop.Checksare
usedwhenadifferent summerandwinterlevelhas toh;maintained orwhenthe
drainagecanalsareused forgroundwater control inthedryseason.
Weirs. Theseareoverflowstructureswhichmaybeused forcontrollingthe

upstreamwaterlevelormeasuringdischarge,orboth.Togainsomebasicdataon
thedrainagedischargeofacertainarea,measuringweirscanbeinstalledin
combinationwithadrop structurewithoutadditionalcosts.
Sinceweirsandchecksareparticular casesofdropstructures,weshalldeal
withdrop structureshere inmoredetail.
178
29.7.2 STRAIGHTDROPSTRUCTURES
The drop structure incorporatesaspillway crestandastillingbasinwithsome

formofsillorbaffle,combinedwith sidewallarrangements todissipatethe
energy.The structure should createaground rollerwhichwillnotcausebed
scour immediately downstreamofthestructure,asthiswouldotherwiseundermine
the structure.Furthermore itshould control thesurface turbulenceandback
eddyflowtoreducebatterscour.Inaddition,thestructuremusthavesufficient
provision forbottomcut-offandsideheadwall cut-off topreventpipingunder
oraround it,pipingbeing themaincauseoffailureofstructures.Thesidewall
andheadwallarrangementsofthestructuremustbeable toretain therequired
earthworks.Drop structuresmustnotbebuilt inbends.Asymmetric flowthrough
thestructure tends tocausedamage tothedownstreambanksdue tocross-flow,
especiallywith submerged flowconditions.
Fig.31. Thestraight dropstructure.
Theaerated free-falling nappewill strike thebasinfloorand turndownstream.

Beneath thenappeapool isformedwhich supplies thehorizontal thrustrequired
toturnthejetdownstream.Becauseoftheimpactofthenappeonthebasinfloor
and theturbulent circulation inthepoolbeneath thenappe,anamountofenergy
islost.Thisamounthasbeendetermined inexperimentsbyMOORE (1943),the
resultsofwhichareplotted inFig.32.
Figure 32shows thattheenergy lossE atthebaseofastraightdropmaybeas

highas50%of theinitial energywith thebasinfloorasareference level.Fur-
therenergywillbedissipated inthehydraulic jumpdownstreamofstation1.The
amountofenergy lossover thejump (E.)isafunctionofthe Froude number
Fri =vi/(gA/B) 1 2 oftheincomingjet.ValuesofE.mayberead fromFig.32.
Thereadermaynotethat theremaining energydownstreamof thejump,E2,remains
179
rather constant and is equal to 2.5 y .The flow geometry of a straight drop
structure may be related to the following independent variables
- the drop distance Az, in metres

- the unit discharge q inm /s per metre width.
These two terms can be expressed in a dimensionless ratio by expressing q in

linear form by means of the equation for critical depth,
(48)
and hence
,/Az ="]ƒ q 2 /g Az 3 (49)
The dimensionless ratio in the right-hand term of this equation is called the
drop number
D = q 2 /gA z 3 (50)
ratio
Az/yc
- 1
1 /
1 expe rimental (MOORE
E
! i ' Vc
(
/
/
J^\~ .:. E
/*C ./ E L /y c
/ ^
/
/ /
T /
1 //
iV
I /A I i
2 4 6 8 1 0 12 14
ratio E/y c
Fig.32. Energy dissipation in a straight drop structure (after

F.M.Henderson, 1966).
180
RAND (1955)found that theflowgeometry ofthestraightdropcanbedescribed

withinanerrorof5%orlessbythefollowing functions
(51)
L j A z = 4.30 D 0 - 2 7
d
y /Az = 1.00 D u ' 2 2 (52)
yi/Az = 0.54 D 0 - " 2 5 (53)
y 2 /Az = 1.66 D 0 , 2 7 (54)
Whilethehorizontal distancecoveredby thehydraulicjumpequals
L. =6.9(y2-y i ) (55)
Toprevent thehydraulic jumpmovingdownstream,ay2/6high sillmaybeaddedas

astandard designfeature.With thehelpofEqs.51 through 55,thestraightdrop
structure canbedesigned completely.Careshouldbetakenthatthespillwaycrest
doesnotgiveasignificant sidecontraction thatwill causeaconcentration
ofthenappeonthecentreofthebasinfloor.Theapproachsectionshouldthere-
forebedesigned sothat flowseparationdoesnotoccur.
The free-fallingnapperemovesacontinuous quantityofairfromtheairpocket

indicated inFig.31.Thisquantityofairshouldbereplaced topreventvibration
ofthenappeandpossible resonanceoftheentire structure.Ifthedownstream
pier faceisnotoffset sufficiently fromthejet,airvents shouldbeinstalled
toprevent thisvibrationandshouldhaveanairsupply capacity inm /sper
metrecrestwidthequalto
q . =0.1
air
(yp/hj) 1,5 (56)
whereq equals themaximumunitdischargeoverthedropstructure.
Downstream fromStation 1inFig.31,thehydraulic designofthebasinmaybe

proportioned tomeet special tailwater conditions.If,forexample,thetailwater
depthisgreaterthantheconjugatedepthofthehydraulicjump,thejumpwill
moveupstreamagainst thefree fallingnappeand thereby raisethepooldepth,
y ,beneath thenappe.Ifthishappens,thehorizontal thrustactinguponthe
nappewill increase and thenappewillbedeflected downstream sothatitwill
181
meetthebasinfloortotherightofStation1.TheU.S.BureauofReclamation
hasdevelopedanimpactblock typebasinforlowheads,whichgivesareasonably
good energydissipationforawiderangeoftailwaterdepths.Theenergydissipa-
tedisprincipallybyturbulence inducedbytheimpingementoftheincomingjet
upontheimpactblocks.Therequired tailwaterdepth,therefore,canbeconsidered
independentofthedropdistanceAz.
TWJ2,15Y C
^VW^W/^W
S> 2.55Yc
basin length
Fig.33. Straightdropspillwaywith impactblocks (afterU.S.Bureau

ofReclamation).
Thelinearhydraulicproportionsofthestructureareasfollows
minimum basin length L,+2.55y

d c
minimum length to upstream
face of impact block Lj+0.8y
d c
minimum tailwater depth y2>2.15yc
optimum impact block height 0.8y

c
width and spacing of impact
blocks approx.0.4y
c
optimum height of end sill 0.4y
182
The lengthratioL,/Azisinfluenced by therateofsubmerge.Figure 34shows

valuesofL,/AzasafunctionoftheratioAh/hand thedropnumber,
d
1.0
drop number D - q V g A z
Fig.34. Lengthratios forimpactblocktypedrop structure

Ifagratecomposed ofaseriesofbeams forming slotsparallel totheflowdi-

rection isplaced ontopofthestraightdrop spillway,thevertical jetcanbe
separated intoanumberoflongthinsheetsofwaterfallingalmostvertically
into thecanalbelow.Thegratecanbemadeofaseriesofsteelrails,channel
irons,ortimbers,andcanbe installed asshown inFig.35.
T.w depth î v
Fig.35. Slottedgratingdissipator
183
Ifthegrateistilted downward atanangleof3degreesormore,thegrateis
self-cleaning.Forthegratetobeeffective,theentire incomingflowmustfall
through theslotsandmustnotreach thedownstreamendofthegrate.Itslength
L isthereforeafunctionofboth theincomingflowQand theareaoftheslots.
Ci
Experimental testsby theU.S.Bureau ofReclamationhaveresulted inthefollowing

expression
1.25Q
(57)
wN </lgh
where
L =thelengthofthegrating inmetres
G
w =theslotwidth inmetres
N =numberofslots
h =upstreamheadover thedropinmetres
Thebasin lengthL shouldbeabout 1.2 timesL_.Anend sillasshowninFig.31

maybeprovided toimprove thehydraulic action.Theslottedgratingdissipator
isaneffectivedrop structureprovided theFroudenumberoftheapproachflow
doesnotexceed0.5.
29.7.3 INCLINEDDROPSORCHUTES
The chute incorporatesaspillwaycrest,dischargecanal,andastillingbasin
with someformofsilland/orbafflecombinedwithsidewall arrangements todis-
sipate theenergy.Inthebasinahydraulicjump shouldbecreated sothatbed
scour immediately downstreamof thestructure isavoided (Fig.36).
'//AWA^/ZA^,
Fig.36. Inclined droporchute
184
Main drainagesystems
Dischargewillpassthrough thecriticalstageinthespillwaycontroland enter

thedischarge canalassupercritical flow.Dependingontheslopesanddimensions
of thecanal,theflowmaybedecelerating,uniform,oraccelerating,but should
remainsupercritical throughoutthelengthofthecanal.Flowatanypointalong
+v 2 /2g).Thisspe-
thecanalwilldependupontheavailable specificenergy(y
cificenergy equalsthetotaldropfromtheupstreamwaterleveltothecanal
bottomatthepointunderconsideration,minustheaccumulated energy losses
up
tothatpoint.Mostdischargecanalshaveonlygradual changesinalignment
so
thatlossesdue
toturbulence,impact,andtransitionmaybeneglectedwith
respectto friction losses. Thefrictionlossesmaybeexpressedas
L 22
hc =ƒ^ - 2 -dx (58)
f oR„,3
where
v=/2gTT (59)
If,byroughapproximation,wewrite thatR=q/v,andassume that thewater

surfaceisapproximatelyastraightlinesothath/x
isconstant,andalsoassume
theratioh,_/h small,wemaywrite
fv
3L(2gh)•
h,= ^~ (60)
f n _<»/3
8q"
whereh +h equals thedropheight andListhehorizontal lengthofthedis-

chargecanal.Approximatevaluesofh andh canbecalculatedbytrialand
error.For conservative chutedesign,thefrictional lossshouldbeminimized
whenevaluating thedepthofflowinthedischargecanal.Forconcrete-lined
dischargecanalsaManning n—value ofabout0.008shouldbeassumedtodetermine
thespecific energyoftheflowentering theenergydissipator.Ann-value
of
0.018 shouldbeassumedtocalculatewaterdepthsinthedischarge canal, in
ordertoaccountforwaveaction,airentrainment, etc.
Ahydraulic jumpwill forminthehorizontal rectangularbasinprovided
the
Froudenumberoftheincoming flow (Frj),theincoming flowdepth (yi),andthe
correspondingdownstream (sequent)depth (y2)satisfytheequation
y2/yi= \ (l/l+8Frï-1) (61)
where theFroudenumberequals
Fn =vi//g~y7 (62)
185
The lengthofthehydraulic jumpisalsoafunctionof theFroudenumberofthe
incoming flow.However,formoststandard designs thebasinfloorisprovided
with specialappurtenances suchaschuteblocks,floorblocks,bafflepiers,and
eitheradentated orsolid sill inorder toshorten thelengthofthejumpand
consequently thatofthebasin.
Fig.37. RelationbetweenF n and y-ily\

20 20 forahydraulic jumpinahorizontal
valuesofFr-| rectangularchannel.
Awell-known stillingbasinwasdeveloped attheSt.AnthonyFallsHydraulic

Laboratory (SAFbasin)oftheUniversityofMinnesota foruseonlow-head drainage
structures.Thebasinisused asastandardby theU.S.SoilConservationService,
andhasbeenreported byBLAISDELL (1948, 1949).Thegeneraldimensions off-he
SAFbasinareshowninFig.38.
TABLE 8. Designparameters of the SAF basin
Fn L„/y2 TW/y2
u b
1.7 to 5.5 4.5/Fn " - F r , / 1 20
0-76
5.5 to 11 4.5/FrT'76 0.85
0 76
11 to 17 4.5/Fri ' 1.0-Fn2/800
InTable8 yi isthetheoretical sequentdepthofthejumpcorresponding toyi

asshowninFig.37.Theheightoftheend sillisgivenbyC=0.07y2andthe
freeboard ofthesidewallabove themaximum tailwaterdepthtobeexpectedduring
thelifeofthebasinisgivenbyz=y2/3.
RECTANGULAR STILLING BASIN

HALF-PLAN
TRAPEZOIDAL STILLING BASIN

HALF-PLAN
Chute blocks
Floor blocks
Cut-off woll
CENTERLINE SECTION
,Side won
Wing woll
Top slope is 1M
TRAPEZOIDAL STILLING BASIN ' RECTANGULAR STILLING BASIN

DOWNSTREAM ELEVATION
Fig.38. SAFstillingbasin (afterF.W.Blaisdell, 1948, 1949).
187
The sidewalls of the basin may be parallel or they may diverge. Care should be
taken that the floor blocks occupy between 40 and 55%of the stilling basin width,
so that their width and spacing must be increased with the amount of divergence
of the sidewalls. TJieeffect of air entrainment should not be used in the design
of the basin; however, its existence within the stilling basin calls for a gene-
rous freeboard (y 2 /3).
Various other standard stilling basins have been designed, laboratory tested,
and described fully in literature. The reader is referred to the comprehensive
design recommendations of the U.S.Bureau of Reclamation's:Hydraulic Design of
Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators (Engineering Monograph No.25).
29.7.4 DRAINAGE INLETS
Where small ditches enter amain canal, a drainage inlet should be constructed
to prevent backwash erosion. In lined main canals the inlet can consist of a
lined ditch section which terminates at the top of the canal lining. In unlined
canals the inlet structure should be continued down the side-slope and terminate
in an energy dissipator that protects the canal bed from erosion during low dis-
charges. An example of such a structure is shown in Fig.39.
4weepholes
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
Fig.39. Drainage inlet in earthen canal (after I.E.Houk).
188
Thebaseof thestructure shouldbeonundisturbed earthorcompacted fill.If

L + 1.5Kexceedsthebottomwidthofthecanal,theinletshouldbesetback
B
inthecanalbank.Generaldesigndimensions forthedrainage inletareshown
inTable9.
TABLE9. Designdimensionsfordrainage inletsinearthencanals

(adapted fromHOUR,1956)
Discharge 0.28 0.57 0.85 1.13 1.42 1.70 1.98 2.26 2.55 2.83
(in m3/s)
y 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.59 0.61
b 0.70 1.30 1.80 2.30 2.80 3.20 3.50 3.80 4.20 4.40
K 0.85 0.85 0.90 0.90 0.95 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05
1.80
L 3.65 3.75 3.85 3.95 4.05 4.15 4.25 4.35 4.45 4.55
K 0.90 0.90 0.95 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.10 1.10
2.45
L 3.90 4.00 4.15 4.25 4.35 4.45 4.55 4.70 4.80 4.90
K 0.95 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.15 1.15
3.00
I 4.10 4.20 4.35 4.50 4.60 4.70 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.15
K 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.15 1.15 1.20
^ 3.66
L 4.30 4.40 4.50 4.65 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.25 5.35
K 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.15 1.15 1.20 1.20
L 4.45 4.60 4.70 4.80 4.95 5.05 5.20 5.30 5.40 5.55
K 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.20 1.25 1.25
4.90
L 4.60 4.70 4.85 5.00 5.10 5.25 5.35 5.45 5.60 5.70
189
29.7.5 BAFFLEDAPRONS
The baffled apron isaninclined structureused todissipateenergy inchannels

where the tailwater ishighlyvariable.Actually,thebaffled aproncanfunction
without any tailwateratall,although channelbed scour isnotasdeeporex-
tensivewhen thetailwater formsapoolintowhich theflowdischarges.Thede-
vicehasbeendevelopedbytheU.S.Bureau ofReclamationandisintended topre-
ventexcessiveaccelerationoftheflow.Abaffled apron's satisfactoryperform-
ancemayhingeonwhether theentrance flowiswell-distributed laterallyacross
thewidthofthechuteandwhether theentrancevelocity,Vi,isnear
vi /gq-1.50m/s
Fig.40. Baffled apron (afterU.S.Bureau ofReclamation).
190
Theunitdischarge q=Q/Wmaybeashighas5.50m3/spermetre chutewidth.

Less severeconditions atthebaseoftheapronexistfor3.25m3/sandmild
conditionsexist forunitdischargeof 1.85m3/spermetre.Thebafflepier
height,H,shouldnotbelessthan0.8y ,where thecriticaldepthontherect-
angularchuteequals
3,
y =
c l/q2/g (63>
TheheightHisnotacriticalvalueandmay increase to0.9 y (seeFig.40).
HydraulicdesigncriteriamaybetakenfromFig.41.
baffle pier heights

H in metres
1.50
T"
1.50 3.0
m/sec
.trançeveloâty^
2.0
1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
q in m / s e c per m
entrance discharge
Fig.41. Recommended bafflepierheightsandallowable entrancevelocities.
Therip-rapprotectiondownstreamofthestructureshouldconsistofstoneswith
adiameter ofbetween0.20 to0.30m.Protectionshouldbeplacedbehind the
trainingwalls topreventeddiesfromworkingbehind thechute.Norip-rapis
required intheflowarea.
29.8 CHANNELTRANSITIONS (SUBCRITICALFLOW)
29.8.1 GENERAL
Achannel transitionmaybedefined asachangeinthechannel'swettedarea,

initsslope,orinthedirectionofflow.Transitionsareoftenrequiredin
canals forpurposes suchastheconstructionofculvertsandbridges.Nearlyall
transitionsofinterest toadrainage engineerarestructurescovering acompa-
191
ratively shortdistance.Yet theymayaffect theflowfarupstreamordownstream.
Transitionswithachangeofwettedareaoverashortdistanceinducetheconver-
sionofpotential intokineticenergyorviceversa.Thisconversionofenergy,
togetherwithturbulenceandfriction,causesalossofenergy,overatransition.
The totallossofenergyhead overatransitionhastobereconciledwiththe
availablefall.
Consequently,thetransitionsofculvertsandsmallbridgeshavebeenrealized
withdesigns involving eitherdiscontinuousboundaries andsharpbreaks inwall
alignment,withextensiveseparationzonesandlocaleddyingwhenevereconomyof
constructionwasmore important thanthelossofenergyhead,orcarefulstream-
liningwithgradual transitionswhenthefalloverastructurewaslimitedbythe
availablehead.
29.8.2 CHANGESINWETTEDAREAS
Fortransitions ofwhich theFroudenumberofthecontracted flowdoesnotexceed

0.5,itiscommonpractice toexpress thelossofenergy,AH,bythesimple
equationvalid forclosedconduits,which is,forasuddencontraction
AH=K^ (64)
2g
Forasuddenexpansion thehead lossisgivenby someauthoritiesas
(v- v 2 ) 2
AH=Ç ^ (65)
and by others as
AH=Ç (66)
V2Î-2l/
wherevandV2arerespectively theaverage flowvelocities inthenarrower
sectionand thatdownstreamofthecontraction,whileKandearelosscoeffi-
cients.
Ofthesetwoequations,Eq.65 istobepreferred,butovertherange
1.5<v/v2<2.5 theresultsofbothequationsareaboutthesame.Variousdesigns
forsuddenchanges inwetted areaweremadebyFORMICA (1955),whoinhisexperi-
mentsusedacanalwidthof355mmforwidersectionsand205mmfornarrower
sections.Forcontractions,channelslopeequals0.00023atwidersections,and
0.00096atnarrower sections;forexpansions,0.00104atnarrowsections,and
192
0.00073atwidersections.Theenergy lossinasuddencontraction,asinDesign
"A" ofFig.42,canbegreatlyreducedbymodifying thesharp-edged cornersof
theentrancetothenarrower section,asshownintheDesignsBthroughD.The
approximatemedianvaluesofKamong thesethreedesigns showthatthedifferences
inAHareinsignificant.
I VU
V1 —» KO.10
V
—^ Vi
*• K-0.06
V
—*
f
D 2
~3<?^_ C~!1
Vl *• K.O.06
V
— » •
r F i g . 4 2 . Energy losses
,„•.u •• AU „v 2 ina sudden c o n t r a c t i o n
valuesofKintheequationAH=K.¥_
2g (after G . F o r m i c a , 1 9 5 5 ) .
F o r m i c a ' s e x p e r i m e n t s illustrate clearly h o wthe energy loss ina sudden e x p a n s i o n
can be reduced b y gradually e n l a r g i n g the t r a n s i t i o n reach andh o w this r e d u c t i o n
m a y b e n u l l i f i e d b y such m o d i f i c a t i o n s as shown in D e s i g n s 6 to8 in F i g . 4 3 .
j==o.82 ,. g-O.27
S~
"T>-
1TT—-.
11 ~^^N F i g . 4 3 . Energy l o s s in
4
a sudden expansion
,2
values of |in the equationAH=g<^Sf ( a f t e r G.Formica, 1955).
193
o V> w
z en O o:
< O -I 0
CL 1—
h- tG
~Z- u X <
<
Lü ü_ ÜJ LL
0-50 1.00
0.30 0.60
0.25 0.50
0.20 0.40
0.10 0.20
Fig.44. Head losscoefficients fortrapezoidal torectangular transitionswith

freewatersurface (andviceversa).
194
A more gradual taper than l-to-4 does notusually make savings inenergy head com-
mensurate with theextra expense, sothat this angle ofdivergence is recommended
as aminimum forcanals with subcritical flow. Values ofKande,whichmaybeused
to calculate theheadloss over five types of transitions from a trapezoidal toa
rectangular section andvice versa,areshown inFig.44. Note that a free water
surface ismaintained inthenarrower sections.Where thetransition isfroma
trapezoidal canal toa circular pipeline orvice versa,while inside thepipeline
flow isunder pressure, data shown inFig.45maybeused fordesign purposes.
1.0D.--H h«--
B a r r e l of p i p e l i n e a t t a c h e d to
t r a n s i t i o n:
Loss as an i n l e t = 0 . 5 0 û h v
Loss as an o u t l e t ' = o . 6 5 û h v
S c o u r — m o d e r a t e to e x t e n s i v e
A. CONVENTIONAL BROKEN - BACK TRANSITION
Pipeline b a r r e l connects to
transition with r o u n d - t o -
r e c t a n g u l a r pipe t r a n s i t i o n :
Loss as an i n l e t = 0 . 4 0 A h v
Loss as an o u t l e t = 0 . 4 0 A h v
Scour - moderate
B. MODIFIED BROKEN -BACK WITH ROUND - TO - RECTANGULAR

TRANSITION BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND PIPELINE
6 0 - l o n g pipe t r a n s i t i o n
c o n n e c t s p i p e l i n e to
headwall across canal:
Loss as an i n l e t = 0 . 4 0 A h v
Loss as an o u t l e t =0.10 A h v
Scour — m o d e r a t e
C. ROUND - TO - RECTANGULAR PIPELINE TRANSITION

TERMINATING IN HEADWALL
D = Pipeline diameter
Vp -Vc
Ah = /2g / 2 g . w h e r e v> a n d Vc a r e t h e % v e l o c i t i e s in
the pipeline and c a n a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
K Loss/
'Ah
Fig.45. Head loss coefficients fortransitions from trapezoidal canal topipe
and vice versa (from W.P.Simmons, 1964).
195
29.8.3 ELBOWSANDBENDS
Elbows and bends inclosed conduitscauseachangeinthedirectionofflowand

consequently achangeinthegeneralvelocitydistribution.Owingtothischange
inflowdirection,there isanincreaseofpiezometricpressureattheoutside
ofthebendandadecreaseattheinsideofthebend.Thisdecreaseinpressure
maybesohighthat theflowseparates fromthesolidboundary,and thuscauses
additional energylossesduetoturbulence.Losses inelbowsandbends inexcess
ofthoseduetofrictionhavebeenstudiedbyvarious investigators,andmaybe
expressed intermsofthevelocityhead
AH= (67)
h 2g
Elbows
Thehead losscoefficient,It,foran elbow isapproximately asgiveninTable10.

K,-values forthesquareprofilearesomewhathigher thanforthecircularprofile
duetothelessfavourablevelocitydistributionandsomeconsequentadditional
turbulence (Fig.46).
TABLE10. K^-valuesfor elbows
6 5° 10° 15° 22.5° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
K. -value
b 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.1] 0.24 0.47 0.80 1.1
O'-pro file
K-,-value
b
0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.14 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.4
LJ-profile
contraction Fig.46. Flowseparation inanelbow.
196
Ifnoappreciabledebris iscarriedbytheflow,theflowdistribution inanelbow

canbegreatly improvedbyinstallingaseriesofdeflecting vanes. Aneffective
typeofvanemadeof sheet steelisshowninFig.47.
N12c
vane dimensions vane installation
Fig.47. Dimensions ofvanesand theirinstallation inanelbow

(afterH.Rouse,1950).
Thevanescanbeinserted through slotsburned intothetwohalvesoftheelbow,

and theentireconstructionwelded togetherexternally.Sincethevaneswill
reducetheflowirregularityandpreventradialflow,thevelocitydistribution
downstreamoftheelbowisaboutthesameasthatupstreamofit.Consequently
thebend losscoefficient,K,,fora90 elbow,either squareorcircular,will
beaslowas0.20.
Bends
Bend losses inclosed conduits,inaddition tothoselossesduetofriction,may

beexpressed asafunctionoftheratioIL/D,whereIL istheradiusofthecon-
duitcentrelineandDisthediameterofacircularconduitortheheightof
theconduitcross-section intheplaneofthebend forrectangularconduits.A
curvewhich shows suitableK,-valuesforlargediameter conduitsasafunction
ofIL/DisshowninFig.48.
Figure48showsthataratioofR,/Dgreater than4doesnotmake savingsin

energyhead commensuratewith theextraexpense,sothatthisratioisrecommended
asamaximumforconduitswithsubcritical flow.Forotherthan90 bends,a
correction factor shouldbeapplied tothevaluesgiveninFig.48.Valuesof
thisfactorasafunctionoftheangle6of thebendaregiveninFig.49.
197
bend loss coefficient
Kb
'
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
ratio Ü Ê
D
Fig.48. SuitableK-values forlargediameterconduits

(after U.S.Bureau ofReclamation).
1.0
o.a
0.6
0.4
/o
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
angle of bend in degrees
Fig.49. Reduction factor forbend losscoefficients inconduits.
29.8.4 FRICTIONLOSSES
Intransitionswith subcritical flow,energy lossesdue tofrictionmaybecalcu-
latedwith theempirical formulasforflowthroughopenchannelsorconduits.These
equations enable theslopeoftheenergygradient(s)tobecalculated.Thehead
loss istobefoundby theproductL.s,whereLequals thelengthofthechannel
sectionunderconsideration (seeSect.3).
198
29.9 PUMPSANDPUMPING STATIONS
29.9.1 GENERAL
Manyagricultural areasarelocated alongriversand inthevicinityoflakes

and seas.Theseareasoftenneedaprotectivedykeagainst flooding.Becauseof
thesubsidenceof thedrained landorsedimentation intheriver,itfrequently
occurs thatforlengthyperiods theoutsidewater levelishigher thanthedesired
waterlevelintheagricultural area.Insuchcircumstances drainagecannotoccur
bygravityflow.
Inancient timeswater-liftingdevicesweredeveloped foruse inirrigationworks.

Suchdevices canalsobeused fordrainagepurposes.Manyofthemarestillin
use todayintheiroriginal form.Examplesarethe Persian wheel, the nouria,
and the Archimedean screw (Fig.50).
Theaimofthissectionistogive somebasic informationontheperformance

characteristics ofpumps,whichwillhelp thedesignengineer inmakingachoice
fromthevarious typesandsizesofpumps thatareavailable.
Fig.50.Archimedean screw (closed type).
199
29.9.2 PUMPTYPES
Every pump consists essentially oftwoparts:arotatingpartcalled a runner

or impeller, andastationarypartcalleda casing or housing. Byapplyingpower
totheshaftof therunner,watercanbedisplaced,aswithanArchimedeanscrew,
orcanbeforced intoarotarymotionandledawayunderpressure,aswithflow
pumps.The rotating flow pumps maybefurtherclassified according towhether
theflowthrough theimpeller isessentially ina radial oran axial direction.
The three typesofflowpump thatmaybedistinguished are:the radial-flow or
centrifugal pump, the mixed-flow pump, and the axial-flow or propeller pump. Each
typeofwater-lifting devicehasparticularcharacteristicswhichmakeitthe
mostsuitableoneundercertainoperatingconditions.
Archimedeanscrew
Apopularwater-liftingdeviceinTheNetherlands isthe open Archimedean screw
beingamodernversionofanancientdevice.Essentially,itconsistsofa shaft
(pipe) towhichoneormorehelicallywoundbladesareattached,thusforminga
spiralwhichisplaced inanaccurately fitting semicircularcasing.Byrotating
theinclined screw,volumesofwaterconfinedbetweentwosuccessive spirals,the
wallofthecasing,and theshaftaremovedupward (Fig.51)•
Fig.51. Archimedean screw (opentype)
200
The screw hasseveral advantages overflowpumps.Tomentionafew:
- therevolutionsperminutevarybetween20forlargediameter screwsand
130forsmalldiameter screws;hencewearisnegligible
- thescrewhasarobustopenconstructionwhichmakes itpossible toinspect
theentireliftingoperation
- theopeningbetween twosuccessive spiralblades isrelatively largeso
thatthescrewcanhandlehighlypollutedwater,whileatthesametimethe
oxygencontentofthewater issignificantlyincreased
- thecapacityof thescrewdecreaseswhendownstreamwaterlevelislowered,
thetotalefficiency therebyremaining favourable
- thescrewcanturncontinuouslywithoutriskofdamage,evenwhenthe
downstreamwatersupplyisstagnated.
Itsmajor disadvantages are thatbecauseofthelowvelocities thescrewdimen-

sionshavetoberatherlargeand thatnopressurepipe systemcanbeconnected
tothesystem.Iftheupstreamwaterlevelbecomes toohigh,waterwill flowback
over thescrew,while if thewaterlevelislow,waterwillbelifted toohigh;
underbothsetsofcircumstances,thetotalefficiencywillbereduced.Tooffset
thisdisadvantage thescrewcanbeequippedwithamovable (sliding)casing.
Ingeneral,wemaysay that theArchimedean screwissuitableasawater-lifting

deviceprovided thatboth thedownstream andupstreamwaterlevelsremainbetween
narrowlimits.
OperatingvariablesofthescrewarethecapacityQ,theheadH,theangleof
installationa,thescrewdiameterD,theshaftdiameterd,thenumberofspiral
blades,thespeedofrotationn,and thepitchof thescrews(seeFig.51).
Thelengthofthescrewisdetermined by theheadH,and theangleofinstalla-
tion.Thediameterof theshaft (d)isdeterminedbytherequired stiffness of
thescrew.Asaruleof thumbwemay say thatthescrewlengthshouldnotexceed
twenty times theshaftdiameter (L< 20 d). Thescrewdimensionshavetobe
selected foreachparticular case.Anomographthatmaybeused inthetentative
selectionofthevariables isgiveninFig.52.
Theefficiency ofthescrewdependsonitscapacityandvariesbetween0,65 for
smallscrewsand0.75 forlargediameter screws.Curves,showingboth theeffi-
ciencyHand thecapacityQasafunctionofthewaterlevelinthedownstream
pool,aregiveninFig.53.
Ahead ofupto 10minonestageiswithin thereachoftheopenArchimedean
screw.Forgreaterheads therearesuchsolutionsasintermediatebearingsand
two-stage installations.Thedischargecapacityofasinglescrewmaybeashigh
as5m/s.
201
'S" an
no SE
D _ 1 Ö --)-"-•- w —+
H
O O n
o o-— o o
ol— o— o
o
—-
OJ
O J — - o
OJ
_.- .. —-
o
80 100
o—-
1 CD j o -
o
r,
LM
o—-
\o
si_~—;:r- o — O - CO
o
r.-_—^_
- '^
CD • •
_ __- i -;-- o---i^—_ >F - =

T—^.
} ~\ O ~~*
T" T H
o —
CM
OJ —' OJ
1
u
O -!o —- o o— o— o
' ' OJ 1-
OJ C\J
OJ
J
"'—- CT) O
01-
~~
_
dl
. o •
i
CO ~
cö 9 -
1
r^
tu
-
r ~|<0
. ,—— o —
-^CD-
CO -i co -r-
0 lw
co
n
-f—-
•^
202
Fig.53. Efficiency ofanArchimedeanscrew.
Centrifugalpump
Theradial-floworcentrifugalpumpoperatesontheprincipleofcentrifugal
action.Adieselorelectricmotorrotatesanimpeller fittedwithvanesimmersed
inwaterandenclosed inacasing.Waterenterstherotating impelleratthe
centreanddischarges fromtheimpeller into thecasingwithacombined radial
andtangentialmotion (Fig.54).
Whenacentrifugalpump istested,adiagramasshowninFig.55canbeconstructed,
indicating therelationshipbetweenthecapacity,expressed inheadHagainst
dischargeQ (Q-Hcurve)and thethereby required energyNasafunctionofQ
(horsepower curve).From thesetwocurvestheefficiencyncanbeobtained.The
pump inquestionattains itshighest efficiencywhenoperating atadischarge
QiagainstaheadHi,i.e.atA.
Figure56isanotherversionofthediagramofFig.55and ismainlyusedfor
comparing thecharacteristicsofflowpumpswithoneanother,themagnitudesof
Q,H,N,and X] nowbeing expressed inpercentages.
203
^-22"
Spiral volute
H vmTZi
Seal rings
Runner
vanes -Suction cone
Worthington Colorado River Aqueduct pump
Fig.54. Centrifugalpump.
NPSH, H,N and""l
\iA best efficiency point

ls
[V* optimum point of
v
design
Fig.55.Characteristicsof
aradial-flowpump.
204
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
percentage of
head,efficiency, power
best efficiency
point /
''s' 1 v^x.
/
' s '
• '
\ \
/ • '
N/-/
S' /
//
I
fi i
i/ !i
100°/b
percentage of discharge Fig.56. Characteristics ofaradial-flowpump.
Mixed-flowpump
Pumpinghighdischarges atlowheadsnecessitateswideentrancesandsmall-diameter
runners,leaving littleroomforthevanesoftheimpeller.Theybecome tooshort
tolead theflowofwaterinaradialdirection sothatwaterleaves theimpeller
withanaxialaswellasaradialand tangential component (Fig.57).
impeller
flow/ . shaft
Worthington mixed-flow pump
Fig.57. Mixed-flow pump.
205
Adiagram similar tothatinFig.56tocompare thecharacteristics of thepump
withoneanother,canbeconstructed forthemixed-flowpump (Fig.58).
MIXED-FLOW PUMP
percentage of
head,efficiency, power
best efficiency
point
100°/o
100<%>
percentage of discharge Fig.58. Characteristics ofamixed-flowpump.
Itmaybenoted that,incomparisonwithradial-flowpumps,mixed-flowpumps
aremore sensitive tochanges inhead and,notwithstanding theirhighpump
efficiency ofsometimesmore than0.85,theirrangeof favourableeffectiveness
isbutsmall.
Axial-flowpump
Inaxial-flowpumpswaterflowsalmostaxially towards thepropeller typerunner,

but isdischargedwithatangential component.Immediatelybehind thepropeller
thereareguidevaneswhicharedesigned toremovetheswirlgiventothewater
bythepropeller.Thecasing itself isactually acylindrical conduit.Axial-flow
pumpsareconstructed openaswell asclosed (Fig.59).
Comparing Fig.60withFigs.56and58weseethat,unlike thecurvesforradial-

andmixed-flowpumps,boththeQ-H curveand theenergycurveoftheaxial-flow
pumpgoupwardswhen thedischargediminishes.Therefore,thesepumpsmustnotbe
started against aclosed dischargepipeasispractisedwithcentrifugalpumps
(Fig.60).
Alsoevident istherather sharpbend oftheefficiency curve,indicatinga

rather limited operating rangewithafavourableefficiency.
206
P.
a
r^
207
29.9.3 STATICANDMANOMETRICHEAD
The statichead equals thedifference inwater levelupstreamanddownstreamof

apumpingstation,and isentirely independentofthehead lossesinthestation
andofthedischarge tobepumped.Thestaticheadchangesonly ifthewaterlevel
upstreamordownstreamof thepumpingstationchanges (Fig.61).
a friction losses discharge pipe

b losses in return valve
c losses in sluice valve
d total lossesindischarge section
e losses in trashrack
f inflow losses
g friction lossessuction losses
h total losses insuction section
pump
generating
manometric head
Fig.61. Head losses ingeneralized pumping system.
Waterflowing throughapumping station,asshowninFig.61,islosingpartof

itsenergybecauseofhydraulic lossesduetotransitions,turbulence,andfric-
tion.Anexampleoflosses thatmayoccuratthesuctionanddelivery sideis
indicated inFig.61.Allhead lossesthatoccur inanopencanalorconduitare
afunctionofthevelocityheadv/2g;hence toreducelossesthemeanflowvelo-
cityshouldbekept toaneconomical lowvalue.Foragivenpumpingstation,
head losseswillincreaseproportional tothesquareofthemeanvelocityor
discharge.Inorder todischargewaterovera"fixed"statichead,thepumpmust
overcome thesumofthisstaticheadand thetotalhead lossesinthesystem.This
totalheadover thepumpmaybemeasuredbymanometersplaced directly infront
ofandbehind thepump.Thismanometricheadmaybecalculated forseveraldis-
chargesandmaybeplotted asshowninFig.62.
Ifapumpwith thecharacteristic Q-HcurvegiveninFig.62isplaced inthe

station,thatpumpwillautomatically liftadischarge thatremainsconstantat
thepointgivenby theintersectionofthemanometrichead curveand theQ-H
curve.
208
point erf
operation
static manometric
head head
(installation curve) (pumpcurve)

Fig.62. Combination of pump and pumping s t a t i o n .
29.9.4 SELECTIONOFPUMPS
Thenormal limitsofapplicationoftheArchimedeanscrewandtheflowpumps
described aboveareshowninFig.63.Thelimitsindicated arebynomeans tobe
regarded assharplydefined,andare thereforegivenasbrokenlinesinthefi-
gure.Inreality theareasofapplicationoverlaponeanother.
|multistage centrifugal pump
single-stage
centrifugal pump
mixed-flow pump
axial-flow pump
archimedian screw
10-5 10-*1 10-' 1 10

Q in m 3 /sec
Fig.63. Operatingrangeofpumps.
Thecharacteristics ofaflowpumpmaybeexpressedbyaratioknownasthe
specific speed
n =nv^Q/H3"* (68)
S
where
n =specificspeedatbestefficiencypoint (dimensional)
n =revolutionsperminuteoftheflowpump
Q =dischargeofthepump inm3/s
H =manometrichead inmetres
209
Expressed inmetricunits,thisisanumber indicating therevolutions perminute
atwhichageometrically similarimpellerwouldrunifitwereofsuchasizeas
todischarge 1m3/minuteagainst Imetrehead.Inshort,theconceptofspecific
speedamounts tothis:itispossible topump thesamevolumeofwatereither
withacheap,small,butfast-runningpumporwithamoreexpensive,big,and
slow-runningpump.However,thelife-timeandhydraulic efficiencyofthefirst
areinferiortothatofthesecond.Thethreecategoriesofflowpumpsaregene-
rallydesigned forspecificspeedsranging (seeFig.64)
from 12 to 80 forcentrifugalpumps
from 80 to 120 formixed-flow pumps
from 120 to 400 foraxial-flow pumps.
mixed-flow
pumps
-*- -i axial-flow,
entri'ugal pur nps pumps
| ' ; !!1 !
^--"""T-!--- 1 1-—! 0.05 0.15 ^ ^ ^

-~ T .---" _ _ 0.025
_,-- T - — - r o-oio • » • •
' ...--—0-005m3/sec
Fig.64. Nomograph toselectpump typeandefficiency.
210
When selecting apump,wehave toknow themaximummanometrichead and thedis-

charge.Keeping inmind thelimitsofapplicationof thepump,wemaynowselect
arunner speed inrevolutionsperminute.AsshowninFig.52thespecificspeed
of thepumpandhence thepump typeisfixed.Itisnowpossible tochoosefrom
factory cataloguesapump thatbestfitsthevariablesof thepumpingstation.
For influenceofmanometric suctionheadonallowable specificspeed,seeTables

11and 12.
29.9.5 MANOMETRIC SUCTIONHEAD
The manometric suction head H ofaflowpumpequals thedifferencebetweenthe

water level inthesuctionbayand thecentrelineofthepumpplus thehead
lossesinthesuctionchannel.H maybenegative (pumpabovesuctionlevel)as
well aspositive (pumpplacedunderwater,seeFig.65).
POSITIVE SUCTION H E A D
delivery
}AHp- ' ' J V level
suction
y level
JAH
J H A (positive value)
p l a n e of c o m p a r i s o n
pump
energy line
pressure l i n e
H m a n o m e t r i c o r t o t a l head
HST static head
HA suction head
A H Z e n e r g y loss in s u c t i o n l i n e
Û H p e n e r g y loss in d e l i v e r y l i n e
NEGATIVE SUCTION H E A D
H Hs p l a n e of comparison
H A ( n e g a t i v e value)
Fig.65. Schematicpositionofapump.
211
Permissible values ofmanometric suctionheadHA and
specific speed,n (centrifugalpumps)
H in
metres 150 100 75 50 30 20 15 10 7.5
H
A \*
m metres
- 7.5 (- 5.6) - - - 22 29 37 43 54 65
- 6.0 (- 4.1) - - 22 29 38 50 57 72 84
- 4.5 (- 2.6) - 22 26 34 45 58 68 84 -
- 3.0 (- 1.1) - 26 30 39 52 67 77 - -
- 1.5 (+ 0.4) 22 28 33 44 57 74 - - -
0.0 (+ 1.9) 24 31 37 48 63 82 - - -
+ 1.5 (+ 3.4) 26 34 40 51 68 - - - -
+ 3.0 (+ 4.9) 28 36 42 55 72 - - - -
+ 4.5 (+ 6.4) 30 38 44 58 76 - - - -
TABLE 12. Permissible values ofmanometric suctionheadH and

specific speedn (mixed-flowand axial-flow pumps)
H in
metres 30 15 10 6 4.5 4.0 3.6 3.3 3.0
- > •
H
A •
inmetres
- 6.0 (- 4.1) - - - 116 - - - - -

- 4.5 (- 2.6) - - 100 148 184 - - - -
- 3.0 (- 1.0 - 90 122 180 220 242 262 280 300
- 1.5 (+ 0.4) - 104 140 206 260 282 302 324 346
0.0 (+ 1.9) - 118 160 238 290 320 342 382 400
+ 1.5 (+ 3.4) - 132 178 260 322 356 382 - -
+ 3.0 (+ 4.9) 86 144 196 290 358 - - - -
+ 4.5 (+ 6.4) 93 158 210 316 386 - - - -
212
Theminimum suctionheadatwhich thepumpcanoperateatitsmaximumefficiency

isafunctionoftheatmosphericpressureandof thevapourpressure (bothof
whicharevariable),ofthemaximummanometrichead,bestefficiencypoint,and
of thespecific speed ofthepump.Theminimumrequired suctionheadofthepump
equalsthedifferencebetween thelowestwaterlevel inthesuctionbayandthe
centrelineofthepumpplus themaximumheadlosses.Ifthesuctionheadbecomes
toolow,vapour-filledcavitieswilloccurespecially onthe"no-pressureside"
oftherunnerblades.
The shocksthatoccurwhenavapour-filledcavitycollapsesandwaterrushesin
radially tofillthevoidmay causenoisyoperation,mechanicalvibration,damage
tothepumping system,and sometimesafallinthehydraulicperformanceofthe
pump.Cavitationmayberegarded asbatteringoftheimpellerwithfrequenciesas
highas25,000Hzandwithpressure impulsesup to300atmospheres.Ifthedanger
ofcavitation isexpected,themanufacturer ofthepump shouldbeasked forwhat
iscalleda NPSH curve. NPSHstandsfor Net Positive Suation Head (H)andequals
o
thedifferencebetweenenergy levelonthesuctionsideofthepumpandthe
vapourpressure,thepumpcentrelinebeing takenasreference level.H maybe
determined from
H - h +HA -h (69)
o o A v
where
H =netabsolute suctionhead inm

o
H,=suctionhead inm
A
h =vapourpressure inmwatercolumn
h =atmosphericpressureinmwatereolumn
AtypicalNPSH-curve foracentrifugalpump isshowninFig.55.Theoccurrence

ofcavitationingeneralcanbeavoidedbyselectingasafemanometric suction
headH .Ifthepump isoperating atitsbestefficiencypoint,theTables11
and 12giveafirstimpressionofthemaximumpermissible specificspeedn if
s
thetotalmanometricheadHandH aregiven,orgiveminimumpermissiblevalues
ofH,ifthespecificspeedand themanometricheadaregiven.Ifthepumpis
notoperatingatitsbestefficiencypoint,ahigherNPSHvalue isrequired.
Tables 11and 12arevalid forcleanwaterof30 Cunder atmosphericpressure
andwithavapourpressureof0.043kg/cm2,whichequalsapressureof-9.9 m
watercolumnrelative toatmosphericpressureor0.4mwatercolumnabsolute.
213
Ifthepumpedwater isnotclean (sewage),cavitationwilloccuratahigher
pressure.ThevaluesofH betweenbracketsarevalid foravapourpressureof
2.3mwatercolumnabsolute (0.23kg/cm )
The reader shouldnote thatthemanometricsuctionhead isofgreatimportance

intheselectionofthespecific speedandhenceof thetypeofflowpump.
29.9.6 POWERTODRIVEAPUMP
Anydevicethatcanproduceadriving torqueonthepump shaftmaybeused asa

driving "engine".Thechoicefromtheavailabledevices shouldbemadeonthe
basisof technical andeconomicconsiderations,aswellasonreliabilityrequire-
ments.
Awindmillmaybeused asadrivingdevicewherewind is"available"atthemo-

ment thepumpshould operate.Thewindmill isarathersimpledeviceandmaybe
used forthedrainage ofsmallareas (Fig.66).
Ifthepump isdrivenbyafuelengineorelectricmotor,thepowerrequiredat
thepump shaftequals
N=P-g Q H (inWatt) (70)

pump
PgQH
N (inh
•746n 1 P} (71)
pump
where
Q =pumpdischarge inm3/s
H =manometrichead inmetreswatercolumn
p =massdensityofwater inkg/m
g =accelerationdue togravity=9.81m/s 2
n =efficiency ofthepump
pump
Thepowerrequirement shouldbecalculated onthebasisoftheleastfavourable

conditions.Theefficiency of thepumpwill thenusuallybeless thantheoptimum
efficiency asindicated inFigs.56,58,and60.
214
'-•'o.indrainage systems
«sOÜfflËïa^
LU
>
11
< E
LU S
3 -s
gjg^dt^tr^tsi
215
Whenweconsider therequired drivingpowerofanengine,allowancemustbemade
for
- theefficiencyof thegearbox
- thefact thatthepowerofinternalcombustionengines,electricmotors,
and transformers declineswith increasingaltitudeand temperature,and
withdecreasinghumidity.
Asanexample ofthesignificant effectofaltitudeand temperatureonthepower
ofaninternal combustionengine,Table 13ispresented.Theextenttowhichpower
declineoccursmustbespecified bythemanufactorof theparts thatareeffected.
TABLE 1 3 . POWER REDUCTION INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Altitude T e m p e r a t u r e in Deg rees F a h r e n h e i t Altitude

in in
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
feet metres
P e r c e n t a g e P o w e r Reduction
330 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 101
500 0.7 1.7 2.7 3.7 4.7 5.7 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 152
750 1.7 2.7 3.7 4.7 5.7 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 12.7 229
1,000 2.7 3.7 4.7 5.7 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 12.7 13.7 305
1,250 3.7 4.7 5.7 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 I 1.7 12.7 13.7 14.7 381
1,500 A.7 5.7 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 12.7 13.7 14.7 15.7 457
1,750 5.7 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 12.7 13.7 14.7 15.7 16.7 533
2,000 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 12.7 13.7 14.7 15.7 16.7 17.7 610
2,500 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.7 12.7 13.7 14.7 15.7 16.7 17.7 18.7 19.7 762
3,000 10.7 11.7 12.7 13.7 14.7 15.7 16.7 17.7 18.7 19.7 20.7 21.7 915
3,500 12.7 13.7 14.7 15.7 16.7 17.7 18.7 19.7 20.7 21.7 22.7 23.7 1067
4,000 14.7 15.7 16.7 17.7 18.7 19.7 20.7 21.7 22.7 23.7 24.7 25.7 1219
A,500 16.7 17.7 18.7 19.7 20.7 21.7 22.7 23.7 24.7 25.7 26.7 27.7 1372
5,000 18.7 19.7 20.7 21.7 22.7 23.7 24.7 25.7 26.7 27.7 28.7 29.7 1524
6,000 22.7 23.7 24.7 25.7 26.7 27.7 28.7 29.7 30.7 31.7 32.7 33.7 1829 .
7,000 26.7 27.7 28.7 29.7 30.7 31.7 32.7 33.7 34.7 35.7 2143
8,000 30.7 31.7 32.7 33.7 34.7 35.7 36.7 37.7 38.7 2438
9,000 34.7 35.7 36.7 37.7 38.7 39.7 40.7 41.7 42.7 2743
10,000 38.7 39.7 40.7 41.7 42.7 43.7 44.7 45.7 3048
11,000 42.7 43.7 44.7 45.7 46.7 47.7 48.7 49.7 3353
12,000 46.7 47.7 48.7 49.7 50.7 51.7 52.7 53.7 3658
Temperature in Degrees Centigrade

18.3 21.1 23.9 26.7 29.5 32.3 35.0 37.8 40.6 43.3 46.1 48.9
F u r t h e r m o r e , the engine should not o p e r a t e a t f u l l l o a d , but a t 85 to 90% of i t s

maximum continuous c a p a c i t y . Thus the engine r e q u i r e d to d r i v e a pump must have
a power
QH 1
N f f Watt (72)
engine 1 ^ u c r
where pump gear box
gearbox e f f i c i e n c y of gear box (0.96 to 0.98)

f =factor> !tocompensate forclimaticand topographic conditions
f =reduction factor (1.1 to 1.2) toprevent theengine fromrunning
atcontinuous fullload
and theother symbolsasweredefinedbefore
21(
29.9.7 NUMBER OF UNITS
Economically,itmightbejustified toinstallasinglepumpunitinsteadoftwo,
three,ormoreunitswhich togetherhavethesamecapacity.However,thebreak-
downofasingleunitduringapumping stagemaycausealossofcropsanddamage
toproperties.Hence,toavoidthisrisk,butalsotoavoidinefficientpumping
whenthedischarge islow,itiswise todivide thedesigncapacityofmajor
pumping stationsover severalunits.Inchoosingunitsofthesamesize,itis
possible tosaveonthenumberofsparepartsinstock.
Anadditional importantreasonfordividing thecapacityoverseveralunitsis

toprevent largedrawdownsinthemainsupplydrainthroughwhichwaterflows
tothepumping station.Sinceittakessometimebeforeahydraulic energygra-
dientdevelops inthisdrain,thetemporary shortageofwatermaycausesucha
drawdownthat thestabilityofthe earthenembankments isendangered.Theshut-
downofapumping stationoperatingatfullcapacitywillalsoconstitutea
seriousattackonthecanalembankments,since thekineticenergyof thewater
flowing inthemaindrainagecanalswillgenerateatransitionwave.
Topreventthebackflowofwater throughapumpunit,anautomaticnon-return
valve,which closes itsdeliveryconduit securely,shouldbeplacedbehindeach
pump.
29.9.8 THELOCATIONOFAPUMPINGSTATION
Inselecting thesiteforapumping station,thefollowing factors shouldbetaken

intoconsideration:
-drainagepumping stationsalmostalwayshave tobelocated inthelowest

pointofthearea.Soilconditionsinthisareaareusuallypoor.Afoundation
ondifferent levels isthereforenotrecommendedbecause thebearing capacities
of theground ontheselevelsmaybedifferent
- groundwater levelschangeaftercanalsand stationcome intooperation.

Itmaybenecessary totakemeasuresagainstexcessivegroundwater flowunder
thestation
-pumping stationsmustbeeasilyaccessible.Itmustbepossible totrans-

port fuelbyroadorwaterortoprovideaneasy link-upwith theelectrical
network
217
-pumping stations shouldneverbeplaced on,orclose to,dykescontaining
layersofhighpermeability (sand,etc.);norshould theybebuiltonolddykes
-newdykesandnewlydrained landsaresubject tovarying degreesofsub-

sidence,which aredifficult topredictwithaccuracy.Pipe linesandconcrete
structuresonorthroughnewdykes shouldbeflexible
- trashanddebrismustbeeasilyremovable fromthescreens;asitemust
beavailable fordepositing thetrashawaiting itsdisposal.
Various examplesofpumping stationsareshowninFigs.67and68.
CLOSED A X I A L - F L O W PUMP
OPEN AXIAL-FLOW PUMP
polder
level
M I X E D - F L O W PUMP IN C O N C R E T E C A S I N G
Fig.67. Examplesofpumpingstations.
21Ï
urn
4-»
•r-1
219
LITERATURE
VANBENDEGOM,L.etal. 1969. Principlesgoverning thedesignandconstruction

ofeconomic revetments forprotecting thebanksofriversandcanalsfor
oceanand inlandnavigation.20thIntern.NavigationCongr.Paris,43pp.
BLAISDELL,F.W. 1959. TheSAF stillingbasin.Astructure todissipatethe

destructive energy inhigh-velocity flowfromspillways.U.S.Dept.ofAgric.
Service incooperationwith theMinnesotaAgric.Exp.Sta.andSt.AnthonyFalls
HydraulicLaboratory.Agric.Handbook 156.WashingtonD.C.U.S.Government
PrintingOffice.
CANALSand related structures. 1961. Commissioner's office,Denver (Colorado).

U.S.Dept.oftheInterior,BureauofReel.DesignStandards3.
CODEofpractice forthedesignofopenwatercourses andancillarystructures.

1964.RoyalNeth.Inst.ofEngin.&RoyalNeth.Soc.ofAgric.Sei.WorkingParty
onOpenWatercourses. 1964.Intern.InstituteforLandReclamationandIm-
provement.Bull.7.VanGorcum,Assen &Veenman,Wageningen.80pp.
COMMONLYuseddrawings foropen irrigation systems 1970. U.S.Dept.of theInte-

rior.BureauofReel.OfficeoftheChiefEngin.CanalsBranch.ReportNo.
CB-5.Rev.Ed. 147pp.
DESIGNofsmalldams. 1960. U.S.Dept.oftheInterior.BureauofReel.

Washington,D.C, U.S.Gov.PrintingOffice.611pp.
EARTHManual.Aguidetotheuseofsoilsasfoundationsandasconstruction
materials forhydraulic structures. 1963.U.S.Dept.oftheInterior.Bureau
ofReel.Denver (Colorado).783pp.
FLAMMER,G.H.,G.V.SK0GERB0E,CHI-YUANWEI,HAMEEDRASHEED. 1970.Closed conduit

toopenchannel stillingbasin.J.Irrig.DrainageDiv.Proc.Am.Soc.ofCivil
Engin.,pp.1-10.
FORMICA,G. 1955. Esperienzepreliminaire sulleperditidicariconeicanali,

dovuteacambiamentidisezione.L'Energia elettrica,Milano,32(7):554-568.
F0RTIER,S.,SCOBEY,F.C. 1926. Permissible canalvelocities.Trans.ofthe

Am.Soc.of Civ.Engin.89:940-984.PaperNo.1588.
HANDBOOK ofdrainage and constructionproducts.1955.(2ndEd.1958).ARMCO

Intern.Corp.Chicago,W.H.Spindler,579pp.
HENDERSON,F.M. 1966. OpenChannelFlow.MacMillan.NewYork,522pp.
220
HOLTAN,H.N.,MINSHALL,N.E.,HARROLD,L.L. 1962. Fieldmanual forresearchin

agriculturalhydrology.SoilandWaterCons.Res.Div.Agric.Res.Service.
Agric.HandbookNo.224.WashingtonD.C.215pp.
HOUK,J.E. 1956. IrrigationEngineering.Vol.11.Projects,conduits,and

structures.JohnWiley &Sons.NewYorketc.531pp.
IVERSEN,H.W. 1953. Studiesofsubmergencerequirementsofhigh-specific-speed

pumps.Trans.oftheAm.Soc.ofMechanicalEngin.75:635-641.
KENNEDY,R.G. 1895. Thepreventionofsilting inirrigationcanals.Proc.of

theInst.ofCiv.Engin.,London. 119:281-289.PaperNo.2826.
LACEY,G. 1946. Ageneral theoryofflowinalluvium.J.oftheInst.ofCiv.Engin.

27(1):16-47.PaperNo.5518.
LANE,E.W. 1955. Designofstablechannels.Trans.of theAm.Soc.ofCiv.Engin.

120:1234-1279.PaperNo.2776.
LELIAVSKY,S. 1965. Irrigationengineering.Syphons,weirsand locks.Chapman

&Hall,London,296pp.
MOLENAAR,A. 1956. Waterliftingdevicesforirrigation.FAOAgric.Development

PaperNo.60.FAO,Rome,76pp.
MOORE,W.L. 1943. Energy lossatthebaseofafreeoverfall.Trans.oftheAm.

Soc.ofCiv.Engin. 108:1343-1392.PaperNo.2204.
PETERKA,A.J. 1964. Hydraulicdesignofstillingbasinsandenergydissipators.

U.S.Dept.oftheInterior.BureauofReel.WaterResourcesTechn.Publ.
EngineeringMonographNo.25,223pp.
ROUSE,H. (Ed.) 1950. Engineeringhydraulics.Proc.of the4thHydraulicsConf.,

Iowa.InstituteofHydraulicResearch,June 12-15,1949.JohnWiley &Sons,
London, 1039pp.
SIMMONS,Jr.,W.P. 1964. Hydraulic designof transitions forsmallcanals.

U.S.Dept.oftheInterior.BureauofReel.WashingtonD.C.WaterResources
Techn.Publ.EngineeringMonograph 33,37pp.
SMITH,D.C. 1967. Simplified designforflumeinlets.J.oftheHydr.Div.Proc.

oftheAm.Soc.ofCiv.Engin.HY6,5550,November,pp.25-34.
STEPANOFF,A.J. 1948. Centrifugal andaxial flowpumps.Theory,design,and

application.JohnWiley &Sons,NewYork.Chapman&Hall,London.2ndEd.
462pp.
221
VEGETATED stabilizationofgrassedwaterwaysanddambywashes. 1969.WaterRes.
FoundationofAustralia.Bull.No.16.33pp.
VENTECHOW. 1959. Open-channelhydraulics.McGraw-Hill,Newyork,680pp.
WIJDIEKS,J. 1965. Greepophetongrijpbare.II.Hydraulische aspectenbijhet

ontwerpenvanpompinstallaties.DelftHydr.Laboratory.PublicationNo.43.
SeriesNo.7:Descriptionofworks forwatersupply,manpower,waterdischarge
etc.GroupNo.73:Hydr.machinesandclosed conduits.Section 73.20:Pumping
stations.Delft (Neth.):312-320 (reprint).
222
30. C H E M I C A L C O N T R O L O F A Q U A T I C W E E D S
A. H. DRUIJFF
Ecologist
International Land Development Consultants,
Arnhem
H. G. van der Weij (1962-1972)

Institute for Biological and Chemical Research, Wageningen
PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Adescriptionofthemostcommonaquaticweeds,theirgrowth-place factors,and
thechemicalsand sprayingequipmentused intheircontrol.
CONTENTS
30.2 AQUATICWEEDSANDTHEIRGROWTH-PLACEFACTORS 227
30.3 SOMEOFTHEMOSTEFFECTIVEHERBICIDES 229
30.4 FACTORSTHATCANINFLUENCETHESUCCESS
OFHERBICIDEAPPLICATIONS 231
30.5 SPRAYINGEQUIPMENT 233
30.6 BIOLOGICALANDOTHERMETHODSOFWEEDCONTROL 233
LITERATURE 235
Chemical control
30.1 INTRODUCTION
Soonafter theconstructionofdrainage channels,weedsofmanykindswillbegin

togrow.Althoughgood sod-formingvegetationshouldbeencouragedontheside
slopesofthechannelsasitwillward offerosion,certainvegetationwillbe
unwelcomewhile thegrowthofaquaticweeds inthechannelsmayhamperthefree
flowofwater.
Although thethemeofthischapteristhechemicalcontrolofundesiredweed
growth indrainage channels,thereadermustnotexpectthatafterastudyofthis
chapterhecanconsiderhimself anexpert intheapplicationofherbicides.The
field isfartoolargeandcomplicated.Chemicalweedcontrol isahighlyspecial-
izedactivityanddemandsahighdegreeoftrainingandexperienceoftheperson
chargedwith thetask.This isevenmore soinaquaticweedcontrolthaninnormal
weed control.Indiscriminateuseofherbicides cancreateproblems fargraverthan
theproblems theysolve.
Inthischapternothingmoreambitiouscanbeattempted thantogivethereader
anideaoftheprincipal chemicals inuse,whatweedstheycanbeusedagainst,
andwhatprecautionsmustbetakeninapplyingthem.
Inwesterncountries,thechemicalcontrolofaquaticweedsmetwitharapidrise
inpopularity asaresultoftheconstantly increasinglabourcosts.Chemicals
wereapplied onsuchalargescalethattheirdisadvantages soonbecameobvious.
Itisnot surprising thatnowadaysmechanicalmethodsofcontrollingweedsare
onceagainbeingpreferred.Inplaceswheremachinescannotoperateandwhere
chemicalsrepresent theonlyalternative tothecostlyprocessofweedremoval
"byhand",chemicalscanhavetheiruses,butmustbeappliedwithgreatdiscretion.
Inthedevelopingcountries,becauseoftheratioofrelatively lowcostsforla-
bour andrelativelyhighcostsforchemicals,chemicalshavenotbeenappliedon
alargescale,sofewproblemshaveyetbeenencountered.Itishoped thatthe
peopleinthosecountrieswhoarefacedwithproblemsofweedcontrolwillheed
thewarningsofthosewhohavefirst-hand experienceoftheilleffectsproduced
byherbicides.
ThismightbeanappropriateplacetomentionthataWorkingPartyonWeedControl
intheTropicshasbeensetuptoadviseonsuchproblems.Theirsecretariatcan
becontacted through: Mr.P.J.van Rijn, Royal Institute for the Tropics, Maurits-
kade 63, Amsterdam Oost, The Netherlands.
225
Oneoftheobjectionsbeingvoiced against theuseofherbicides isthat,ifthey
areapplied indrainage channelswhichdischarge intoriversorlakes,theycan
prove toxic tofish life.Eveniftheydonotharm thefishdirectly,theymay
dosoindirectlybykilling theorganismsuponwhich thefishfeed.Itcanalso
happenthat theseorganisms absorb amountsofchemicalswhich,althoughnotenough
tobelethal,canaccumulate inthebodyofthefish.Ifsuchfishareeatenby
humansorbirds,thetoxiceffects canbepassedon.
Non-toxic chemicalscanalsoproveharmful tofish lifebycreating ashortage

ofoxygeninthewater.Oxygen isessential intherottingprocessofdeadplants;
iftoomuchdeadplantmaterialhas tobebrokendownatonetime,thewatercan
becomesopoor inoxygenthat thefishwilldie.Thesameremark,ofcourse,
applies inditcheswhereweedsarecontrolledwithmachinery. Thebest timeto
attackweeds,therefore,isbefore theyhavedeveloped adenseinfestation.
Toprevent thespread ofplantmaterial throughout thedrainagesystem,itis

sometimes practicable toplacegridsornylonnets inthechannels tointercept
seeds,viablepartsofweeds,ordeadvegetation.
Otherobjections totheuseofherbicides arethattheymakethewater inthe

channels temporarilyunsuitable forhumansorlivestock todrinkfrom.Also,
cropscanbedamaged andyieldsreduced ifwater treatedwithherbicides isused
for irrigationorforpreparing spray liquids forthepesticide controlofcrops.
Furthermore,herbicide spraydrift canharm crops,trees,orbankvegetationthat
onewants toretain.
Theuseofherbicides canresult inthedevelopment ofavegetationwhich ismore
harmful thantheoriginal.Ifchemicalsareapplied routinely,theweedvegetation
will gradually change itscomposition,turning intoone thatbecomes increasingly
difficult tocombat.
Withalltherisksattached toweed controlbychemicals,especially indrainage

and irrigationchannels,itisvital that strictregulationsbelaiddownfor
theiruse,andmany countrieshavedoneso.Itisbeyond thescopeofthischapter
toreviewall themany andvaried restrictions thatareinforcethroughoutthe
world,nor isitpossible tolist thehundredsofdifferent chemicals thathave
been investigated inexperiments.Suffice ittosay thatonlyavery fewofthem
arebeingused inthemaintenance ofwater courses,and thatalloftheseare
chemicalswhicharenotpersistent inwaterandarenotharmful tohumansor
animals.
Formanual andmechanicalmethodsofweed control,seeChap.31,Vol.IV.
226
Chemical control
Intropicaland subtropical regions,aparticularproblem isformedbytheoccur-

renceofcertaindiseaseswhich canonlyproliferate inthepresenceofwater.The
most serious oftheseare bilharzia and malaria. Bilharzia iscausedbyaparasite
which spendspartof itslifecycle inthebodyofawater snail.Thissnailis
dependentfor itsexistenceoncertainplants thatgrowinwater.Malaria isspread
byamosquitowhose larvaeneed asheltered place instagnantwaterfortheir
development.Thepreventionofthesediseasesmakescertainspecificdemandsof
aweed controlprogramme.
Although themain themeofthischapterwillbethechemical controlofaquatic

weeds,severalmethodsofbiological controlwillalsobementioned.Thesebiolo-
gicalmethods arestill inanexperimental stageandhavenotyetfoundwide
application.Itwasconsideredworthwhile tomention them,however,becausethey
haveseveralattractiveaspectswhichmay increase inimportance,inviewofthe
badenvironmental effectsofusingherbicides and the (oftenquiteconsiderable)
costsofweedcontrolbymachinery.
30.2 AQUATICWEEDSANDTHEIRGROWTH-PLACEFACTORS
Infacing theproblemsofcontrolling aquaticweeds,onehasmanydifferentaspects
toconsider.Firstly,therearethemanydifferentkindsofweeds thatmayoccur.
Secondly,there isthewidevariety ofgrowth-place factors,eachofwhichre-
quires itsownparticular treatment:sometimesherbicideshavetobeappliedunder
water,sometimes tothefoliageof theweeds;sometimesweedsgrowinsomewhat
inaccessibleplaces.Inchoosing thetreatment tobeapplied,onemustkeepin
mind thatatoodrastic attackonweedswill lead tobarebankswhicharethen
likely toerodeorcollapse.
Inthedesignstageofirrigationanddrainageprojects,therearecertainfactors
thatcanbetakenintoaccountwhichwillrestrictweed growthtoaminimum.To
enableabetterunderstanding ofthesefactors,themost commongroupsofweeds
andtheconditions thatfavour theirgrowthwillbedescribedbelow:
Marginal weeds (weeds thatgrowentirelyabove thewater). Thisgroup

ofweeds,infact,includes allweeds thatarenormally found onthefarm.Examp-
lesare Cyperus spp., Ipomoea spp., Panicum spp., and Paspalum svp. Theonesthat
cause themost trouble indrainage and irrigationcanalsarethosethatcanform
offshootswhich floatonthewaterandeventually formathickmatofvegetation.
Thisgrowth ismost likely tooccurwhere thewater level isconstant andside
slopesare steep.Suchgrowthcanseriouslyhampertheflowofwater throughthe
channels.
227
Inirrigationprojects,precautions shouldbetakentopreventweeds fromforming
seed,which caneasilybetransportedbythewateranddeposited elsewhereonthe
farm.
Emergent Weeds (weedsthatemergeabovewater).Emergentweedshavetheir

roots inthesoilatthebottomoftheditchand theirfoliageemergingabove
water.Examplesare Cyperus spp., Hydrocleis spp., Lymnoaharis spp., and Typha spp.
Thestalksoftheseweedsarevery toughand thepresenceofgreatquantitiesof
themwillobviouslyhamper theflowofwater.Theseweeds shouldnotbeallowedto
develop inreservoirs andnight storageswhere theproblemisnotsomuch theflow
ofwaterbutthat theaccumulationoforganicmaterial and thedepositionof
siltcanseriouslyreducethestoragecapacityofsuchreservoirs.As theseweeds
canonlygrowinfairlyshallowwater (50to 100cmdeep),theirdevelopmentcan
bepreventedbyhavingdeeperreservoirswith steepsideslopes.
Submerged weeds (weedsthatgrowunderwater).Theseplantsgrowentirely

underwater,withperhaps,atthemost,theirflowersemergingabovewater.Examples
are Ceratophyllum spp., Elodea spp., Myriophyllum spp., and Potamogeton spp.
They canoccureveninwater thatisseveralmetresdeep,provided thewateris
clearenough.Theyaremuchmorepliant thantheemergentweedsandarethusless
ofanuisance.Theseweedswillnotsurvive inditchesthatperiodically falldry.
Floating water plants (anchored).Thiscategoryofaquaticplants,whichin-

cludes the water Uly (Nymphéa spp.) and the lotus, issimilar tosubmergedweeds
inthattheplantsroot inthebottomofthechannel,butdiffers fromthemin
that theleaves lieflatonthewater.Theircomparatively thinstalksscarcely
formanyobstacle totheflowofwaterwhile theirusually largeleavesblockout
mostofthelightfromabove,thuspreventing atooluxuriantgrowthofother
aquaticplants.Beforeonesetsaboutremoving anyfloatingplants,itiswise
toconsider thattheirdestructionmightmakeway foramuch lesswelcomereed-
typeofvegetation.Likesubmergedweeds,floatingplantscannotsurvivein
ditches thatperiodically falldry.
Free-floating aquatic weeds (unanchored).Therootsystemofthisgroup

ofweedshangs free inthewater.Fortheirdevelopment theyneedwater thatcon-
tains sufficientnutritiveelements;thepresenceofsiltandclayparticlesin
thewaterpossibly alsoplaysarole.Theseweeds thriveincalmwaterwithlittle
currentandnowavemovement. The water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), oneofthe
bestknownmembersofthisgroup,furtherrequiresagreat intensityoflight.
Free-floatingweeds canspreadveryrapidlyunder theinfluenceofthewindand/or
228
Chemisai control
thecurrent,andenormousmassesofthemcansoonaccumulateatcertainplaces.
Besides thewaterhyacinthalreadymentioned,thisgroup includes the water lettuce
(Pistia stratiotes), the water fern (Salvinia auriculata), and algae.
30.3 SOMEOFTHEMOSTEFFECTIVEHERBICIDES
AshasbeenexplainedintheIntroduction,awide-scalechemicalattackonweeds
isstronglyadvised against.Thereare,ofcourse,circumstances inwhichtheuse
ofherbicides canbecondoned.Thesecircumstances,however,willneverinclude
herbicideapplications:
-inchannelswherethewaterisused
for
irrigating agriculturalorhorticulturalcrops
preparingpesticideorinsecticidesprays
rinsing foodstuffs
-whereharmmightensuetofishlife
-wherepeopleareconcerned abouttheconservationof nature.
Themanufacturersofherbicideswillusuallyprovidedirections foruseonthe
packagingofthematerial,andtheseinstructionsmustbefollowedtothe letter.
Theherbicidesmostcommonlyused against theweedgroupsdescribedinSection2

arethe following:
Marginal weeds
monocots (grasses) dalapon 6-8 kga.i./ha
dicots MCPA 2 1 a.i./ha
2,4-D amine salt 2 kga.i./ha
woodyplantsandbrush 2,4,5-T ester 2 1 a.i./ha
totalweedkiller amitrole 5-101 a.i./ha
Combinationsofthesechemicalscanbeusedtoformtotalweedkillers.Theyare
all systemic herbicides, i.e.whenappliedtothe foliageofweeds,the chemicals
aretranslocated throughout theplant (alsotothe roots),therebydestroying
it.
Afterthe applicationofsystemicherbicides,plantsshouldnotberemovedor
burned foraperiodofabouttwomonthstoallowforthe translocationprocess
tooccur.
Another typeofherbicideisthe residual herbicide, sometimes calleda soil
sterilant. Itisappliedtothebottomsofchannelsthataretemporarilydry.
It
hasaverylowsolubility and,providedithaspenetrated intothe soil, can
remainactiveforperiods lasting fromafewweeksuptoayearormore,depending
a.i.=activeingredient
229
on circumstances. Itisabsorbed into theplant through theroots, thus destroy-
ing it,anditwill also prevent thegermination ofweed seeds. Tworesidual
herbicidesare:
atrazin 80%W.P. 1 3.5kg a.i./ha

diahlobenil 7-8kg a.i./ha
Emergent weeds
monocots dalapon 6-8kg a.i./ha

dicots MCPA 2 1 a..i./ha
2,4-D amine salt 2 kg a.i./ha
A very rapid effect isproduced onboth monocots anddicotsby
paraquat j-l 1 a.i./ha
Where fish arepresent, paraquat without detergent should beused. Theeffectsof

paraquat arespectacular, normally being visible within afewhours. Since itis
not a systemic herbicide, however, arapid regrowth oftheweeds canbe expected.
Submerged weeds
diquat j-l ppm 2

paraquat j-1ppm
Floating plants (anchored)
MCPA 2 1 a.i./ha
2,4-D amine salt 2kg a.i./ha
Free-floating weeds (unanchored)
Eichornia 2,4-D amine salt 2-4kg a.i./ha

Pistia spp. paraquat j-l 1 a.i./ha
Algae copper sulphate j-1ppm a.i./ha
When herbicides arebeing applied toweeds, thespray unit must becapableof

producing a fine, even spray which distributes theherbicide uniformly overthe
area. When being applied under water, herbicides will bemore uniformly distribu-
ted ifahigh-pressure spray gunisused. Before carrying outa herbicide
programme, itiswise toconduct small-scale experiments tofind themost
suitable dosages, since results candiffer widely inpractice.
W.P. =wettable powder

ppm =parts permillion
230
Chemical control
30.4 FACTORSTHATCANINFLUENCETHESUCCESSOFHERBICIDEAPPLICATIONS
The successorotherwiseofherbicideapplications isdependentonmanydifferent

factors.Inpractice,onecanencounterunpleasant surpriseswhicharedifficult
toexplain,eventhoughthechemicalshavebeenapplied strictlyaccording tothe
rules.
The factors thatcome intoplayare:
The type of herbicide

Apartfromthesystemicandresidualherbicidesdescribed earlier,adistinction
ismadebetween selective herbicides and non-selective herbicides (thelatter
alsobeingknownas total Weed killers).
Greatcautionmustbeexercisedwhenapplying aselectiveherbicideotherwise
itbecomesnon-selective.
Another typeofherbicide isthe contact herbicide. Likesystemicherbicides,

itisapplied tothefoliageoftheweed,butunlike systemicherbicides,it
causes dessication onlyof thosepartsoftheplant thataresprayed,withlittle
ornotranslocationofthechemical totheroot systemortounsprayed partsof
thefoliage.
A uniform distribution of the dosage
Thecorrect dosage foraunit areawillusuallybe indicated byaweightor

fluidmeasurement,e.g.somanykilogramsperhectareorsomany litresperhec-
tare.Although thecorrectdosageis,ofcourse,important,itisevenmoreim-
portant still thatthedosagebeuniformly distributed over thearea.
The correct concentration in water

Forthecontrol ofsubmergedweeds,theamountofherbicide tobe injected into
thewaterwillusuallybeexpressed as parts per million (ppm) orasa percentage.
Forgoodresults,thisamountmustbecarefully calculated.
Timing of applications
Atdifferentperiods ofaplant's lifecycle,itwillreactindifferentwaysto

treatmentwithoneand thesameherbicide.This isaparticularly importantpoint
tobeconsideredwhenaselectiveherbicide isbeingused,asanimproper timing
cankillall theplants,alsothosethatwere toberetained.
231
Weather conditions
Ingeneralspraying shouldonlybedoneoncalmdayswhenthereisnowindthat
might causespraydriftontocrops.Thetemperature,thehumidity,and theinten-
sityof lightat thetimeofapplications allhavetheir influenceontheresults.
Rainfallduringorafterapplicationsmaybefavourableorunfavourable,depending
ontheherbicideused.
Soil factors
Themost importantofthesearethehumusandclaycontentsofthesoilandits
permeability.Most soilherbicideswillbestronglyadsorbed tohumusandclay
particles,thereby losingtheireffect,while inhighlypervious soilstheherbi-
cidewill soonleachout.
Vitali ty
Ingeneral,aplant that isinaperiodofvigorousgrowthwillbeabletowith-
stand aherbicide treatmentbetterthanwhen itisinamoredormantperiod.This,
istruenotonlyofweedsbutalsoofcrops.
Size of plants
Largeplantswillusuallyrequire largerdosagesorhigherconcentrations than

smallones.
30.5 SPRAYINGEQUIPMENT
Thereisawidevariety ofspraying equipmentonthemarketandforfulldetails

thereader should consultamanufacturer'scatalogue.
Themost simpletypeisapolyethylenebottlefittedwith aminiaturepistonpump
andcarried intheoperator'shand.Knapsack sprayers arewidelyused.Thesimplest
types require constant pumpingwithonehandwhile theotherhandholdsthe
spray lance.Someknapsack sprayersarepumpedupbeforeuse;othersarefitted
withmotorizedmistblowers.Propanesprayunitsconsistofatankcarriedon
theoperator'sbackandabottleofliquid propanecarried atthefrontofhis
body.Thisunitcanbeused incombinationwith asprayboom fittedwithanumber
ofnozzles.
Sprayunitscanbewheeled orstatictypes.Theycanalsobefitted totrucks
ordrawnbytractors.Occasionaluseismadeoflightaircraft,althoughthe
dangerofspraydrift issogreatwith thissystemthat itisforbidden inmany-
places.
232
Chemical oontrol
Thenozzlesused insprayunitsareavery importantpartofthewhole.Basically,
therearetwotypesofnozzle:the fan andthe cone.
The fan nozzle provides alineofspray,and iftheunit ismoved overtheground

atauniformspeed,itcangiveanevencoverofherbicideover thewholewidth
ofthespray swath.Somefannozzles,especially thosefitted toasprayboom,
sprayalesseramountofherbicideattheouter edgesofthefantoavoidexces-
sivedepositionwhere theswathsoverlap.
Cone nozzles maybeofthehollowconetypeorthefullconetype.Thehollow

coneprovidesaringofspray,with littleornodeposit inthecentreofthering.
Thefullconedepositsmostofthesprayinthemiddleofthering,whichmakes
itparticularly suitableforspotspraying.Conenozzlescanbeusedoneither
sprayboomsorspray lances.Theytend togiveabettercoverthanfannozzlesas
theyspray theplantfromtwoanglesastheypassoverit.
Onecantestthepattern inwhichanozzleorsprayboom isapplyingherbicide

by sprayinganareaofdryconcrete.Asthespraydries,inequalities indeposi-
tionwillshowup.
Forthecontrolofsubmergedweeds,ahigh-pressure sprayguncanbeusedto
injectapowerfulstreamofherbicide intothewater.
30.6 BIOLOGICALANDOTHERMETHODSOFWEEDCONTROL
Asmentioned intheIntroduction,becauseofthedangersofenvironmental pol-

lutionfromtheuseofherbicides and thehighcostsofweedcontrolwithmachi-
nery,other solutions totheproblemareconstantlybeing sought.Uptothe
present,however,fewsuccessfulmethodshavebeenfoundwhicharesuitablefor
wide-scaleapplication.
Incertainspecific circumstances,thefollowingmethodsmightprovideasolution:
Manatee (Trichechus trichechus). Themanatee isamammal thatcangrowto

alengthofbetweenfourandfivemetres.Itconsumes greatquantitiesofaquatic
plantsanddoesnotconfine itself tounderwatervegetationbutwillrisepartial-
lyoutofthewaterduring thenighthoursand feedontheplantsgrowing alongside
thechannels.Anobviousdrawback isthatthecreature issolargethat itcannot
liveinsmallwatercourses.Moreover,itiscomparatively defenceless andis
being threatenedwithextinction incertainplaces.Norcanitsurvive inall
climates.
233
Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus).This fisheatsgreatquantities
ofaquatic plantsandasitgrows largerwill feednotonlyonthemoretender
plantsbutalsoonthetoughervarieties suchaswaterhyacinth.Unfortunately,
itwillnotpropagate outside itsnaturalhabitat sothateachindividual fish
mustbe imported ormade toreproduce itselfunderartificial conditions.Ifthis
fish istobeutilized inaprogrammeofweed control,onemust takeintoaccount
thatacertaintimemustelapsebeforeeffectsbecomeobvious.Onceestablished,
however,andprovided thelosses infishlifeareregularly replaced,thismethod
ofweed controlhas thesecondary advantageofproviding anewsourceofprotein
forthepopulation.
Other species offish (Puntius spp. and Tilapia spp.) arealsouseful incontrol-
lingweeds,although the Chinese grass aavp istheonlyonethatwillattackthe
tougherplants.
Animals. Smallfarmanimals,suchasgoatsorsheep,cankeepdownweed
growth iftheyareallowed tograzeontheslopesofwater courses.Thebanks,
ofcourse,mustbefirmenoughnot tosufferdamage.Theanimal couldbetethered
toasteelwireseveralmetres long,placed alongtheridgeofthebank.Ifthe
animal isregularlyprovidedwith anew"pasture",itcankeepdownatooproli-
ficweedgrowthonbankswithouteradicatingallvegetation.Thebottomofirriga-
tioncanals thatfalldrydaily canalsobekeptfreeofweeds inthisway.In
areaswithsparsevegetation,thismethod isunsuitableasitwould sooncausethe
banks toerode.
Shade. Suitablevegetation (bambooortrees)planted alongsidewatercourses

sothatashadow iscastover thewaterwillrepress thegrowthofaquaticweeds
and atthesame timewill strengthen thebanksagainsterosion.
Burning. Inareaswhere irrigationordrainagecanalsfalldryforfairly

longperiods,theweeds canbeburned off.Thisgetsridofunwantedvegetation
withoutdestroying theroot systems,therebypreserving thebanks fromerosion.
Strictprecautionsmustbetakentokeep thefireundercontrol.
234
Chemical control
LITERATURE
ADAMS,A.E.,TITOKO,V. 1970. Aprogressreportontheintroductionofgrass

carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)inFiji.FijiAgric.J.32,2:43-46.
BILL,S.M.,GRAHAM,W.A.E.1968. Chemicalweedcontrol inirrigationchannels

anddrains.StateRivers&WaterSupplyCommission,Armadale,Victoria
(Australia).2ndrev.ed.,34pp.
BRISTON,CARDENAS,FULLERTON,SIERRA.Aquaticweeds.ColombiaAgric.Institute
andInternationalPlantProtectionCentre,OregonStateUniv.,USA. 115pp.
CHEMICAL controlofsubmersedwaterweeds inWestern irrigationanddrainagecanals

CropsResearch,JointReportofAgric.ResearchService,U.S.DeptofAgric.
andBureauofReclamation,U.S.Dept.oftheInterior.1963. 14pp.
CONTROLofcertainditchbankweedsonirrigation systems.1962.Agric.Res.Service,
U.S.Dept.ofAgric,Washington,D.C.ProductionRes.ReportNo.60.64pp.
DRUIJF,A.H. 1973. Possibleapproaches towaterhyacinth control.Pans19,

No.2 (June).
EFFECTSofpesticides inwater. 1972. Areport totheStates.U.S.Environmental

ProtectionAgency,WashingtonD.C. 145pp.
GRAHAM,W.A.E. 1969.Controlling aquaticweeds inAustralia.Span (Shell)12,

3:167-170.
HOLM,L.C.etal. 1970. Aquaticweeds.Pans 16,4:576-589.
IRVING,N.S.1972. Biological controlofSalviniasp.inBotswana.Pans18,

1:93-.
JAGADEESH,K.M.,LAKSHMINARAYANA,C.S.1971.Eradication andutilizationofwater
hyacinth.Areview,anaddition.Current Science40,7:148-149.
KLEINSCHMIDT,H.E. 1969. Effect ofgranular2,4-Donsomewaterweeds andits

persistence.QueenslandJ.ofAgric.Sei.26,4:587-592.
LITTLE,E.C.S.1968. Report totheGovernmentofIndonesiaonthecontrolof

aquaticvegetation inthelakeofRawaPening,CentralJava.UnitedNations
Development Program,FAO,Rome.24pp.
LITTLE,E.C.S. 1969. Thefloating islandsofRawaPening (CentralJava,Indonesia).

Pans 15,2:147-153.
NELSON,M.L.,GANGSTAD,E.O.,SEAMAN,D.E. 1970. Reportonpotentialgrowthof

aquaticplantsof theLowerMekongRiverBasin,Laos/Thailand. 28pp.
235
OTTO,N.E.,BARTLEY,T.R., CUNNINGHAM,D.W. 1965. AquaticPestsonIrrigation
Systems,IdentificationGuide.U.S.Department oftheInterior.Washington
D.C.72pp.
PROWS,B.L.,McILHENNY,W.F.1973. Development ofaselectivealgaecide tocon-

trolnuisancealgalgrowth.OfficeofRes.andDevelopment,U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency,WashingtonD.C.EcologicalRes.Series. 126pp.
PROCEEDINGS oftheSouthernWeed Conference. 18thannualmeeting. 1965.

Dallas 1965.750pp.
ROBINSON,G.W. 1969.Theuseofherbicides inthemaintenanceoflanddrainage

channelsonRomneyMarsh.J.Institution ofWaterEngineers (London)23,
3:159-176.
SAINTY,G.R., SWAIN,D.J. 1971.Weedsorwater?Agric.GazetteofNewSouthWales

(Australia)82,3:160-164.
THIRDSymposiumonaquaticWeeds.1971 (July).EuropeanWeed Res.Council,Res.

GrouponAquaticWeedsProblems,BritishCropProtectionCouncil.
236
31. MECHANICAL M A I N T E N A N C E OF DITCHES
H. M. ELEMA
Government Advisorfor Farm Machinery
Agricultural Advisory Servicefor Farm Machinery,
Wageningen
G. A. Benders (1962-1968)
Institute for Agricultural Engineering, Labour, and Management, Wageningen
H. M. Elema (1969-1973)
Agricultural Advisory Service for Farm Machinery, Wageningen
PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Abrief reviewofmachinesandhand toolsusedinthemaintenanceofdrainage

ditches.1
CONTENTS

31.2 CONTROLOFBANKVEGETATION 239
31.2.1 Mowingwithhand tools 240
31.2.2 Mechanicalmowers 240
31.2.3 Propulsionofmowers 244
31.2.4 Mowingbucket 244
31.2.5 Working rates 244
31.3 CONTROLOFAQUATICWEEDS 247

31.3.1 Mowingandcuttingwithhand tools 247
31.3.2 Mowingandcutting fromlaunches 247
31.3.3 Harrowing 247
31.3.4 Working rates 249
31.4 REMOVALOFSILTANDRESHAPINGTHECHANNEL 249

31 . 4 . , 1 Reshaping channel 249
31 . 4 . .2 Hand toolsforremoving silt 249
31 . 4 . .3 Scoop-typeditchers 252
31 . 4 . .4 Rotaryditchers 255
31 . 4 . ,5 Suction-type ditchers 255
31.5 SELECTINGTHERIGHTEQUIPMENT 255

31.5.1 Bankmowing 257
31.5.2 Controlofaquaticweeds 257
31.5.3 Removalofsiltandreshapingofchannel 258
LITERATURE 259
The photographs of the various machines in this chapter have been supplied by
courtesy of their manufacturers. The inclusion of these photogravhs should
not be construed as an endorsement by the Institute of these manufacturers
or of their products.
Mechanical maintenance
31.1 INTRODUCTION
Aditch-howevergood itsdesignmaybeandhowcareful itsconstruction-is

only asemi-permanent structure.Withoutpropermaintenance,itsdischargecapa-
citycandecrease to25percentwithinasingle season.This iscaused bythe
growthofaquaticweeds,bythedepositionofsilt,and,thoughataslowerrate,
byerosionandcollapseofthebanks (Chap.29,Vol.IV).
Athickgrowthofaquaticweedsactslikeastillingbasin,slowingdownthe
flowintheditchand therebypromoting thedepositionofsilt.
Theriskofthebankscollapsing canbereducedbyavoiding steepsideslopesand

byhaving thebanks coveredwithaturfofsod-forming grasses.Therootsystem
oftheseplantsreinforces thesoil,asasteelwebreinforces concrete,andthus
helps topreventerosion.
Reedsand similarplantsprovidegoodprotectionagainsterosionatthewaterlevel
eveninshipping canals.Thereedsneed onlyoccasional cutting andcanbeused
asthatchingmaterial for theroofsofhouses.
Maintenanceworkconsistsofthreedifferentactivities:
- controlofbankvegetation
-control ofaquaticvegetation
- removalofsiltandreshapingofthechannel.
Bothbankvegetationandaquaticweedsneed tobecutfrequently.Exactlyhow
frequentlywilldepend onthetypeofplantgrowthand localclimaticconditions.
Inamoderateclimate likeTheNetherlands,ithastobedonefromonetofive
timesperseason.
Silt shouldberemoved onceayear.Thiswillhelp toextend theintervalsbetween
themoreexpensive reshapingoperations,whichwould otherwisehavetobedone
onceevery threetofiveyears.
31.2 CONTROLOFBANKVEGETATION
Aturfofsod-forming grassesisanexcellentbankvegetationand thebestway

tokeep itingood shapeistomowitregularly.Chemicalscanhelp toeliminate
weeds (Chap.30,Vol.IV).
Mowing canbedoneeitherwithappropriatehand toolsorwithmachines.Theuseof
hand tools isdeclining infavour ofmachines,butcountrieswithalargelabour
forcewoulddowell toretaintheuseofhand toolsbecause theycanbevery
efficient.
239
31.2.1 MOWINGWITHHANDTOOLS
Theordinary sickleorscytheisnotwellsuited formowingonsteepbanks,but
specialbank-mowing scythesareavailable (Fig.I).Thesehaveabladeattached
toalongstraighthandlewithouthandgrips.Theoperatorwalksalong theverge
oftheditchandmowsthevegetationwithswiftforward strokes,bringingpart
ofthecutmaterialup theverge.
31.2.2 MECHANICALMOWERS
Abankmowershouldbecapableofcuttingaratherdifficulttypeof[vegetation
and shouldnotbecomejammedorchokedbythemulchofaprevious cut.Itisnot
easyfortheordinary cutterbar tomeet theserequirements,butamulch-type
cutterbar,oracutterbarwithdoublereciprocatingknives (Fig.2),arotary
cutter,oraflailmowerencounter less troubleworkingundersuchconditions.
Theordinary typeofcutterbarleavesmostofthecutmaterial onthebank,
whichmay causethevegetation todeteriorate.Itisthereforegoodpracticeto
rakecutmaterial immediately aftermowing (Fig.3).Cutmaterial canalsobere-
movedby suction (Fig.4).
Therotarymowerand theflailmowerwillchopthematerial fineenoughtomake
itssubsequent removalunnecessary (Fig.5).Rotarymowershave thedisadvantage
thatforeignmatter (wireortwine)easilywrapsaround themowingrotorandthey
mustbeverywell shielded against stonesorotherhard objectsbeing thrownup.
Portable rotarymowers areparticularly dangerous forbankmowing.Theoperator
maybeseriouslywounded ifhestumbles.Rotarymowersarethereforenotrecom-
mended forthistypeofwork.
Thecuttingmechanism canbeattached tovarious frameconstructions,depending
onthespecificconditions andavailablefunds.Theordinary typeofframeused
foratractor-mounted grassmowerhasseriousdisadvantages forbankmowing.Its
innershoeisvery closetothetractorwheels,making itnecessary todrivevery
near tothevergeoftheditch (Fig.6).Inthisposition thetractormay tipover
ifthecutterbarhitsanobstruction.Theminimumsafedistancebetweenthetrac-
torwheelsand theinner shoeis50cm.Afurtherdisadvantage isthattheordina-
rypitmandrivedoesnotpermit cuttingatsufficientlywide angles (Fig.7).Bank
mowers aretherefore fittedwith ahydraulically drivenshaftconcentricwiththe
hingepins ofthecutterbar (Fig.8).Manymakes allowthemower tobeshifted side-
waysduringoperations (Fig.9).Othermakeshave themowerattached toatwo-piece
hydraulically controlled arm (Fig.10).Thisgivesagreatflexibility inoperation,
evenmaking itpossible tomowoverfencesetc.Thedrivingmechanism issometimes
mechanical,butusuallyhydraulic.Withsomemakes,themowercanbereplacedbya
ditch-cleaning bucket,thusmakingconversion intoaditchcleanerpossible.
240
!«Mfc _ ^ # > » d «t: ;"'
Fig.1. Bankscythe.Thebladeisattached toalong

straighthandlewithouthandgrips.
iMJAl'll'-'nu
F i g . 2 . Mulch-type c u t t e r b a r . Eisenwerk Milspe, Emrepetal-'Hlspe,

West Germany.
Fig.3. Rakingaftermowing isagoodpractice.

Gebr.den Herder, Serooskerke, The Netherlands.
241
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242
Fig.8.Thehydraulically
drivenpitman shaft iscon-
centricwith thehingepins
ofthecutterbar.Thehy-
dromotor canbeattenuated
by thehydraulic systemof
thetractor. Gebr.den Her-
der, Sevooskerke, Bolland.
Fig.9.Mechanically
drivenflailmowerwith
a0.60mside-shift.
Vogelenzang, Ândelet,
The Netherlands.
Fig.10.Bankmowerwitha
hydraulically controlled
two-piece arm.Thecutter-
bar ishydraulically dri-
ven. Baekers & Gilbers,
Meppen, West Germany.
243
31.2.3 PROPULSION OFMOWERS
Whereitispossible todriveanordinary tractoralongside theditch,itislogi-

caltousetractor-mounted equipment.Thetractorshouldhavesufficientweight
forgood stability;thiswillusuallybebetween 1400and2000kg,dependingon
thetypeofmowerand itsreach.
Wherethereisonlyanarrowpathbetween thebankandfencesorotherobstacles,
itwillbenecessary eithertoworkover theseobstaclesortouseanarrowtrac-
tororaself-propelledmower.Ifthepathisatleast 100cmwide,asmalltwo
orfourwheeled tractor,thelatterpreferablywithfour-wheeldrive,canbeused
(Fig.11).Ifthepath isatleast60cmwide,aself-propelledmowercanbeused
(Fig.12).Somemowerscanrunonslopingbankswithamaximum slopeof 1:1 (Fig.
13).
Ifitisimpossible tomowfromthebanks,onecanuseamowing launch.Thisis

asmallboatwithabank-mowingattachment (Fig.l4).Thelaunchiskeptoncourse
byamanwalkingalongsidetheditch;themanintheboatsupervises thecutter-
barand theengine.
31.2.4 MOWINGBUCKET
Amowingbucketbears someresemblance toaditch-cleaningbucket.Ithasahy-

draulicallydrivenknifeascutting edgeandanopenbucket inwhichthecutma-
terial iscollected andremoved fromtheditch.Themowingbucket isattachedto
ahydraulic armortothearmofanyhydraulicbackhoeorexcavator.Inasingle
movement,itmowsandremovesboth thevegetationonthebanksand theaquatic
weeds intheditch (Fig.15). Itcanworkaround treesandsimilarobstaclesand
needsaccessfromonlyonesideoftheditch.Equippedwith inserts,itcansimul-
taneously removemostofthesilttoo (Fig.16).
31.2.5 WORKINGRATES
Becauseofthedifficultoperatingconditions,theworking speedofabankmower
islessthanthatofagrassmower inahayfield.Itwillusuallybebetween
1and2.5kmperhour.
Themowingbucketworks intermittently and istherefore slowerthanacontinuously

workingmachine.Thehourlyoutput isbetween0.2 and0.5 km,whichcorresponds
to0.4 and 1kmformachinesmowingeachbankseparately.
Therateofworkoflaunchmowingvaries considerablywith conditions,butwill
besomewherebetween0.5 and 2km.
244
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31.3 CONTROLOFAQUATICWEEDS
When thechemical controlofaquaticweeds isundesirable (toxic effects)or
otherwise impracticable,theycanbecontrolledbymowing,cutting,andsometimes
byharrowing.
Mowing leavesastubble,resulting inarapid regrowthoftheweeds,butthe
stubbleprotects thebottomoftheditchagainsterosion.Cuttingandharrowing
tearstheplans looseand stirsupthemud,which thencoverstheleavesofthe
remainingplants,thusretarding theirregrowth.Hence,whenthere isarisk
oferosion,aquaticplantsshouldpreferablybemown.
Inthesameway asfield cropsarehoed todiscourage thedevelopment ofweeds,so
alsoareditches "hoed".This,ofcourse,isnotpossible inditcheswith ahard
bottomsincethetoolscannotpenetratetocutanduproot theplants.Aquatic
weedsmustbecutbefore theyhavedeveloped fullyand theoperationmustbere-
peated rather frequently.Waiting toolongresults inalowrateofwork,while
thelargequantities ofcutmaterial floating intheditchmayblocktheflowat
narrowspots.
31.3.1 MOWINGANDCUTTINGWITHHANDTOOLS
Infairlywideditchesorcanals,weedscanbecutwithachain-scythe.Thiscon-
sistsofanumberofcuttingbladeswithflexibleconnections andtwohandles
(Fig.17).Twomenpull itbackandforthover thebottomoftheditch (Fig.18).
Thebladesmustberegularly sharpened inthesameway assickleorscytheblades.
31.3.2 MOWINGANDCUTTINGFROMLAUNCHES
Bothmowingandcutting canbedonefromsmalllaunches equippedwithanunder-
watercutterbar (Fig.19)orwithahoeingattachment (Fig.20).Thehoeingattach-
ment isaV-shapedknifewhichpenetrates slightly intothemud andmovesshock-
wisetoallowthecutmaterial torisetothesurface andnotwraparoundthe
knife.Thestrokeoftheknifeand itsfrequency shouldbeattuned totheforward
speed ofthelaunch.
Launches require aminimumwaterdepthof40to50cm.Therequiredwidthof
theditchdependsonthesizeofthelaunch.Small launches canoperate inditches
thatare 1.50wideatthewaterline.
31.3.3 HARROWING
Sometimes alightharrowcanbepulled through theditch.Itcanbeattachedby
longchainstotwotractors (ortwoanimals).Sincetheharrowmaybecaughtby
some invisibleobstruction,thetractorsmustbefittedwithasafety-baror
safety-cab.
247
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248
31.3.4 WORKINGRATES
Workingratesdependonthedensityofthevegetation.Formowingandcutting
fromlaunches,itisbetween2.5 and4kmperhour ifconditions arefavourable.
Little information isavailableontheworkingrateforharrowing,butitpro-
bablyvariesbetween0.5 and3kmperhour.
31.4 REMOVALOFSILTANDRESHAPINGTHECHANNEL
Asmentioned earlier,ifsiltisremoved onceayear,thiswillhelptodouble

theintervalsbetweenthemoreexpensivereshapingoperations.However,when
reshaping isneeded,thetwooperationscanbecombined.Thebanksarepre-cut
and thecutmaterial remains intheditchuntil itisremoved togetherwiththe
silt.
31.4.1 RESHAPINGCHANNEL
Ifthechannels aretobereshapedbyhand,aspecial triangular spadewitha

longhandle istheidealtool (Fig.21).Thebladeispushed downalongtheside
slopesattheproperangle.Ifthisspecialspadeisnotavailable,onecanuse
apointed spadewithalonghandleandwithoutafootrest.Likethespecial
spade,itshouldbekept sharpandwellhoned.
Adigginghoe isnotverywellsuited tothistypeofwork,butitcanbeused

ifthemanstandslowerthanthebladeandthebladehastheproperangle.
Ifmechanicalmeansarepreferred,tractors canbefittedwithaside-mounted
bank-cutting knife (Fig.22)oraspecialhydraulic spade (Fig.23).
31.4.2 HANDTOOLSFORREMOVINGSILT
Specialhand toolshavebeendeveloped forremoving silt (Fig.24).Thedredging

scoopconsistsofalongstraighthandlewithaspeciallybentshovelblade;it
somewhatresembles adigginghoe.Thedredging forkisusedforremovingaquatic
weeds,andwillalsobehelpful instirringupthesilt.
Itispossible touseoradaptcertaindigginghoesand forks fordredging.The

adaptationmayrequire fittingalongerhandleandsettingthebladeorforkat
aslightly sharperangletothehandle.
Handdredging caneasilybemasteredbutthework isheavy and theoutputper

man isfairlylow.
249
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31.4.3 SCOOP-TYPEDITCHERS
Thesimplerear-mounted tractorditcher (Fig.25)isessentially ascaled-up

versionof thehand dredging scoop.During theworkcycle,thetractorbacksup,
drops theditcher intotheditchandpulls itcrosswise through theditchandup
against thenearbank,bringing thespoilontotheland.Thismachineworkswell
ifthebanks arenot toohighand their slopedoesnotexceed 1:1.Thedigging
force isderived fromthetractionof thetractor,andunderwetconditions this
results inwheel-spin anddamagetothesoil.
Side-mounted scoopditchers (Fig.26)canberegarded assimplifiedexcavators,

butwithout theslewingmovement.Mostoftheseditchersarepoweredbythe
hydraulic systemofthetractor,buttheycanbefittedwith theirownhydraulic
system.
Withaside-mounted ditcher,thetractor shouldhaveasufficientweightanda

wheel thread ofatleast 1.50m toavoid tipping over;2,000kgwillusually
suffice.
Withasufficiently largereach,side-mounted ditchers canworkfromoneside

oftheditchonly.Todeterminewhether thereachofaditcher issufficientfor
agivenditch,onecanapply thegraphicalmethod shown inFig.27.Themaximum
reachcurveoftheditcher issketched onasheetofordinarydrawingpaperand
theprofileoftheditch issketched atthesamescaleonasheetof transparent
paper.The latter isthensuperimposed ontheformer and theresults canberead.
Mosthydraulic excavators and tractorback-hoes caneasilybeconverted toditchers

byequipping themwith aditchingbucket (Fig.28). Theessentialdifference
betweenaditchingand adiggingbucket isthatwith theditchingbucketthe
distancebetween thehingepinand thecutting edge ismuch lessanddigging tines
arelacking (Fig.29).
There isanextremelywide rangeofhydraulic excavators and tractorback-hoes.

The choicedepends largelyonthedimensions oftheditches and theamountof
work thathas tobedone.
Ifonehas toworkonextremely soft soils,self-propelled excavators onspecially

wide tracks areneeded (Fig.30).
The spoil removedby theditcherswillbedeposited inaridgenear theditch.

Thismaterialmustbespread. Power-take-off rotaryspreaders (Fig.31)are
available forthiswork.Theycanalsobeused forlightreshapingwork onbanks.
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Fig
30. A hydraulic excavator onwide tracks equipped with aditching bucket
can work also onsoft soils. HATHA, lübeck-Travemünde, W.Germany
i ' . 3 1 . A power-take-off r o t a r y
• -1 s p r e a d e r . B o s ,Lollim, Holland.
i'ig.32. Large rotary ditchcutter andcleaner.

Ridder Landbouwmachines, Harderwijk, The Netherlands.
254
31.4.4 ROTARYDITCHERS
Rotaryditcherswork continuously and spread thesoilatthesametime (Fig.32).

Astheforcesactingonthecutting toolsarelarge,theymustbesturdilybuilt.
Rotary ditchersneed apowerful tractor (atleast60hpatthep.t.o.)whichshould
becapableofworking atlowspeeds (say,0.3kmperhour).Most tractors canbe
fittedwith special reductiongearsforthispurpose.
Rotaryditchers shouldnotbeused instony soils.Insoftorlightsoils,they

canalsobeused todignewditches,althoughnot inasingleoperationbut ina
numberofsubsequentpasses,eachonemaking theditchalittledeeper.
Thereareafewmakes ofditchers thatreshape thebanksandremovethespoilwith

acutting auger (Fig.33).Ifthewaterdepth intheditch ismore thanabout 30cm,
however,themachinewillpumpout toomuchwaterandalargepartof thespoil
will flowback intotheditch.
Someditchers areequippedwithcutting chainswhichworkcrosswise.Onechain

cuts thematerial and transports itupwards;theother functionsasaspreader.
Oneoftheproblemswiththis typeofditcher istheratherrapidwearofthe
cutting chain,although experimentswith aspecial typeofrubberchainareen-
couraging (Fig.34).Itrequires anexperienced operator tohandle thismachine,
particularly inkeeping thebanks straight.Newoperators,therefore,mustdrive
more slowly thanthestandard speedof0.6 to1.2kmperhour.
31.4.5 SUCTION-TYPEDITCHERS
Whencanalsarelinedwithasphaltorconcrete,they should preferablynotbe

touchedbycutting tools.Whenthespoil insuchcanals issoft,itcanberemoved
by suctiondredges.Thesearesmallboatsequippedwithapumpandanadjustable
suctionpipe (Fig.35).Thesewillusuallybearotaryweed chopperatthesuction
mouth toprevent thepipebeingblockedbyaquaticweeds and thelike.Thespoil
canbespreadnearbyorbepumped throughpipelinestosomeconvenientdisposal
area.
Somemanufacturersoffer tractor-drawn suctiondredges (Fig.36).Theseremove

siltonly andarenotequippedwitharotaryweedchopper.
31.5 SELECTINGTHERIGHTEQUIPMENT
The following remarksmaybeofhelp inmaking achoicefromamongthevarious

possiblemethods andtheavailableequipment.
255
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31.5.1 BANKMOWING
Whendecidingwhetherbanks shouldbemownwithhand toolsorwithmachines,one

shouldkeep inmind that itmaybeeconomically justified tomowwithhand tools
incountrieswherethere isalargelabour forceavailable.Ifhand toolsare
used,theseshouldbespecialized bank-mowing scythes,ordinary sicklesand
scythesnotbeingsuitableforthiswork.
Ifthechoicefallstomechanicalmowing,oneshouldremember thatordinarycutter-
barseasilybecome choked andalso leavemostofthecutmaterial onthebank.
Thismaterialmustberemoved,otherwise thevegetationonthebankwilldeterio-
rate.
Mulch-typecutterbars,rotarycutters,andflailmowersdonotbecome soreadily
choked and theychopthematerial fineenough tomake itssubsequentremovalun-
necessary.Rotary cutters,however,canbedangerous,especially theportable
types.
Ifonehastomowoverfencesorotherobstacles,themowingmechanismcanbe
attached toatwo-piecehydraulicarm.
Ifthere isasufficientlywidepathalongsideditches,mowers canbemountedto
anytractor.Smalltractors canbeused ifthepathisatleast 1mwide,while
self-propelledmowers canbeused onpathsatleast60cmwide.Ifnopathis
available,banks canbemownfromlaunches.
Certaintypesofself-propelled mowers canbeused ifslopesarenot steeperthan

1:1.
31.5.2 CONTROLOFAQUATICWEEDS
Aquaticweeds canbecontrolled withhand tools,withmachines,orwithchemicals.

Chemicalmethods canresult inbarebanks,thuscausing serious erosionproblems.
Theymay alsohaveundesirable consequences fortheenvironment.
Where>sufficient labour isavailable,aquaticweedscanbecutwithachainscythe.

If theditchisatleast0.5mdeepand 1.50mwide,machines fitted tolaunches
canbeused tomoworcuttheaquaticweeds.
Sometimesalightharrowcanbepulled throughtheditch,tearinguptheplants
as itpasses.
Itshouldberemembered thatwhereerosionconstitutes aproblem,aquaticplants

shouldbemownandnot cutorharrowed.
257
31.5.3 REMOVALOFSILTANDRESHAPINGOFCHANNEL
Whenchannelsneed tobereshaped,thisoperation canbecombinedwith theremoval

ofsilt.Banks shouldbepre-cut and thematerial removed alongwith thesilt.
Special spadesexistforbank cutting,ortheworkcanbedonewithadapted

hand tools,mechanicalbank-cuttingknives,orhydraulicspades.
Siltcanberemovedmanuallywithspecialdredging scoopsand forks,orwith

adapted digginghoesandforks.
Whenconsidering achoicefromthewidevarietyofmachines availableforsilt

removal,oneshouldkeep thefollowing inmind:
- forprivateuseonsmallprojects,arear-mounted tractorscoopwould
seemasound investment
-forlargerprojects,onemight profitablyuseaside-mounted tractor-

ditcher
- forlarge-scaleprojectswheremachines canoperateatleast 500hours

annually,adaptedhydraulic excavatorswillusuallybesuitable
-rotaryditcherswork faster thanother typesbutaresuitableonlyfor

smallditches andrelatively stone-freesoils
-suction-type dredges aretobepreferredwhencanalsarelined.
258
LITERATURE
ANONYMOUS. Methods andmachinery forcutting andcleaning irrigationanddrainage

channels.Agric.Engng.InformalWorkingBulletin 13.Food andAgriculture
OrganizationoftheUnitedNations,Rome.
BAITSCH,B.,RADERMACHER,H. Gewässerunterhaltung,Mechanisieren,Rationalisieren.
I.AllgemeineHinweise.II:MaschinenundGeräte.VerlagWasserundBoden.
80pp.
ELEMA,H.H. 1967. Onderhoudvanslotenenwatergangen.Zwolle,TjeenkWillink,

TheNetherlands.88pp.
259
32. D R A I N A G E O F N E W L Y R E C L A I M E D M A R I N E C L A Y E Y
S E D I M E N T S , PEAT SOILS, A N D A C I D - S U L P H A T E SOILS
W. A. SEGEREN
Head, Division of Land Development and
Recreation
IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority,
Lelystad
H. SMITS
Deputy Head, Division of Land Development
and Recreation
IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority,
Lelystad
H. Smits (1962-1966; 1968; 1972)

IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority, Lelystad
B. Fokkens (1962-1964)
W. A. Segeren (1965-1967;1969-1971; 1973)

PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Adiscussionofthespecificproblems encountered indraining three typesof

soils:recently emergedmarine clayey sediments,peat soils,and acid sulphate
soils.
CONTENTS
32.1 DRAINAGEOFNEWLYRECLAIMEDMARINE CLAYEY SEDIMENTS 263

32.1.2 Theemerged soil 263
32.1.3 Physicalripeningofthesediments 264
32.1.4 Subsidence 268
32.1.5 Drainagemethods 278
32.2 DRAINAGEOFPEATSOILS 281

32.2.2 Effects ofdrainage 282
32.2.3 Predicting subsidence 283
32.2.4 Drainagealternatives forpeat soils 287
32.3 DRAINAGEOFACIDSULPHATE SOILS 287

32.3.2 Theprocess ofacidification 288
32.3.3 Improvement ofacid sulphate soils 290
32.3.4 Predicting theformationofacid sulphate soils 292
32.3.5 Reclamation 292
LITERATURE 294
Spec'fie soils
32.1 DRAINAGEOFNEWLYRECLAIMEDMARINECLAYEYSEDIMENTS
32.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Inmanydeltaicareasandotherregionsbordering coastlines -sometimes inriver

valleys aswell-low-lying landsarefoundwhicharepermanently inundated,or
atleastpermanentlywaterlogged afterperiodical inundations.Suchareascanbe
reclaimed byconstructing anembankmentandpumping thewaterout.Bydoingso,
adifference inhydraulicheaddevelopsbetweenembanked andadjacentareas (Figs,
laand lb).
Agroundwater inflowwillresultand this,combinedwiththeprecipitation,

usuallyrenders itnecessary tokeepthenewlanddryby installinganadequate
sub-surfacedrainagesystem.
Fig.1. Groundwater flowtowardsnewlyreclaimed land,causingwaterloggingand

flooding inazoneatthefootofthedike.A:beforereclamation,B:after
reclamation
32.1.2 THEEMERGEDSOIL
Whenstillcoveredwithwater,themore clayey soilsconsist ofasoft,unconso-

lidatedmudwithahighmoisture content.Thesedimentsarevery looselypacked,
i.e. thesoilparticles arerelativelywideapartandalotofspaceoccursin
between.Theporespaceofsubaqueous,clayey sediments isapproximately 75per
cent,whereas thatofsimilarbutoldersoilsisabout45percent.Atthemoment
ofemergencealltheporesarefilledwithwater.Thesedimentsaretherefore
extremely softandoftencompletely impassable.Moreover,owing totheabsence
ofair,theyareentirely reduced.
263
Although the spaceoccupied bypores isconsiderable inthesesediments,pore
diameters arenevertheless small.They arebelieved not toexceed afewmicrons,
although itisdifficult todetermine theporesizedistributionbecauseall
commonmethodsofdoing sofail inthis softmaterial.
Asaconsequence of thesmalldiametersof thepores,thehydraulic conductivity

ofthese sediments isnearly zero.Hydraulic conductivityvaluesof 10'to 10*
m/day arecommon.For comparison,valuesof20or30m/dayarefound inhighly
pervious coarse sand,while inratherpoorlypervious clay soilsvaluesoflm/day
arenotexceptional.
Aclose statistical relationhasbeenfoundbetweenthecontentsofclay (soil

particles <0.002mmor2microns)andorganicmatterontheonehand and thewater
content ontheotherhand.Thisrelation ispresented byEq.1
W=20+n(C+bH) (1)
where
W =water content inweightpercentage

C =claycontent inweightpercentage
H =organicmattercontent inweightpercentage
20 =constant (=water content forsaturated puresand)
n,b=coefficients,with specificvalues forvarious typesofsediments.
32.1.3 PHYSICALRIPENINGOFTHESEDIMENTS
Theoriginal sedimenthas tochangeintoanormal soilonwhichcropsandtrees

canthrive,which ispassableformanandmachinery,andonwhichroadsandbuild-
ingscanbeconstructed.Thechangefrommud tonormal soil isbroughtaboutby
adrasticdecrease ofthewatercontent.Thisdecrease,and thephysical andche-
micalprocesses itbringswith it,iscalled initial soilformationorripening
ofthesoil.
After thesoilhasemerged,adrainage system isconstructed.Thiswillcomprise

canals,mainditches,and temporary field ditches.Thefieldditcheswillbe
replaced by seriesofpipedrainsafter someyears,whenthehydraulic conductivity
has increased sufficiently.Inthebeginning,however,becauseofthesmallpores,
practically all thewateroftheoriginal sediment isboundbycapillary andother
forces.Avigorousvegetation isthereforeessential tohelp remove thewaterby
transpiration.
264
Specific soils
Thelossofwaterbringsaboutanumberofchanges.Themainonesare
- thehydraulic conductivity increasesduetocrackformation

- theland levelsubsides
-thesoilisaerated
- thesoil'swater storagecapacityincreases.
Thedecrease inwatercontent forasubaqueous sedimentwith 30percentclay

intheIJsselmeerPolders inTheNetherlands isgiven inTable1.
Table 1. Decrease ofthewater content1 ofsubaqueous IJsselmeer sediments

(claycontent30percent)asmeasured eachspringfollowingemergence (each
value isthemeanfor4representative sampling locations)
Depth below Ye arsa fter emerg ence

surface
incm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 1005
0-20 108 91 85 55 60 49 47 45 39 37 27
20-40 108 98 89 63 62 58 53 51 48 46 34
40-60 108 95 88 70 72 70 69 69 63 61 41
60-80 108 108 102 81 88 84 90 81 82 76 45
80- 1002 116 115 1)1 91 102 94 98 94 95 93 50
100-1252 116 117 115 110 112 105 105 102 105 96 53
125-1502 116 115 114 111 113 111 102 106 111 99 56
150- 200 2 116 118 113 112 111 107 108 108 108 103 60
Water content inweight percentage

Water contents of the layers below 80cmarehigher,due tohigher contents
of organic matter
Figures for 100years after emergence are derived from a 100-year-old
polder whose sediments are comparable to those of the IJsselmeer
Itcanbeseenfromthistablethatthewithdrawalofwater starts inthetopmost

layerandproceedsataslowerpacewithincreasingdepth.Forexample thewater
contentofthearablelayer (0-20cm)dropstoaboutonethirdofitsinitial
valueafter 11years,whereas inthesameperiod thedecrease inthelayer80-100
cmisonlyonefifth.
Inthetemperate zone thewithdrawal ofwaterbyevaporationand transpirationis

restricted totheuppermetreoratthemost totheupper 1.5m.Thedeeper layers
losewater too,but this isdue toconsolidationresulting from theincreased load
ontheselayersafter thegroundwater table isloweredbydrainage.
265
UnderDutchclimatic conditions (c.f.alsoTable2,ColumnE-P)thelossofwater
takesplaceduring summer,whenevaporation and transpirationexceedrainfall.
Thiscreates capillary tensions,whichareattimesveryhigh.These contractive
forcescausethesoilmaterial toshrinkbothhorizontally andvertically,
leading tosubsidence andcrackformation.
Theprocess canbestbeillustrated byanexample.Thequantities ofsolidparts,

water,and airineachyearcanbecalculated fromthedataofTable 1.Initially
thelayer is 1.8m thick;sobeneatheverydm surfaceatotalvolumeof 18dm
isfound.Thelayershrinks to 1.0mafter 100yearsandonlyavolumeof 10dm
perdm2 isleft.As there isnolossofsolidparts (thelossesofCaC03 and
organicmatterarenegligible)thelossofvolume isdue tolossofwater.More-
over,apartof thewater lossiscompensated forby theincrease intheair
content.Theresultsofthecalculations aregiveninTable2.
Table2. Thevolumesofsolidparts,water,andairinsubaqueous sediments

(claycontent 30percent)eachspringafteremergence (eachvalue isthe
mean for4representative sampling locations)
Years Total Decrease Total pore Volume of Volume of

after
emergence
volume
of soil(')
in volume
ofsoil C)
space 0) (
') air (") E-P(')
water
3
(thickness) (subsidence)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (z)(') (s)
2 2 3
0 18.0 - 13.5 - 13.5 - 0 - -

1 17.6 0.4 13.1 0.4 12.7 0.8 0 4 0.4 0.8
2 17.2 0.4 12.7 0.4 12.3 0.4 0 4 0 0.8
3 15.2 2.0 10.7 2.0 9.9 2.4 0 8 0.4 4.6
4 15.5 -0.3 10.9 -0.2 10.3 -0.4 0 6 -0.2 0.4
5 14.8 0.7 10.2 0.7 9.5 0.8 0 7 0.1 0.9
6 14.6 0.4 10.1 0.1 9.3 0.2 0 8 0 1.1
7 14.2 0.4 9.7 0.4 8.9 0.4 0 8 0 0.9
8 14.0 0.2 9.5 0.2 8.7 0.2 0 8 0 2.3
11 13.6 0.4 9.1 0.4 8.2 0.5 0 9 0.1 3.4
100 10.0 3.6 5.5 3.6 4.4 3.8 1 1 0.2 -
( )expressed in dm per dm ()measured value
(3)decrease since previous sampling (h) increase since previous samplin
C) from April through September since previous sampling
266
Spa-i'-'c soils
Subsidence canberead fromthecolumnoftotalvolume.Theother columnsshow
thedecrease ofthewatervolumeand theincreaseoftheairvolume,alongside
whicharethechanges involume sincetheprevious samplewastaken.Thewater
lossbears aweakrelationship totheevaporation surplus (lastcolumn),beingan
indication ofthedrynessofthesummers.Ingeneral thegreater theevaporation
surplus,thegreater thelossofwaterwillbe.This isparticularly true forthe
earlystagesoftheripeningprocess.
Asisclear fromTable2,themainpartofthewater lossresults insubsidence

andonlyaminorpart inanincreaseofthesoilairvolume.InTable3themutual
relationbetweensolidparts,water,andair isgiveninvolumepercent,thetotal
volume foreachyearbeing100%.
Table3. Volumetric relationshipsbetweensolids,water,andair insaturated

subaqueous sediments (claycontent 30%)eachspring (eachvalue isthemean
for4representative sampling locations)
Year a i f t e r P e r c e n t a g e
emerge ;nce solid parts water air
0 25.0 75.0 0
1 25.6 72.1 2.3
2 26.2 71.5 2.3
3 29.6 65.1 5.3
4 29.0 66.5 4.5
5 30.4 64.2 5.4
6 30.8 63.7 5.5
7 31.7 62.7 5.6
8 32. 1 62.1 5.8
11 33.1 60.3 6.6
100 45.0 44.0 11.0
ThedataofTables2and3areaverages forthewhole layer,whichwas 1.8mthick

tostartwithandwas 1.0mthickafter 100years.AscanbeseenfromTable1,
however,thewithdrawal ofwaterdiffers inthevarious sub-layers.Itcanbeseen
thatinany givenyear thewatervolume isgreaterwithdepthwhereas thevolumes
ofsolidmaterialandairarelesswithdepth.Inotherwords,theripeningpro-
ceedsmoreslowly atgreaterdepth intheprofile.Theprogressofphysical
ripeningdependsonanumberoffactors,includingplantgrowth,drainage conditions
267
and climate.Yetinprinciple theprocess follows thetrend showninTables 1and
2and isonlydelayedunderbad conditionsoraccelerated underfavourablecondi-
tions.Themainpractical consequences oftheprocessofphysicalripeningare
subsidence and theincrease inhydraulic conductivity,whichsubjectswillnow
bediscussed.
32.1.4 SUBSIDENCE
Therearethreereasonswhy sea-bottom soils,lake-bottom soils,sea-shoresoils,

and swampsoils subsideafterreclamation.Theseare
a) Elimination of the buoyant force under water. Reclamation involvesdrainage,

whichmeansdeepergroundwater tables.Afterreclamation theweightofthelayer
whichwasformerlybelowthegroundwater tableand islateraboveithastobe
carried fullyby theunderlying layers.Beforedrainageonlyapartofthisweight
had tobecarriedbecause thematerial underwaterwassubject toahydrostatic
lossofweight.Ifthelayersinquestionarecompressible,this increaseofthe
loadcausessubsidence.Lowering thegroundwater levelhastheeffectofloading
thesoilwiththeweight ofalayerofwaterofthesamedepthasthedepthover
which thewater tablehasbeen lowered.This is0.1kgpercm2 foreachmetreof
water tablelowering,or 1gpercm foreachcmoffallofwaterlevel.
b) Contraction by capillary force. Young sedimentshaveahighporevolume.Host,

ifnotall,ofthesepores arefilledwithwater.After reclamation thesoildries
byévapotranspiration,and theresulting capillary forcescausecompressionof
thesoilskeletonandadecreaseoftheporevolume.Vertical contraction leads
tosubsidence,horizontal contraction leadstocrackformation.Thecrackseven-
tually fillinagainbysoilcollapsing fromabove,which leadstoafurtherdrop
inthesurface level.Inthetopsoil thesecapillary forcesmayamount to3kg
percm ormore.Itwillbeobvious thatthisprocessoccursonlyabovethe
groundwatertable.
c) Oxidation of organic matter in peaty soils. Oxidationoforganicmattercon-

verts apartofthissolid fraction intoH2Oand C0 2 ,bothofwhicharelostfrom
the soil.Obviously,thisprocessoccursonly intheaerated partoftheprofile
above thegroundwatertable.
Subsidencehas important consequences formany aspectsofreclamation-someof

themofconsiderable financial significance.Theseare
268
Specific soils
a) Subsidence affects civil engineering works. Inchoosing thelocationandca-

pacityofapumping stationand indesigning canals,shiplocksandsluices,
weirs,etc.,onemustmakeallowanceforthefactthattheland surfaceandthe
water levelwillbelower inthefuturethanimmediately afterdrainage.As such
worksareusuallywrittenoffoveraperiod of80to 100years,subsidencevalues
forasimilarperiodmustbepredicted.
b) Subsidence changes the relative heights of buildings. Piled structures-

bridges,houses,farmbuildings-willchangetheirrelativeheight astheland
surrounding themsubsides.Theirimmediateenvironmentwillhavetoberaised
fromtimetotimebyaddingearthorotherfillmaterial.Problemsmayarisewith
pipelinestosuchbuildings.
c) Subsidence alters soil conditions. Recently drained clayey soilsaresoftand

notpassable.Inmaking suchsoilsmorecompact,subsidence givesthemfirmness
andahigherbearing capacity.Insomesoilssubsidencemayreducethethickness
ofanalreadythinclay layeroverlying sandtosuchadegree that itlosesmuch
ofitsavailablewater capacity.Suchsoilsmaybecome susceptible todrought
andmayrequireanartificialwater supply inthefuture.
Factors influencing therateanddegreeofsubsidence
Subsidence iscausedbyaloweringofthegroundwater levelandthelossofwater

byévapotranspiration.So,any factor influencing eitheroftheseitemswill
influence thedegreeofsubsidence.
a) Clay content. Asthewater content ofmuddy sedimentsdepends linearlyuponthe

claycontent,clayey sediments losemorewater thansandy sediments.Asaconsequence
theclayswillsubsidemore.
b) Depth of layer in the profile. Thelossofwater inthedifferent soillayers

decreaseswithdepth.Thenumberofrootsand theiruptakeofwatersimilarly
decreaseswithdepth;besides,thedeeper layersareclosertothegroundwater
tableandarekeptmoistbycapillary rise.Sothesubsidenceofthedifferent
soil layersatthesamegivenclaycontentdecreaseswithdepth.
a) Organic matter content. Watercontentdependsto someextentonorganicmatter

content.Mineral soilscontaininghigh contentsoforganicmatter showhigher
degreesofsubsidence,ifthe"extra"organicmatter isoxidized.Notonlydoes
this "extra"organicmatteroxidize,butthewaterassociatedwith itislost.
Inthese soilsreductionofvolumeanddegreeofsubsidence,maybesubstantial.
269
d) Type of crop. As farasdifferent cropsarecharacterized bydifferentévapo-
transpiration capacities,their influenceonsubsidence alsodiffers.Thedif-
ferencemaybedue tothedepthoftherooting system;compare forinstance
lucerne (alfalfa)with.itsdeeprooting systemand grasswith itsshallowrooting
system.Thelengthofthegrowingperiod isanother important factor:spring-sown
cerealsharvested inmidsummerhavealower totalévapotranspirationthanperennial
crops likegrassorlucerne.
e) Initial specific volume. Sedimentswithdifferentporevolumes (anddifferent

water contents)showdifferentwater lossesandhencedifferentdegreesofsub-
sidence.Sea-and lake-bottom soilshave ahigher specificvolume thansea-shore
deposits exposed ateachlowtide.Thelatter already subside toacertaindegree
during theirformation.
f) Field drainage conditions. Ifdrainage conditions inanareaarepoorand

évapotranspirationistheonlywaybywhich surpluswatercanberemoved,the
soilwillnotdry outtothesameextentand therateofsubsidencewillbelower.
g) Climatic conditions. Thedrier theclimate,thehigher thelossofwaterand

hence themoresubsidence therewillbe.
h) Time. Subsidenceproceedswith time,firstrapidlybut thenatsteadilyde-

creasingrates (asymptotically).ThisisshowninFig.2.
dm3/dm2
Fig.2. Reduction intotal

volumeandvolume ofwater,
togetherwithinc reasein
thevolumeofair insub-
aqueous sediments inthe
IJsselmeerduring thefirst
century aftererne rgenceat
aclaycontentof 30%.
DEGLOPPER (1973)
270 years after emergence
Svec-Î.fic so''Is
i) Thickness of compressible layers. The thicker thecompressible layers,themore

acutewillbethesubsidence.
Predictionofsubsidence
Wehavealreadyexplained thefinancialand technical consequences ofsubsidence.

Forproperplanning itisvitaltobeable topredict therateand thedegreeof
subsidence.Thetimeoverwhich subsidence istobepredicted dependsonthepar-
ticular subjectofinterest.Fordesigningpumping stations thistimeis80to
100years,which isequal tothedepreciationperiod.Fordesigning fielddrainage
systems thedrainageengineer isinterested inshorterperiods.Twomethodsfor
estimating thesubsidencearecommonlyused inTheNetherlands.
Method 1. Prob'')lesubsidence canbecalculatedwith thewellknown formulafor

consolidationused insoilmechanics
D P
S ln (2)
where
=t t
S =subsidence orconsolidation (cm)
D =thicknessofsoillayer (cm)
P =initialeffective stress=pressurebeforedrainage (weightof
overlying layers inkgpercm ;ifunderwater:theweightofthesolid
matterunderwater inkgpercm)
P =finaleffective stress=pressure after loweringofthewater table
(weightofoverlying layers inkgper cm2)
a =consolidation orcompressibilitycoefficient.
Thefinaleffective stressP isequal totheinitialeffective stressP plus

s o
theincrease causedby the lowering ofthegroundwater level (0.1kg/cm2 perm
lowering).This increase isoftencalled theload (L).SoP =P +L.AsP in-
s o o
creaseswithdepth,thequotient
P P +L
s_ o
P P
o o
diminisheswithdepthand tends todiminishasymptotically to 1.Therefore,since

ln 1=0,subsidence tends todiminishwithdepth tozero.
Touse this formulaonemustmap thethicknessofthevarious soil layers.Deter-

minationofttheconsolidation coefficient a inthelaboratory requiresundisturbed
v
soilsamples.
271
Tocalculate theinitialeffective stressP volumeweightshave tobedetermined
o
(orestimated).Thefuturewater levelmustbeknownforthecalculationofthe
finaleffective stressP . ( P = P + 0 . 1 x 1 : 1 = lowering ofgroundwaterlevel
s s o
inm,L=0.11).
Remarks and problems. Inapplying thismethod oneencounters someproblems.
a)Thegroundwater tablefluctuates.Thewater table ishigherduringperiods

witharainsurplus thanduringperiodswithanévapotranspirationsurplus.Now
thequestionarises:whichwater tablehas tobechosenfor thecalculationofthe
effective stress?Should itbe theaveragewater tablefor thewholeyear
orthelowestwater table?Thelatterwillultimately determine thesubsidence,
butasitonlyoccurs forbriefperiods,itisdoubtfulwhether thedifferencein
subsidencewillbe significant inthelimitedperiod forwhich itisusually
calculated.Therefore itisperhapsbetter tousetheaveragewater tableora
water tableinbetween theaverageand thelowest.InDutchreclamationpractice
itisusual toerronthesafe sideand toselectthedepthofthesummerground-
water table.Clearly,thechoicehastodepend uponthesoilprofile (thickness
andhydraulic conductivity ofsoil layers)anduponthelengthof theperiodof
lowest groundwater tables.However,theexactrelationbetween these factors isas
yetunknown.
b)Theconsolidation coefficient dependsupontherateofloading.Quick loading

givesalowvalueofthiscoefficient andhenceamore rapid subsidence.The
question arises:which ratehas tobechosen?Theformulaof Method 1hasbeen
developed forinstant loading. Asgroundwater levelsfallgradually,notin-
stantly,itwouldbeadvisable todetermine theconsolidation coefficient inthe
laboratorybygradually loading thesoilsample.Unfortunatelytoolittleisknown
about therequired loading rate togettherightresults tomatch thefieldsitu-
ation.
c)Subsidence isonlypossible ifwater canbesqueezed out.Therateofthis

watermovement depends -apartfrompressuredifferences -uponthethicknessand
thehydraulic conductivity ofthesoillayers.Areliabledeterminationofthe
hydraulic conductivity onsmall soilsamples ishardly possible.Therefore
subsidence-timerelations cannotbesetup.For thesamereason itiseasierto
estimate theultimatedegreeofsubsidencethanthedegreeforagivenperiod
oftime.
Thesedifficultieshavenotyetbeensolved.Forthedeeper layers itmaybebetter

forthe timebeing touseestimations ofthedegreeofsubsidence thatarebased
272
Spr.cf ''ie soils
onexperiencerather thantoworkwith calculations.ForDutchconditionsand

forlayersdeeper than 1.5mbelowthepost-subsidence surface,thetotal
subsidence in80-100years'timeisassumed tobe:10cmpermetre forpeat
layers (overlainbymineral layers),7.5 cmforclay,5cmforsandyclay,and
2.5 cmforclayeysand.
Method 2. Subsidencemeans thatporevolumedecreases,andconsequently soalso

doesthespecificvolume.Specificvolume isthevolumeof 1gramofdrysoilin
undisturbed condition.Whenthereisnooxidation,thethicknessofalayerafter
subsidence canbecalculated fromtheinitial thicknessand thespecificvolumes
beforeand after subsidence
sv
D =— - D (3)
s sv o
o
where
D =initial thickness (cm)

o
D =thickness after subsidence (cm)
s
sv =initial specificvolume (cm perg)
sv =specificvolumeaftersubsidence (cm3perg).
s
Because specificvolumesarenotvery oftenused,itisuseful toknowthatthey

are thereciprocals ofthedryvolumeweights.Volumeweight (vw)=apparentspe-
cificweight=bulkdensity=weightof 1cm ofdrysoilinundisturbed condition
ingrams.So
vw=— and sv= —
sv vw
Remarks and problems. Inapplying thismethod onemustknowthespecificvolumes

before andaftersubsidence.Forunaeratedmineral sediments ingeneralwecan
state thatthevolumeof 100gofmineralmatterwithoutpores is TT~TZ - 38cm3.
Formineralmatterofsoils thespecificweight isapproximately 2.65,avalue
which isquiterepresentative throughout theworld. Inthiscase (noair!)the
volume oftheporesequals thevolumeof thewater.Thewater contentW (=water
content inweightpercentage)and theclaycontent C (=claycontent inweightper-
centage)ofDutch soilsprovetoberelated empirically asfollows
W=20+nC (4)
where
n= coefficient =gramsofwaterpergramofclay
273
Because theporevolumeisidenticaltothewatervolumeW,thetotalvolumeof
dry soilandporesequals
V=38+Wcm3 (5)
Substitutionofequation (4)into (5)yields
V=58+nCcm3 (6)
Pergramofdrysoil+pores thevolumeis
V/100=0.58+0.01 nCcm3 (7)
This isbydefinition thespecificvolume.So,formineral soilswithoutair
sv =0.58 +0.01 nC (8)

o
Hence,specificvolumes ofunaerated soilsmaybederived fromtheirclaycontents,
provided that thewaterfactor (n)isknown.Thiswater factorcanbefoundby
plotting thewatercontentsofanumberofsamplesagainst theirclaycontents.
Forsoilswithhigherorganicmattercontents thannormal,thisrelation ismore
complicated. Inolder soils,and toatleastadepthof 10to12m,thespecific
volumes increasewith increasingdepth (claycontent remaining thesame)andwith
increasing claycontent (Fig.3).Thismeans that thesoilsaremorelooselypacked
whentheyaredeeper intheprofileandwhentheyhaveahigherclaycontent.In
thesecases,where theporesarefilledpartlywithwaterandpartlywithair,the
specificvolumescannotbecalculated fromtheclaycontent,buthavetobede-
termined.
depth in cm below surface
Fig.3. Relationbetweenspecificvolume
anddepthbelowsurface atvariousclay
contents intheJohannesKerkhovenpolder
(reclaimed 1875;sampled 1964).
DEGLOPPER,1973
274
Specific soils
Todeterminespecificvolumes,undisturbed samplesofaknownvolumehavetobe
takenatvarious,depths.The samples areweighed beforeandafterdryingand
their specificvolumes canthenbecalculated.Thework isquite laboriousand
thestandard error (foraverageof2samples)is5to 10percent.After theclay
contents ofthesampleshavebeendetermined,arelationship like theoneabove
canbeobtainedbyplotting,foreachdepth,claycontentagainst specificvolume
and finding theslopeofthelinewhichbest fits thepoints.
Theprocedure forcalculating thesubsidenceoveragivenperiod isgreatly faci-

litated ifcomparable sediments canbefoundwhichhavebeenreclaimed fora
similar lengthoftime.Inthepreviously reclaimed areawedetermine thespecific
volumes forthesoillayersatdifferentdepthsanddifferentclaycontentsand
weregard themasthespecificvolumesafter subsidence (SVÎ).
Amajordifficulty liesinthefactthatitisusually impossibletofindgood

areasforcomparison-arequirementbywhich thespecificvolumemethod stands
orfalls.Whenthespecificvolumemethod cannotbeapplied,onecantakerecourse
tomethodsdeveloped insoilmechanics (DEGLOPPER, 1973).
Itishardlynecessary tomentionthatifsoilscontainairbefore reclamation

thepre-subsidence specificvolumeswillalsohave tobedeterminedwhichrequires
muchextrawork.Inthiscasetheareawilloftennotbehomogeneous inrespect
tothespecificvolumes.Thehigher (=drier)partsoftheareawillhavelower
values thanthelower (=wetter)parts.Itwill thenbenecessary todividethe
soilsinto twoorthreegroupswhichhavesimilar specificvolumes,and totreat
eachgroup separately.Investigations suchasthesehaveresulted inempirical
relationshipsbetween initial thicknessofsubaqueous sediments and theirthick-
nessafterapredetermined period followingemergence.Therelationships shown
here (Figs.4and5)arevalid forIJsselmeersedimentsand theycanbeusedto
predict thesubsidence inanareaifthicknessand claycontentofthelayersin
thedrainedpartofthesoilprofiles areknown.
Finaldiscussion
Thedecreaseofthethicknessofagivenlayermay result inpartoftheunder-

lyinglayerattaining afinalspecificvolumewhichdiffers fromthevaluepre-
dicted fromitsinitialdepth.Hence calculations ofsubsidenceusing Method 2
havetobedonestepby stepforeachsuccessive layer.Calculationsmaybe
speededupbyusingasubsidencediagram (seeDEGLOPPER, 1973).
275
thickness in cm 30 yec rs after emergence
; : id y content. i
: Ó ! 10 ! 20 '30.40
- 1/ ! / yyy^
tsn
- /
- /
y y.
- 1 / / /
y
J y
K
\/
ky K-'
811
y
-
/ -
4(1 / / /,
^
(1
thickness in cm before emergence
Fig.4. Relationbetweenoriginal thickness and thickness

30years afteremergenceofthesubaqueous sedimentsin
theIJsselmeeratvariousclaycontents (DEGLOPPER,1973)
thickness in cm 50 years fie emergence
Clav centen
- 0 10 120 30 40
/ y y
fid i :
1
! / /
!! 'y
/ \A
y
y y sH
?n y y y
y 1
y y"
y
'y y
B0 / y -
u _ _ / • < •
/' -- —
40 1 yy _i i
y
y 4 j
i
n *\ i i i i i
thickness in cm before emergence
Fig.5. Relationbetweenoriginal thicknessand thickness
50years afteremergenceofthesubaqueous sedimentsin
theIJsselmeer atvariousclaycontents (DEGLOPPER, 1973)
Thefinalproductsaremaps asshown inFigs.6and7.From themaponwhichthe

predicted longtermsubsidence isportrayed (Fig.6),theplannersandengineers
canrecommend thebest locationandelevationformajorcivilengineeringworks
andmakeassociated cost-benefit analyses.Forfielddrainagepurposesandfor
structureswithashortereconomic life,short termsubsidencemaps (Fig.7)are
veryhelpful.
276
Specific soils
Fig.6. Probable totalsubsidence inthefoursouthernIJsselmeerpolders,

100yearsafteremergence
277
• 50-75cm
=. 75cm
Fig.7. Subsidence inOostelijkFlevoland between

emergence (1957)and spring1971
32.1.5 DRAINAGEMETHODS
Asmentioned before,thehydraulic conductivity ofthesediments increasescon-

siderably afteremergencebecauseofcrackformation.Hence theapplieddrain
spacings areclosely related totheprogressofcrackformation.Thedecreaseof
thewater contentcausesanallround shrinkage,thehorizontal component ofthis
shrinkage leading tocrackformation.Thesedimentsplitsupintopolygonalprisms,
generallywith fiveorsixsides,withaprimarydiameterof25to50cm.Asthe
decrease ofthewatercontent ismost intense inthetop layers,thecracksare
widest atthe surface (2to4cm)andbecomenarrowerwithdepth.Asphysical
ripening proceeds,the intensity anddepthofthecracks increase.Sincewater
canfloweasily through thesecracks,thehydraulic conductivity changes enormously
afteremergence,rising from 10 m/daydirectly afteremergence tosometimes
10 m/day afewyearslater.
278
Specific soils
Asaresultof thecontinuing ripening andother soilformingprocesses (root
action,rewetting,freezing,cultivation)thelargerprismsbreakupintosmaller
ones,resulting ultimately intheformationofnormal soilaggregates,especially
inthetop layers.Theprimarywidecracksarefilledupwith theseaggregates
andconsequentlydisappear.Ingeneral thissecondary soilformationresultsin
good soilstructureandhighhydraulic conductivity.Because inthebeginning
crackformation isrestricted tothetoplayer,primaryopenfieldditcheswith
adepthnomore than60cmareinstalled.Thehydraulic conductivity inthisearly
stageofreclamation isstill low,sotheopenfield ditcheshavenarrowspacings
(8to 12m). Excessprecipitation flowsover theground surfaceand throughthe
cracksintothefieldditches.These,inturn,discharge intothemainditches,
andnowater isleftonthesurface.Ashallowgroundwater tableisestablished
(20-40cminwinter)and,inspring,cropsstartwithdrawingwaterimmediately.
Asfieldditcheshaveseveraldisadvantages-lossofland,higher cultivation
costs,maintenance costs-theyhavetobereplaced bysubsurfacedrainsassoon
aspossible.However,asubsurfacedrainage systemrequiresacertainminimum
hydraulic conductivity inthedeeper layersifthedrainsaretobeeconomically
spaced.Onlywhenphysicalripening andcrack formationhaveprogressed into
thesedeeper layersdotheybecome suitablefortheinstallationofpipedrains.
Whenthecracksare60or70cmbelowland surface,theopenfieldditchescan
bereplacedbypipedrains.Undernormal circumstances inthetemperate zonethis
stageisreachedwithin4to5yearsaftertheinstallationoftheopenditches.
Thepipedrainsarelaidatadepthof 110to 130cmbelowlandsurface.Although

thelayerbetween70and 130cmisstill impervious,thepipescannevertheless
beplaced atthatdepth,asthetrenches inwhich thepipesarelaid,areback
filledwith soilfromtheripened andhencepervious toplayer.Theexcesswater
willnowflowvertically downwards tothegroundwater,thenmoreorlesshorizon-
tallyover theimpervious subsoil tothebackfilled trenchand finally through
thepervious filldownwards tothepipedrains.
Deeplyplacedpipedrainspromoteadeepwater table,enabling furtherprogress

ofphysicalripening and crackformation inthedeeperlayers.Thesecracksin
turnfacilitatedrainageandaeration,resulting inamore intensephysicalripen-
ing.Physicalripening andcracking generallydonotproceedbelowthelevelof
thepipes.
Determining drainspacings forripening soilsdiffers fromtheway itisdonefor

normal soils,inthatitisbased onempirical findings fromtrialfields.Ifthe
279
spacing iscalculated onthebasisofthehydraulic conductivityvalues atthe
moment thedrainpipes arelaid,thedrainswouldbemuch tooclosesomeyears
later.Sometimes thedrainspacingsrequired atalater stagearetwice thespacing
required atthemoment ofinstallation.Astheinstallationofpipedrainsis
expensive,onemustavoidputting inpipedrainsthatwillsoonbecomesuperfluous.
Measuring thehydraulic conductivity incracked soils,withthecrackswideapart,
isalmost impossibleonapractical scale.Theempiricalmethod consistsofob-
serving thedevelopment ofthecracks (widthanddepth)inprofilepits inthese
ripening sediments.Fromexperience itisknownhowcrack formationwilldevelop
inthecourseoftime.Thisdevelopment dependsmainlyonthesequenceofthe
various layersand theirclaycontentsandontheoccurrenceandrateofnet
subsurface inflow (seepage).Withtheaidofthisknowledgeand theresultsof
trial fieldswithvariousdrainspacings,fromwhich therelationbetweenground-
water table,drainspacing,andcropyield isknown,theproper spacingcanbe
deduced.Using thisapproach,drainageconditions arenotoptimalduring thefirst
yearsafter thepipedrains areinstalledbecause their spacing istoowide.There-
fore,someoftheopenfieldditchesaresometimesmaintained forafewmore
years asastandbyduringwetperiods.Whilecrackformation isprogressing,the
drainageconditions improve,until finally theoptimum isreached.
Asheavy soilslosemorewater thanlightsoils,crack formation ismoreintensive

inheavy soilsanddrainspacingcanbewider.Onheavy soilsdrainspacingsof
25to50marecommonandonlightsoils8to16m.Becauseofthesubsidence
problem inripening sediments,thepipesarelaiddeeper (110to 130cm)thanin
normal soils (90to100cm).Inthisway thedrainsremainfarenoughunderthe
subsiding surfacetoprovidegooddrainage conditionsandtoavoidbeingdamaged
bymachinery andfrost.
Ingeneralthesamedrainagematerialsareused inthesesoilsasinnormalsoils,
thedrains consisting oftilesorplasticpipes.Theuseofplasticpipes,parti-
cularly thecorrugatedvarieties,has increased greatly inrecentyearsbecause
oftheir lower installationcosts.Insandyand loamy soilsfiltermaterials-
mainlypeatlitterand flaxfibres-areplaced ontopofthepipelines.Inclay
soils thestructureoftheripened topsoil,used tobackfill thetrenches,is
suchthatnofiltermaterial isneeded.
280
Specific soils
32.2 DRAINAGE OFPEAT SOILS

32.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Peat isaccumulated organic material. Itisonly formed atplaces where thequan-

tity oforganic matter produced inacertain period exceeds thequantity decayed
in that period. Water always plays animportant role inpeat formation, becauseit
acts asapreservative against decay byexcluding theentry ofoxygen. Sothe
combination ofawetclimate andpoor natural drainage will often produce peat.
Since climate and topography exert apreponderant influence onpeat formation,

the distribution ofpeat soils onearth shows definite patterns (NIKONOVand
SLUKA, 1964). Theboreal zone isvery rich inpeat (Table4 ) .
Table 4. Occurrence ofpeat invarious countries
Peatarea National
percentageof
Country (106ha)
peatland
USSR 71.5 3.2

Canada 9.61 1.0
Finland 10.0 29.7
Sweden 5.0 11.1
Norway 3.0 9.3
USA 32.42 4.1
GreatBritain 2.4 9.8
Poland 1.5 4.8
Ireland (Eire) 1.2 16.9
GermanFed. Rep. 1.2 4.9
GermanDem. Rep. 0.5 4.7.
Indonesia 16.3 8.7
Malaysia 2.0 15.2
Sarawak 2.5 20.5
Zaire 1.0 0.4
1
Totalextentoforganic terrainormuskegisabout 1,126,650km2
or 11.8%ofthetotal land areaofCanada
2
Includesallpeatandmuck soils (STEPHENS,1955)
NOTE:The total area of peat bogs in the world is estimated at ISO

million ha (KIVINEN, 1968)
281
Extensivepeatareas alsooccur inthecool temperate climates,particularly in
countries likeIreland,England,Scotlandwhichhaverainymaritime climates,but
alsoinmorecontinental climateswithdrier summerswhenthetopography favours
thedevelopment ofpeat soils:Poland,Germany.Very littlepeat isfoundin
arid regions;there itislimited toplaceswherewater accumulates inlow-lying
areas,e.g. SanJoaquindeltaregion (West.U.S.A.),Florida (EastU.S.A.),
Philippiplain (Greece).
Peat isalsorare intropicalclimatesowing tothehighevaporationratesand

thehighratesofdecay thatprevailthere.Nevertheless largeareasofpeatdo
occur locally inthehumid tropics,especially intheFarEast:Malaya,Sarawak,
Indonesia,butalso inAfrica:Zaire,KenyaandUganda.Insuchregionspeatfor-
mationoccurs indeltaicareasand low-lying coastalplainswhicharesubjectto
subsidence.
Peat isformed inandunderwater.Asthespecificweightoforganicmaterial

isonly slightlyabove 1,itsweightunderwater isvery low.Therefore,thepres-
sureofoverlying layersontheunderlying onesisonly slight.Thisisthe
reasonthatpeathasaspongy structurewithahighporevolume,averyhighwater
content,andalowconsolidation coefficient.Whenthewatertableislowered,
theeffectivepressure increasesasitdoeswithmineral soils,but inpeatsthis
increase ismore significantbecauseof thelowinitialpressureand thelow
consolidationcoefficient.Absolutedensityoforganicmatter= 1.59g/cm3.
Density ofwater= 1g/cm3.Apparentdensityoforganicmatterunderwater isthus
0.59 g/cm .Afterdrainage theeffectiveoverburdenpressure increasesby
Isa_059
1.3»0.59
u.ayx ] 0 0 % = ]6g%
Formineral soils this increase isonly60%.
Anotherdifferencebetweenpeatsoilsandmineralsoilsisthatpeatsoilsare
subject tocontinuousoxidationafterdrainageand that themainproductsof
thisoxidation,C0 2 andH 2 0,canleave thesystem.
32.2.2 EFFECTSOFDRAINAGE
Drainage andreclamationofpeatbogsmeanadisturbance ofthenaturalconditions.

Thisaffects thetypicalproperties ofpeat-highporevolume,highwatercontent
-and stopstheaccumulationoforganicmatter.Improved drainagehasfourmain
effects,thefirst threeofwhich lead tosubsidence.Theyare
282
Specific soils
- shrinkageofthetoplayersbydesiccation.Thedegreeofshrinkagedepends
onthethickness of thelayers liabletoshrinkageandonclimaticanddrainage
conditions.Shrinkage causescrack formationandaconsiderable increasein
hydraulic conductivity
-oxidationoforganicmatter.Therateofoxidationdependsonclimate,land
use (grassland orarable land),depthofgroundwater table,andorganicmatter
content
-compressionofthelayersbelowthegroundwater table.Thedegreeofcom-
pressiondepends onthethickness oftheselayers,theircompressibility,and
thedepthtowhichthegroundwater tableislowered
- irreversible desiccationoftheorganicmatter.Thenatureofthepeat
determineswhether thisdesiccation leadstoasoil thatisfavourableorunfa-
vourable forcropgrowth.Fibrouspeatwhich isnotstronglydecomposed,dries
toasponge-likematerialwithahighwaterretentioncapacity.Stronglydecom-
posedpeatwith 10to30%mineralmattermaydry tohard,compact,blackclods
whicharedifficult torewetandaremostunfavourable forplantgrowth.Sometimes
suchpeatdriestodust,which isblack iftheironcontent islowandreddish-
brownifthe ironcontent ishigh;bothformsofdustaredifficult torewet
ifthepeat isacid.Incontrast,blackdustfromneutral toalkalinepeats,
rewetseasily.
32.2.3 PREDICTING SUBSIDENCE
Topredict thesubsidenceofpeatsoils,onecanmakeuseof Method 2forpredict-

ingsubsidence inmineral soils (Sect.1.4).Thismethod however canonlybe
applied totheupper70to 100cmofpeatsoilswhichareshrinkingunderthe
effects ofévapotranspiration.For thisthespecificvolumesbeforeandafter
subsidencehavetobeknown.
Thespecificvolumesofundrained peat layerscanbeestimated fromtheirwater

contents.Thevolumeof thedrymatter iscalculatedbyassuming thespecific
weight ofmineralmatter tobe2.65 and thatoforganicmatter 1.0.Inreality
thespecificweight oftheorganicmatter is 1.4 to 1.6 (average 1.45)butbecause
peatalwayscontains somevolume-percent ofgas,itisbetter touse 1.0and
toleave thegasoutofconsideration.
283
Thefollowingexample,inwhichtheassumedweightpercentagesareexpressedon
thebasisoftheundisturbedwetpeat,illustrates thecalculationofspecific
volume.
Anundrained peatsoilcomprises 7%organicmatter,3%mineralmatterandawater

contentof90%.For 1000gundrainedpeat soilthismeans
70 ,
70gorganicmatter:volume-j—r- = 70 cm
30 3
30gmineralmatter:volume. . = 11.3 cm
1.DJ
900gwater: volume— • =900 cm3
Totalvolumeof 1000g
undrained peatsoil
Thebulkvolumeof 1g
drypeatsoil initsori-..
ginalopenstructure: -* = 9.81 cm
Bydefinition this isthespecificvolume.
Thespecificvolumes aftersubsidencehavetobefoundbysamplinganareawith
thesamekind ofpeatasintheareatobedrained andwith thesame landuseand
drainage conditionsasareplanned forthenewarea.Besides this,theperiod
thathaselapsed sincedrainagewas installed inthesampleareamustequalthe
lengthoftimeoverwhich subsidence istobepredicted forthenewarea.Because
peatareasarealwaysextremelyvariableintheirbotanicalcomposition,organic
mattercontent,andwatercontent,predictions canneverbeaccurate.Although
theresultsofcomputationsmayontheaveragebecorrect,differences insubsi-
denceoftenoccurover shortdistancesduetothesenaturalvariations.Itwill
thenbenecessary tolevel thelandafter someyears.
Forlayerswhicharestillbelowgroundwater levelafterdrainage, Method 1for

mineral soilsmaybeapplied,although thereliabilityoftheresults isdoubtful.
Aspeat layers inareduced statehaveahigherhydraulic conductivity thanreduced
unripened mineral soils,therearefewerobjections totheuseofthismethod.
Todetermine thefinaleffectivepressure,theauthors areinclined tousethe
average groundwater levelover thetwomonthsduringwhich thelowestlevels
occur.Nothing isknownabout thedesired rateofloadingof thesamples todeter-
mine thecompressioncoefficient inthelaboratory.
284
Specific soils
Anotherapproximationofsubsidencecanbefoundbyapplyingthefollowing formula
(SEGEBERG,1960)
S=eD £ D°- 7 0 7 (9)
fo
where
S =subsidence (m)
D =initial thicknessofpeat (m)
o
D =finaldepthofdrainage (m)
e =coefficient.
Thecoefficient edependsontheporevolume (P)asfollows
e
•°- 05+Töö^T (,0)
evaries from0.43 foralmostfloating,very softpeatwithaporevolumeabove

97%,to0.11 forfirmpeatwithaporevolumebelow88%.
TheformulaforSholdsforacidpeats inthetemperatezoneandprobablyalso
forotherregions.Forneutralandalkalinepeats theactual subsidence ismore
severethantheformulapredictsduetotheoxidationoforganicmatter.The
sameistrueforpeats insubtropical areas:with2.5 cm/year forD =0.5mand
with5cm/year forD = 1m.
Experience inGermany and southernSwedenhasshownthatwhenpeatsaredrained

theinitial thicknessofthepeatlayerdecreasesby25to30%.Thismeansthat
inallsimilartemperateclimatestheinitialthicknessofthepeatlayerwill
largelydecide theultimate land surfaceelevation.Asurface thatislevelto
startwithmayultimately result inonethatdiffersconsiderably initselevations
becauseofdifferences inthethicknessofitspeatlayers.Itisthereforeawise
coursetomappeatthicknesses inadvance.
Undersubtropicalconditions thelayersbelowthegroundwater tablecontribute

only slightly tosubsidence.Thereasonisthatherethepeatismuchmorecompact,
duetohigheffective stresses indryperiodswithlowgroundwater levels.Inthe
temperate zonethewatercontentpergramoforganicmattervariesbetween8and
16grams (mostlybetween 12and 16grams);suchpeatisinfactaveryopensponge.
Subtropicalpeat,incontrast,containsonly7to9gramsofwaterpergramof
organicmatterand ismuchfirmerandhasamuchhighercompressibilitycoefficient.
Hence,fromtheviewpointofsubsidence thethicknessofthepeatbelowtheground-
watertableisonlyofminorimportance.
285
Theoxidationrateinsubtropicalpeats,ontheotherhand,ismuchhigherthan
inthetemperate zone.Theoxidation,likeallchemicalprocesses,ismorerapid
whenthetemperatureishigher.Inaddition,manypeatsoilsinsubtropicalcli-
mates areused asarablelandandconsequently aredrainedmoredeeplyandhave
adeeperandbetteraerated zone,which alsoenhancesoxidation. Anotherfactor
isthatsubtropicalpeatsareusuallyeutrophic,i.e.rich inplantnutrients,
andhaveanapproximatelyneutralreaction (pH6to7.5).Theseconditions sti-
mulatemicrobiological decomposition ofthepeat.Peat soilinthetemperatezone
usuallyhasapHof3.5 to4.5,which isveryacid.
InTheNetherlands therateofoxidation forpeatundergrassland isestimated

tobeabout ]mmperyear.Anexceptional typeoftemperate zonepeatisfound
intheFens,along theeasterncoastofEngland.Here,thepeat isneutralto
alkaline and isused asarable land.Aconsiderable oxidationoforganicmatter
takesplaceinthispeat.
IntheEverglades inFlorida (southeasternU.S.A.)thefollowingdatahavebeen

obtained
Averagegroundwater Averagesubsidence
level (cm) (cm/year)
30 1.5
45 2.7
60 3.7
75 4.5
90 5.7
Itisclear thatshallowgroundwater tablesreducetherateofsubsidence,here

causedmainlybyoxidation.
InMacedonia (northernGreece)itwasdemonstrated thattherateofoxidation

depends ontheorganicmatter contentofthetoplayers,highcontentsgiving
highratesofoxidation.Thiswillbethecaseeverywhere.Henceforthepre-
dictionofthesubsidence insubtropical areas itisnecessary tosurvey theupper
fewmetrescarefully,givingparticularattentiontotheorganicmattercontent.
Thethickness ofthepeathere isofprimary importance for the "lifetime"of
thepeat soilsafterreclamation. Itdependsoncircumstanceswhether thereis
more subsidencealongditchesandcanals thaninthemiddleofthefields.InThe
Netherlands,becauseofthehighwaterlevelsintheditches,thereislesssub-
sidencealong theedgesofthefields thanin themiddle.Lowwater levelsin
thewatercourseshave theoppositeeffect.
286
Specific soils
32.2.4 DRAINAGEALTERNATIVESFORPEATSOILS
Itwillbeclear thatthepredictionofsubsidence isprerequisite totheplan-

ningofadrainage systembecause itwilldecidesuch importantmattersaswhere
tobuild thepumping stationandwhat theditchwater levelshouldbe.Notonly
thetotalamountofsubsidence shouldbeconsidered,butalsothepossibledif-
ferences insubsidence.Aspredictions canonlybeapproximate,theplanmustbe
fairly flexible toallowadjustments ifpredictionsprove incorrect.Insub-
tropicalareas subsidence isacontinuingprocessduetooxidation,afactthat
mustalsobetakenintoaccount.
Asdesiccationcausescrack formation andaconsiderable increase inhydraulic

conductivity,pipedrainsand fieldditchescanhaveaspacingofbetween 10and
20m,although thecorrect spacing shouldbefoundbymeansoftrialfields.
Asthedepthofpipedrainsdiminisheswithsubsidence,itisrecommended towait
someyearsbefore installing thembecause subsidenceratesarehighest inthe
firstyears.Insubtropical areas,where thesoilisconsumedbyoxidationand
therateatwhich theground surfaceapproaches thepipedrainsmaybeasteady
3 to5cmperyear,itisquestionablewhether theuseofpipedrainsiseconomic.
Here,inspiteoftheirdisadvantages,itisprobablypreferable tousefield
ditches.
Insomecasesmole-drains (10to 13cmindiameter)givesatisfactoryresults.

Thelifetimeofmole-drainsdependsonthe"degreeofhumosity"(=degreeof
decay)andonthepresenceoffibrousmaterial inthepeat.Inheavilydecayed
peatwithout fibresmole-drainswouldbeuseless.Inthetemperate zonethe
optimumdepthofthegroundwater levelofgrassland insummer is70cminawet
year and50cminadryyear.Insubtropical areas,whererootgrowth inpeat
soilsisusually limited totheupper40cm (probably aresultofhighCO2-
content ofthesoilairdue tooxidation),aprobableoptimumgroundwater level
is50cmbelow thegroundsurface.
32.3 DRAINAGEOFACID SULPHATESOILS

32.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Asarule,low-lying coastalareasorcontinuously inundated areascansuccess-

fullybereclaimed ordrained.Thereare,however,exceptions thatproducevery
unpleasant surprises,thesoilsbecomingextremely acidafterbeingexposedto
air,although theyshowedonlyaweakacidorevenanalkalinereactionbefore
drainage.InTheNetherlands,thesesoilsareknownas"cat-clay"soils.Assuch
287
soilshavealowvalue,ifany,itisofprimary importance toknowinadvance
what thechances arethattheseacid sulphate soilswilldevelop.
32.3.2 THEPROCESSOFACIDIFICATION
Acid sulphatesoilsarefound allover theworld.Theyexist inAfrica,America,

SoutheastAsia,andinEurope.Theiroccurrence isofcoursehoundto.places
where sulphurcould accumulatewithoutanequivalentaccumulationofcalcium
carbonate.Consequently acid sulphatesoilsnearlyalwaysoriginatefromsediments
thathavebeendeposited inamarineorbrackishenvironment.
Ifasediment isdeposited inwatercontaining acertainquantityofsulphate

ions,and iffresh,readilyoxidizableorganicmatter ispresent,thesulphate
ionsarereduced simultaneouslywith themicrobiological oxidationoftheorganic
material.Thethusformed sulphide ionscombinewith irontoformferrous
sulphide,FeS.Thismaterial givesthedarkbluecolourwhich iscommoninyoung
reducedmineralsoilsofmarineorigin.Similarbutoldersoilshaveamuch
lightergrey-bluecolour,becausealargepartoftheFeShaschanged intoFeS2,
pyrite (cubicalcrystals)ormarcasite (rhombiccrystals).Polysulphides
(FeS ,)mayalsobepresent,
nn+1
Theamountofsulphurcompounds insediments ishigherif
- thesulphatecontentofthewater inwhichthesedimentisdepositedwas
higher
- theamountoffreshorganicmatterwasgreater
- theaircirculationduringsedimentationwasimpeded.
Underwater sedimentsareusually richer insulphurcompounds thansedimentsof

tidalflats.
Seawatercontainsapproximately 2gofsulphateperlitre;riverwaternormally
contains40to70mgperlitre.Zuiderzeesoils,deposited inbrackish tosaline
water,contain thefollowingquantitiesofsulphurcompoundsbeforedrainage
soilshaving 10%clay0.6 gsulphateper 100gdrymatter

soilshaving 20%clay 1.15gsulphateper 100gdrymatter
soilshaving 30%clay 1.6 gsulphateper 100gdrymatter
Low-lying fresh-water sediments formedundercontinuously reduced conditionsmay

containapproximately 1.5gsulphateper 100gdrymatter.High-lying fresh
water sedimentsandhigh tidalflatsediments,however,maycontainonly0.3to
Spec' fia soi ùs
0.4 g,becauseduring andafter their formationacertainamountofoxygenis
abletoenter.Clayeyreedpeatformedinbrackishwatermaycontainevenmore
than 10gsulphateper 100gdrymatterbecauseofthehighquantitiesofdecaying
organicmatter.
Afterdrainage,theferrous sulphide isoxidized by theairwhichcannowenter

intothesoil.Thereactionis
4FeS+6H 2 0+30 2 ->-4S+4Fe(0H)3
Thisprocesscausesthecolourofthesoiltoturnfromdark-bluetogrey-brown
inashorttime.Normally,theelemental sulphur isoxidizedbythereaction
2S+2H 2 0+30 2•+2H2S0„
Incalcareous soilsthereactionis
H2S0„ +CaC03 ->-CaSOi,+H 2 0+C0 2
Pyriteisoxidized inthesameway,butthatreaction takesmore time.Thereare

differentcrystal formsofpyrite,someofthemveryresistant tooxidation.The
pHofthesoilishighly significant inthisprocess.WhenthepHremains above7,
onlypartofthepyrite isoxidized.
Insoilsformedundersalineconditionsalargepartoftheexchangeableions
consistofsodiumandmagnesium.Notonly isCaSOi,formed,butalsoNa2S0i,and
MgSOi,.Thesesaltsaremuchmoresolublethangypsumandtherefore thetotal
amountofsulphates (expressed asSOi,)mayevenincreaseto5gperlitre.This
quantity togetherwith thequantityofNaCl,maybeharmful toplantgrowth.If
thereisasurplusofrain,thesulphateswillbeleached;inadryclimatethey
willhavetobeleached artificiallybyirrigation.
Incalcareoussoilswithmanyadsorbed sodiumandmagnesium ions,theformation

ofgypsumisbeneficialbecause thecalciumionsofthegypsumreplacethesodium
andmagnesium ionsofthesoilcomplex,which inturnareleached.Thecalcium
claythatforms inthiswayacquiresastablestructure.Ifthesoildoesnot
containenoughcalciumcarbonate toneutralize thesulphuricacid,thehydrogen
ionsoftheacidreplace theexchangeable ions,e.g.
Ca-clay+H2S0i,•+H-clay+CaSO^
289
Innon-calcareous soils thequantityofexchangeablebases isnormally toosmall
foracompleteneutralization and thefollowingreactions takeplace
2Fe(OH)3 +3HaSOi,•+Fe2(S0i,)3+6H 2 0
2A1(0H)3 +3H2S0i,-«•Al2(SO,,)3 +6H20
Ferric andaluminiumsulphatesaresaltsofaweakbaseandastrongacid;so
theyreactasacids.Inrecently oxidizednon-calcareous soilsthepHmayeven
droptobetween 1and 2,although 2to3ismorecommon.
Ferric and aluminium sulphate canonlyoccuratlowpH's.Inawetclimatethe

sulphuricacidandapartofthesulphatesareleached,sothepHrises toa
certainextent.Asaconsequence thesulphateshydrolyze asfollows
A l 2 ( S O ^ ) 3 + 6 H 2 0 •+ 2 A 1 ( 0 H ) 3 + 3 H 2 SO^
F e 2 ( S O „ ) 3 + 2 H 2 0 -> 2 Fe(OH)SO„ + H 2 S0 1(
F e 2 ( S O , ) 3 + 4 H 2 0 *Fe 2 (OH) 1 ( S0 1 ) + 2 H 2 S0„
Thesereactionsgoongradually,formingotherproductsaswell.InTheNether-
lands,thepHofsuchsoils twoyearsafterdrainagemaybe2to3and threeor
fouryears later4to4.5.
32.3.3 IMPROVEMENTOFACID SULPHATESOILS
CatclaysoilshaveapHthatistoolowforgoodplantgrowth.Frequently,no
vegetationatallispresent.Ifcropsaregrown,theiryields areusuallyvery
poor.Toimprovethesoilsothatnormalyieldscanbeobtained,thearablelayer
mustbeneutralizedwith lime.Itisadvisable towait someyearsbeforeliming,
becauseaconsiderablepartoftheacidmaterialwillbeleachedoutinthefirst
yearsafterdrainage.ForaheavycatclaysoilintheWieringermeerPolder
(55/!clay,3|%organicmatter) 150tons (!) ofcalciumcarbonateperhectare
wereneeded toneutralize thearablelayer thefirstyearafterdrainage.For
a similarsoilaftersomeyears thequantityneededwasonly 30tonsperhectare.
Thereafter therewasnoadvantage tobegainedbywaitingevenlongerwithliming
because thelimerequirement remainedconstant.
For soilswithahighpercentageoforganicmatter,thequantitiesoflimeneeded
arehigher thanfor soilswith loworganicmattercontent.Ontheotherhand,
sandy soilsrequireonly smallquantities.
290
Speoi.f ie so •!. Ls
Asthecostsofcommercial limeareusuallyveryhigh,itisgoodpolicy tolook

around foralternativemethodsofliming.Sometimescalcareous soillayersoccur
atshallowdepthand canbeploughed tothetop.Other times,calcareous soilmay
bepresent closeby,sothat itmaybeeconomical tocover theacid soilwitha
thinlayerofthismaterial and tomixthetwotogether.IntheWieringermeer
Polderalargeareaofcatclaywas improved inthisway.A5cmthicklayerof
sandy loamwith 10%calciumcarbonatewasused,whichwasequivalent toabout
50tonscalciumcarbonate.
Whencalciumcarbonateisnotavailableintheseforms,itmaybeworthwhileto
investigate theCaandMgcontentofriverwaters thatcouldbeused tofloodor
irrigatetheacid soils.Thesebasescouldkeep the%basesaturationofthesoil
atsomeacceptable levelwhile theH ionsarebeing leachedout.Seasonalflood-
ingwithseawater (richinCa,Mg,andNa)followedbyleachingandremovalof
excessNa ionsbyrainwatermayalsohaveagoodeffect.Thismethod isnot
suitable fordrytropicalclimates.
Themagnitudeoftheproblemmaybeinfluenced bydrainingpotential acid sulphate

soilstoadepthjustenoughtocreateashallowrootzone.Nooxidationwilltake
place inthepermanently saturatedpartoftheprofileandonecanlettime,na-
tural leaching,andbufferingprocesses,workonalimited thickness oftopsoil
tocreateasuitablehabitat forcroproots.After thishasbeenachieved,itis
possible,eventhoughperhapsnotnecessary,tolowerthegroundwater tablea
littlemoreand,with time,toincrease thedepthofimproved soil.Draining
potential acid sulphate soilsimmediately toagreatdepthhasoftencreatedin-
superableproblems.
Cropsgrowingoncatclaysoilswithaneutralized arablelayermaybeliableto
damagebydrought,eveninawetclimate,because therootsdonotpenetratethe
acid subsoilaslongasthepHistoolow.Lateron,afterfurther leachingand
acertainriseofthepH,therootswillpenetratedeeperanddroughtphenomena
willrarelybeencountered.
Theprinciple ofimprovingacid sulphate soils istheneutralization ofexcessive

amountsofhydrogen ions.Whether soilimprovement ispossibledependsonthe
availability andcostofsuitableneutralizing agentsandwhether accuratewater
control ispossible.
291
32.3.4 PREDICTINGTHEFORMATIONOFACIDSULPHATESOILS
Inmakingplansforreclamation itisvery important toknowwhether catclaysoils

will form.Byinvestigating thecontentsofsulphurandcalciumcarbonatein
thesoil,onecanfindoutwhether thereisariskofthishappening.Ifthe
contentofcalciumcarbonate isnotclearlyhigher thanthecontentofsulphur
(expressed as SOi,),thesoilmaybecomeacid afterdrainage.
The followingmethod canindicatewhether ariskofcatclayformationexists.
Takeanumberofrepresentative samples;allowthemtodryouttoawatercontent
suitableforplantgrowthandkeepthematthatmoisturecontent.Maintaina
favourable temperature formicrobes;measure thepHafter2months.WhenthepH
islow,therearechances thatcatclaysoilswill forminthefuture.Thead-
vantageofthismethod isitssimplicity,thedisadvantage isthatittakesrather
along timebeforetheresult isknown.
Amuchquickermethod,proposed byVANBEERS (1962)isthefollowing:
Take5cm3 ofsoil;put itinaporcelaindish (diameter8-10 cm).Add 20cm3

of30%H2O2andmixsoilandhydrogenperoxide thoroughlybystirring.Thedish
isthenplaced inabeakerofboilingwater.Theoxidation isveryoftenexplo-
sivesothat itisadvisable tohaveasiphonathand ortostircontinuously
and ifnecessary toremove thedishfromthewater ingood time.Whenallthe
H2O2isspent,thepHisdetermined.ThispHistheapproximateend-valueofthe
acidityofthesoil ifitwere tobesubjected toextensiveoxidation.
32.3.5 RECLAMATION OFACIDSULPHATESOILS
When itisknownthatanareatobedrained andreclaimed haspotentialacid

sulphate soils,thefirstquestion tobeanswered iswhether itisnotbetter
toabandontheplan.Atleastitiswisetoproceed cautiously,e.g.bymaking
asmall-scalepractical test.Ofcourse,theoretically speaking,itispossible
toimprove theseacid soilsby liming,butthecostsmaybesohigh thatthey
make theventureprohibitive.
Ifitisdecided toproceedwith theplan,itmightbewise todraintheareato

ashallowdepth sothatpotential acid layersremainunderreducedconditions.
This is,however,onlypractical ifsuchlayersarenotclosetothesurfaceand
thewater tablecanbekept fairlyhighandconstant.Inthehumid climatic zone
itisadvisable touse suchland asgrassland;intropicaland sub-tropical
regionsricewouldbethebestcrop togrow.
292
Specific soils
Iftheacid canbeneutralized byliming,deepdrainage istobepreferred,
although liminghastowait till some leachinghastakenplace.Pipedrainsshould
notbeinstalled toosoonasotherwise theirjointsorslotsmaybecomeclogged
withprecipitating ironcompounds.Inthefirstyears therefore itisadvisable
todrainonlybymeansofopenditches.
293
LITERATURE
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themethodsoftheirutilization.4 Int.PeatCongress,Otaniemi,Finland,
25-30June 1972.Proc.Vol.111,pp.7-20.
BOELTER,D.H. 1965.Hydraulic conductivity ofpeats.SoilSei.100:227-231.
BOELTER,D.H. 1969.Physicalproperties ofpeatsasrelated todegreeofdecom-

position.Soil Sei.Soc.Amer.Proc.33:606-609.
CLAYTON,B.S.,NELLER,J.R., andALLISON,R.V. 1942.Watercontrol inthepeat

andmucksoilsoftheFloridaEverglades.Univ.ofFlorida,Agric.Exp.Sta.
Bull.378,74pp.
DEGLOPPER,R.J. 1973.Subsidence afterdrainageofthedeposits intheformer

Zuiderzeeand inthebrackishmarine forelands inTheNetherlands.
's-Gravenhage,Staatsuitgeverij,205p.VanZee totLand 50,Rijksdienst
IJsselmeerpolders.
DOST,H. 1973.(ed.) 1973.Acid sulphatesoils.Intern.Symp.AcidSulphateSoils,

13-20Aug.1972,Wageningen.Bull.18,Intern.InstituteforLandReel.and
Improvement,Wageningen.701pp.
FARNHAM,R.S.,andFINNEY,H.R. 1965.Classificationandpropertiesoforganic
soils.Advances inAgronomy 17:115-162.
FOKKENS,B. 1970.Berekeningvandesamendrukkingvanveenlagenuithetgehalte
aanorganische stofenwater.DeIngenieur 82(13):B23-B28.
HOLLINGSHEAD,G.,andRAYMOND,G.P. 1972. Load settlement studiesofamuskeg.

4 Intern.PeatCongress,Otaniemi,Finland,25-30June 1972.Proc.Vol.II,
pp.199-207.
ILNICKI,P. 1972.Subsidenceoflowmoorinlong-termagriculturalutilization.
4 Intern.PeatCongress,Otaniemi,Finland,25-30June 1972.Proc.Vol.Ill
pp.383-394.
KIVINEN,E. 1968.Onthespread andcharacteristics ofbogs inFinland.2

Intern.PeatCongress,Leningrad, 1963.Trans.Vol.1,pp.15-26.
MACFARLANE,I.C. 1965.Theconsolidationofpeat.Aliteraturereview.Techn.
PaperNo.195.Div.BuildingRes.,Nat.Res.Council,Ottawa,Canada.36pp.
NIKONOV,N.N.,and SLUKA,V.P. 1964.Distributionofpeatbogs.SovietSoil

Sei.10:1042-1047.
294
Specific soils
PONS,L.J., and ZONNEVELD,I.S. 1965.Soilripeningand soilclassification.
Publ.13,Intern.InstituteforLand Reel,and Improvement,Wageningen. 128pp.
RADFORTH,N.W.,andMACFARLANE,I.C. 1957.Correlationofpalaeobotanicaland
engineering studiesofmuskeg (peat)inCanada.Proc.4 Int.Conf.SoilMech.
&FoundationEngng.,London.la/23:93-97.
RAYMOND,G.P.,WOOD,E.A.,andHOLLINGSHEAD,G.W. 1972.Consolidationof
undisturbed finefibrouspeat.4 Intern.PeatCongress,Otaniemi,Finland,
25-30June 1972,Proc.Vol.11,pp.209-219.
SCHOTHORST,C.J. 1967.Bepalingvandecomponentenvandezakkingnagrondwater-
standsdaling.Landbouwk.Tijdschr.79(l1):402-411.
SEGEBERG,H. 1960.MoorsackungendurchGrundwasserabsenkung undderenVoraus-

berechnungmitHilfeempirischerFormeln.Z.fürKulturtechnik 1(3):144-161.
STEPHENS,J.C. 1955.Drainageofpeatandmuck lands.In:Water,Yearbookof

Agriculture.U.S.D.A.WashingtonD.C.,pp.539-557.
STEPHENS,J.C. 1956.Subsidenceoforganic soilsintheFloridaEverglades.

SoilSei.Soc.Amer.Proc.20:77-80.
STEPHENS,J.C, and SPEIR,W.H. 1970.Subsidenceoforganic soils intheU.S.A.

In:Land subsidence.Intern.Assoc.Scient.Hydrology,UNESCO,Gent-Brugge,
Vol.2:523-534. (Intern.Symp.onLand Subsidence,held inTokyo,Sept.1969.)
TAYLOR,D.W. 1965.Fundamentals ofsoilmechanics.JohnWiley &Sons,NewYork.

700pp.
VANBEERS,W.F.J. 1962.Acid sulphatesoils.Bull.3Intern.InstituteforLand

Reel.and Improvement.Wageningen.31pp.
VANDERMOLEN,W.H.,andSMITS,H. 1962.DieSackung ineinemMoorgebiet inNord-

griechenland.Proc.8 Intern.KongressfüruniverselleMoor-undTorfforschung
pp.69-72.
WEIR,W.W. 1950.SubsidenceofpeatlandsoftheSacramento-SanJoaquindelta,
California.Hilgardia20:37-56.
295
33. D R A I N A G E O F H E A V Y C L A Y S O I L S
J. W. VAN FfOORN
Land Drainage and Salinity Specialist
Department of Land Drainage and Improvement
W. H. van der Molen (1973)

PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Asoilprofileofheavyclay isoftencharacterized by layersofdifferenthydrau-

licconductivity.Principles andapplications ofdraining suchlayeredprofiles
arediscussed.
CONTENTS
33.2 SHALLOWANDDEEPDISCHARGE 299
33.3 DEPTHOFDRAINAGE 302
33.4 ANALYSISOFDISCHARGEOBSERVATIONS 307
33.4.1 Method ofanalyzingdischargedatafromalayeredprofile 307

33.4.2 Examples fromTheNetherlands 311
33.4.3 Examples fromtheSavaareainYugoslavia 316
33.5 SHALLOWDISCHARGETHROUGHTHETOPLAYER 318
33.6 DRAINAGE SOLUTIONSFORHEAVY CLAYSOILS 322
33.6.1 Tiledrainage 322

33.6.2 Moledrainage 324
33.6.3 Surfacedrainage 324
33.7 IMPROVINGHYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 325
LITERATURE 326
Heavy clay soils
33.1 INTRODUCTION
Heavy clay soilsareoftenconsidered impervious andconsequently unsuitablefor

drainagebyasubsurfacedrainage system.Thisopinion,however,isnotalways
justified.Althoughdraining such soilsposes specialproblems,reasonablesolu-
tionscansometimesbefound.
The traditional drainage systemonheavy claysoilsissurfacedrainagebyparal-

lelfurrowsorshallowditches.Yetithasrecentlybeenproved thatsubsurface
drainagecanbevery successful insituationswhereanunderlying layerwitha
highhydraulic conductivityoccurs.
Intheclayprofile,especially thatofbasinclay inriver floodplains,three

characteristichorizons canoftenbedistinguished
- atoplayer,0.20 to0.30m thick,withahighhydraulic conductivity

(morethan 1m/day),either theturflayerofgrassland or thetilled layerof
arableland
- asecond layerwithavariable thickness (often0.5 to 1m)and lowhydrau-

licconductivity (afewcentimetres perday,sometimes 1cm/dayorperhapseven
lesswhen thesoiliswet)
- athird layeratvaryingdepthsandwithamoderate tohighhydraulic

conductivity,eitherahighlypervious claywith ironconcretionsandorganic
remains,orpeat,ormaterial oflightertexture.
Thethird layer isvery important forthefeasibility ofasubsurfacedrainage

system. Ifitoccursatadepth thatcanbereachedbydrainagemachinery,itcan,
incombinationwith thehighlypervious toplayer,besuccessfullyutilized to
drain theland.The solutionisthuscomposed ofacombinationofshallow (sur-
face)anddeep (subsurface)drainage.Ifnopervious subsoiloccurswithina
depth thatcanbereachedbydrainagemachinery,thedischarge takesplaceessen-
tially through thesurface layerandonemust thenresort tothetraditional
method ofafurrowor tilesystem,thetilesacting inthiscaseascovered
furrows.Sometimesmoledrainageoffersasatisfactory solution.
33.2 SHALLOWANDDEEPDISCHARGE
Theway inwhichrainwater iscarried off inathree-layered soilprofileas

described abovedependsupontheratiooftherateofprecipitation totherate
ofdownward flowthrough thepoorlypervious secondlayer.
299
Iftheprecipitation rateequals,orisless than,therateofdownwardflow
throughthesecond layer,wecandistinguish thefollowing twosituations:
- thegroundwater table lies inthehighlypervious third layer (Fig.lA).

The infiltrating rainwaterwillmoveverticallydownwards through thesecond layer
intothethird layer,wherethegroundwaterflowispredominantlyhorizontal,
and radialnear thedrain.Thestreamlines inthisthird layermaybeconsidered
horizontal sothatitshydraulicresistance tovertical flowwillbenegligible.
Hencenodifference inhydraulicheadexistsinpiezometers installedat
different depths inthis layer,and thephreatic levelequals thehydraulic
head.Thisholds trueaslongasthewater tableremainsbelowthebaseofthe
second layer
- thegroundwater tableliesinthepoorlypervious second layer (Fig.IB).

Here theinfiltrating rainwaterwillalsomovevertically throughthesecond layer
into thethird layer,throughwhich itwill flowhorizontally and thenradially
near thedrain.Whileflowing through thesecond layer,itmustovercomea
certainhydraulicresistance.Consequently therewillbeadifference inhydrau-
lichead,I12 ,asmeasured inapiezometer installed inthesecond layerand
one inthethird layer.Thepiezometer inthesecond layer indicates thephreatic
leveland theotherpiezometer thehydraulichead inthethirdlayer.
Iftheprecipitation rateexceeds therateofdownward flowthrough thepoorly

pervious second layer,aportionoftherainwater stagnatesabovethislayerand
createsasaturated zoneinthetoplayer.Partofthewater inthetoplayer
willmovedownwardsandpartofitwillflowhorizontally towards thedrain.
TheFigs.lCand IDillustratethissituationwithaperchedwater tableinthe
toplayerandafreewater table in,respectively,thehighlyperviousthird
layerand thepoorlypervioussecond layer.Figure IEshowsthegroundwaterrisen
intothetoplayer,theentiresoilprofile thusbeingsaturated.
Hence,inthesituationsdescribed above,adeepdischargemayoccurthroughthe
poorlypervious second layerand thehighlypervious third layer,while theoccur-
renceofashallowdischarge through thepervious toplayerwilldependuponthe
ratio oftherateofprecipitation totherateofdownward flowthroughthe
poorlypervious secondlayer.
Itwouldbemorecorrect todenoteaheaddifferencebyAhinsteadofh.For
reasonsofconsistency,however,thesymbolhisused (seenoteChap.6,
Vol.1,p.185).
300
Heavy clay soils
iL t-'-M'.A,'',l highly pervious

/
V///\ Poorly pervious
highly pervious
impervious
Fig.1. Thedischargeofprecipitationinalayeredriverbas inclay.A:Pre-

cipitationrateequalsrateofdownward flowthroughthepoor lypervious layer,
Thewater tablelies inthehighlyjpervioussubsoiland its1 evelequalsthe
hydraulichead inthepervioussubsoil. B:ThesameasA,bu tthewatertable
liesinthepoorlypervious layer.Itsleveldiffersanamoun th 2 fromthe
hydraulichead inthehighlypervious subsoil. C:Précipitât ionrateexceeds
rateofdownward flowthroughthepoorlyperviouslayer.Perc hedwatertable
inthetoplayerandafreewater tableinthehighlyperviou ssubsoil.
D:ThesameasC,but thefreewater tableliesinthepoorly perviouslayer.
E:ThesameasC,butthefreewater tablehasrisenintothe toplayer.
301
For thedownward flowthrough thepoorlypervious layerwemustmakeadistinction
betweenunsaturated and saturated soil.Inanunsaturated,wetsoilofheavy
texture,themaximumrateofdownward flowthrough thesecond layerwillequal
approximately thehydraulic conductivity ofthesaturated soil (seeChap.24,
Sect.4.5,Vol.111).Ontheotherhand,ifthephreaticwater tablehasrisen
intothetoplayerand thustheentiresoilprofile issaturated,therateof
watermovement through thepoorlypervious layerequals thedeepdischarge (q)
through thislayerand thehighlypervioussubsoil.
Asanexample,weshallassume thehydraulic conductivity of thesecond layer

tobe0.05m/dayor2mm/hour.As longasthewater tableremainsbelowthetop
ofthislayerand theprecipitationratedoesnotexceed avalueof2mm/hour,
alldischargetakesplacethrough thesecond and third layers.If,however,the
precipitation rateexceeds avalueof2mmperhour,shallowdischargeoccurs
through thetoplayer.Whenthewater tablehasrisen tothe topofthesecond
layer,therateofdownward flowthrough itequalstherateofdeepdischarge
ofthedrainage system,say7mmperday,and shallowdischarge through thetop
layerwillalreadyoccuriftherateofprecipitation exceeds7/24 =0.3mm
perhour.
33.3 DEPTHOFDRAINAGE
Asalready stated,wecanregard groundwater flowinalayeredprofile asbeing

composed ofthreecomponents
-vertical flowinthepoorlypervious second layer
-horizontal flowinthehighlypervious thirdlayer
- radial flownear thedrain.
302
Heavy clay soils
According toERNST (Chap.8,Vol.11),wecanwrite thehydraulicheadofeachflow
component asfollows.
The vertical component
h 2 =q||- (1)
Ifthedrain islocated inthethird layer,D 2equals theheightofthewater

tableabove thetopofthislayer (Fig.IB, ID), itsmaximumbeing thetotal
thicknessofthesecond layer (Fig.IE).If,however,thedrainislocated inthe
second layer,oneshould takeforD2thedifferencebetweenthephreaticlevel
anddraindepth.
The horizontal component
h (2)
h-SKTDT
Inthisequation thehorizontal flowabovedraindepthisassumednegligibleand

D3equals thethicknessbelowdraindepthofthehighlypervious thirdlayer
(Fig.2).
The radial component
h =qLw (3)
r
wherewstandsforradialresistance (days/m).
Ifthedrainsarelocated inthethirdlayer
à; ^
whereustandsforthewetperimeterofthedraintrench.
303
Ifthedrainsarelocated inthesecond layer
] , aD
w=— — In — - 2 (5)
Ti"K2 u
inwhich thegeometry factoradependsupontheratioK3/K2 and theratioD 3 /D 2 ,

whereD 2nowequals thethicknessbelowdraindepthofthesecond layer(see
nomographdeveloped byVANBEERS,Chap.8,Vol.11).Aslongasthewater tableis
inthethird layer (Fig.2A),thehydraulichead ofthecomponent forvertical
flowthrough thesecond layer iszeroand thetotalhydraulichead equals thesum
ofthecomponents forhorizontal andradialflowinthethirdlayer
h=h 3 K +h
h r
8K3D3 qLw (6)
Whenthewater table isinthesecond layer (Fig.2B),wemaywrite
h = h2 + h3 = h + h, + h
v h r
D2 ^ ql/
(7)
1 KT + sfel + qLw
%mmmmm*mm?zzs?zz???zF>*zzzz:
Fig.2. Thewater tableindifferentpositions inalayeredbasinclaysoil.

A:Thewater table liesinthehighlypervious subsoil;horizontal flowabove
draindepth canbeneglected;Eq.6 isvalid. B:Thewater table lies inthe
poorlypervious layer;horizontal flowabovedraindepthcanbeneglected;
Eq.7isvalid.
304
Heavy olay soils
The followingexamplemay servetoshowtheeffectof thedepthofdrainageon
thehydraulicheadsforvertical,horizontal,andradial flow,andonthedrain
spacing.
Example 1
Ariverbasinclay (asfound locally inTheNetherlands)ismadeupof
-apoorlypervious layer,50cmthick,0.2 to0.7mbelowthegroundsurface,

andwithahydraulic conductivity of0.05m/day
- ahighlypervious layerconsistingofatransition zonefrom0.7 to 1m,

withahydraulic conductivityof0.3m/day,andofasecond zone from 1to2m,
withahydraulic conductivity of 1m/day (Fig.3).
m profile <7o
0.00 100 1
i
. 1
j ; h
h i
/i
0,40
" K=0.05m/day 1— ._ / J i i
— ^
\ / !\
i \ / :\ s
0.80
K;0.3 m/day
._—,— \ — — -yt \\—\
\ / \
\; j,/
1
1 20 ri - —\
A
1.60
K=1.0m/day
\-J I
/
1 !
!*•>.
h N 1
/
1'-- s h
'
W~i—
1/
\
0.70 0.80 0.90 100
drain depth in metres
Fig.3. Effectof thedepthofdrainageonthehydraulichead lossesfor

vertical,horizontal,andradial flow,expressed inpercentofthetotal
lossofhydraulichead.A:Atadeepdischargerateof7mmperdayanda
totalhydraulichead of0.25m. B:Atadeepdischargerateof7mmper
dayand thephreatic levelat0.30mbelowgroundsurface.
Anexperimental fieldhasbeenlaidoutonthissoilprofileand tiledrainshave

beeninstalled atdepthsof0.6,0.7,0.8,0.9,and 1m.Thewaterdepth inthe
tiles is5cm.The trenchesdugfortheinstallationofthedrainsare25cmwide,
sothewetperimeterequals 25+ (2x5)=35cm (Chap.8,Vol.11).Calculations
aremadefor
- adischargerateof7mmperdayand atotalhydraulicheadof25cm
(Table 1A,Fig.3A),whichmeansthephreatic levelis0.30mabovedraindepth,so
at0.3mbelowsoilsurface foradraindepthof0.6m
at0.7mbelowsoilsurfaceforadraindepthof 1.0m
305
- adischargerateof7mmperdayand thephreatic levelat0.3mbelowsoil
surface (Tab.IB,Fig.3B),whichmeans
ahydraulichead of25cmforadraindepthof0.6m
ahydraulichead of65cmforadraindepthof 1.0m
AscanbeseenfromTable1andFig.3,ifthedrainislocated inthepoorlyper-
vious layer (at0.6 m ) , about20percentofthehydraulichead isabsorbedby
vertical flowand80percentbyradialflow.Consequentlyalmostnohydraulic
head isleftforhorizontal flowandthedrainspacingbecomesverynarrow.It
canalsobeseenthatthehydraulicheadsforvertical andradial flowdecrease
asthedepthofdrainage increases.Thisisespecially sofortheradialflow
component,theheadofwhichbecomesverysmall foradrainlocated inthehighly
pervious third layer.Inthiscasealargerpartofthehydraulichead isavailable
forhorizontal flow,whichallowswiderdrainspacings (Tab.lA). Ifthetotal
hydraulichead (h)increaseswith increasingdraindepth (Tab.IB),mostofthe
increasebecomesavailableforhorizontal flowandagainallowswiderdrain
spacings.
Itisevidentfromthesetablesand figures that thedrains shouldbelocatedin
thehighlypervioussubsoil ifthere istobeadequatedeepdischargewithreaso-
nabledrainspacings.Ifthedrainsarelocated inthepoorlyperviouslayer,
thedischargewill takeplacemainlyasshallowdischargethrough thetoplayer
becausethedeepgroundwaterflowwillencountergreatresistance.
Table 1A. Effectofthedepthofdrainageonthehydraulicheadsfor

vertical,horizontal,andradialflow,atadischargerateof7mm/day
andatotalhydraulicheadof25cm
Depthofdrainage h h h h drainspacing
inmbelowsurface (m)
cm cm cm cm
0.60 25 4 1 20 4
0.70 25 4 10 1! 11
0.80 25 3 12 10 12
0.90 25 1 16 8 14
1.00 25 0 22 3 16
Table IB. Effectofthedepthofdrainageonthehydraulicheadsfor

vertical,horizontal,andradial flowatadischargerateof7mm/day
andagroundwater levelat0.30mbelowsoilsurface
Depthofdrainage h h h, h drainspacing
inmbelowsurface (m)
0.60 25 4 1 20 4
0.70 35 5 16 14 14
0.80 45 5 25 15 17
0.90 55 5 37 13 21
1.00 65 5 54 6 25
306
Heavy clay soils
33.4 ANALYSISOFDISCHARGEOBSERVATIONS
During thesurveypreceding theinstallationofadrainage system,thehydraulic

conductivity ofthesoilcanbemeasured inthefieldby theinversed augerhole
ortheinfiltrometermethodsabovethewater tableandbytheaugerholeorpiezo-
metermethodsbelowthewatertable (Chap.24,Vol.III).
Applying theaugerholemethod inpoorlyperviousmaterial,however,mayyield

hydraulic conductivity values thatare toolowowing tothelargeporesbecoming
cloggedwhile thehole isbeingmade.Insuchcircumstances thewater levelinside
theholewilladjust itself onlyafteraconsiderabledelay.Becauseofcrack
formationduringdry spellsand thesoilswellingduringwet spells,thehydrau-
licconductivity of thepoorlypervious layermaydifferconsiderably inthe
courseoftheyear.Hence,inpoorlypervious layersitmaybedifficult toob-
tainreliablehydraulic conductivityvalues thatarerepresentativeoffuture
conditions underwhich thedrainage systemmustfunction.
Itistherefore advisable tolayout somedrains inan experimental fieldbefore

starting theexecutionoflarge-scaledrainageworks.Duringrainyperiodsone
canthenmeasure thedischargeandmakeobservations ofthegroundwatertable
movement.Ananalysis oftheresultingdatawillreveal thehydraulic conductivity
ofthevarious layersandwill indicate theway inwhich therainwater iscarried
off.
33.4.1 METHODOFANALYZINGDISCHARGEDATAFROMALAYEREDSOIL
Thehydraulichead forvertical flowcanbemeasured inpiezometersplaced inthe

poorlypervious second layerand inthehighlypervious third layer.Ifweknow
thedepthofthebaseofthesecond layer fromthepedological survey,wecan
calculate itshydraulic conductivitywithEq.1.
InEq.2,thehorizontal flowabovedraindepthwasassumednegligible.This,
however,willnotalwaysbeso.Whenthehydraulichead,measured inthethird
layer,isbelowthebaseofthesecond layerand there ishorizontal flowbelow
aswellasabovethewaterlevelintheditchortileline (Fig.4),wemayex-
press therateofdeepdischarge through thethird layeras
8K3(D^ +h)h,+4K3h^
q -±-± ± (8)
307
mxmèmwmmmmm^mmmtm
0.5L
Fig.4. The water table is below the base of

the poorly pervious layer; there is horizon-
tal flow below and above drain depth; Eq.8
is valid.
If we can neglect the horizontal flow above the water level in the ditch or tile
line, which from now on will be regarded as "drain depth", Eq.8 changes into the
following equation, which is the same as Eq.2
8K3D3'h,
(9=2)
In this case a rectilinear relation exists between the loss of head in the third
layer and the rate of deep discharge. This relation is expressed by the following
equation, which is the same as Eq.6
ql/
h3 = 8K3D
Y +qLw (10=6)
Ifwe can neglect the horizontal flow below drain depth, Eq.8 changes into
4K 3 h,
(11)
q=
Now a curvilinear relation exists between the loss of head in the third layer and
the rate of deep discharge. This relation can be expressed by
(12)
If neither of the two terms in Eq.8 can be neglected, the relation between the
hydraulic head in the third layer and the rate of deep discharge is also curvi-
linear. If the hydraulic head,measured in the third layer,rises into the second
308
Heavy clay soils
layer,theexistingcurvilinear relationwillfromthatmomentonassumeamore
andmorerectilinear character.Eventuallywewillgetthesituationasdepicted
inFig.5,forwhichthefollowing equationholdstrue
.2
h3= _qLl qLw (13)
8K3D3
Fig.5. Thewatertableliesinthepoorly
perviouslayerand thehead lossforradial
flow,h ,exceeds theheightofthehighly
perviouslayerabovedraindepth;thereis
horizontal flowaboveandbelowdraindepth;
Eq.13isvalid.
Fromtherelationbetweenthehydraulichead inthethird layerand therateof
deepdischarge (Fig.6),itmaybededuced towhatextenthorizontalflowoccurs
belowandabovedraindepth.Iftherelation isentirelyrectilinear,horizontal
flowwilloccurbelowdraindepth.Whenacurvilinearrelationexists,horizontal
flowwilloccurabovedraindepthtoo,andthemore thishappensthemorepro-
nouncedwillbethecurvature.
Fig.6.Relationbetween thedeepdis-
charge (q)andthehydraulicheadloss
inthehighlypervious subsoil,h3,for
steadyflow.CurveI:Horizontalflow
abovedraindepthcanbeneglected.
CurvesIIandIII:Horizontalflow
occursabovedraindepthand increases
asshownby thecurve.Ifthewater
tablerises intothepoorlypervious
layer,thecurveagainapproachesa
straightline.
309
Ifthehydraulic conductivity,thethickness ofthethird layer,and theradial
resistancearetobecalculated,thehydraulichead inthethird layermustbe
splitup intothecomponents forhorizontal andradial flow (h andh).
h r
Ifhorizontal flowoccursbothbelowandabovedraindepthand ifthehydraulic
headmeasured inthethird layer isbelowthebaseofthesecond layer (Fig.4),
thenthewater table inthethird layerbetween theditchesortilelineswill
assume theformofanellipseexpressed bythefollowingequation
(0'3 +h 3 ) 2 -h 2
K3
(0.5L-x)2
Near thedrainthewater tabledeviates fromanellipse.Thehydraulicheadfor

radialflow (h)canbedetermined asthedifferencebetweenthehydraulichead
calculatedwith theellipse formulaforxequalling zeroand thewaterlevel
measured inthedrain.
Thegraphicalmethod showninFig.7Acanthenbeapplied:plot thevaluesof

(0.5L-x) against thevaluesof (D3 +h 3 ) -h anddetermine throughextra-
polation for (0.5L)2 thevalueof (D3 +h 3 ) 2 -(D3 +h ) 2 , fromwhichh canbe
calculated andconsequently h,.The tangentaindicates theratioq/K3,fromwhich
h
K3 canbecalculated ifqisknown.Since thelimitbetweenhorizontal andradial
flowisapproximately adistanceof0.7D3 fromthedrain,theonlydatathat
shouldbeused are thosethathavebeenobserved atadistanceofmore than0.7D3
fromthedrain.
Ifthehorizontal flowabovedraindepthcanbeneglected orifthehydraulic
head forradial flow (h)isgreater thanthethickness,abovedraindepth,of
thehighlypervious third layer (Fig.5),thewater table inthatlayerwill
assume theformofaparabolaexpressed by thefollowing equation
Di +h3-h
(15)
2K3D3
Nowthegraphicalmethod depicted inFig.7Bcanbeapplied:plot thevaluesof

(0.5L-x)2 against thoseof (D3 +h3 -h)anddetermine throughextrapolationfor
(0.5L)2 thevalueof (D3 +h 3 -D3 -h) ,whichequalsh .Thetangentanow
indicates theratioq/2K3D3.
Ifthismethod ofanalyzingdischargedataisapplied,datacollected duringor
immediately after therainfallperiod should notbeusedbutinstead onlythose
observationsmadeduring theperiod ofwatertable fall.Dischargedatacollected
duringrainfallmay showdeviationsofthefollowing types
310
Heavy clay soils
(0.5l-x)2 (0.5L-xr
Fig.7. Graphicalmethod fordetermining theheadloss
forradial flownearadrain,h . A:Ifthewatertable
hasanelliptical shapebetween thedrains. B:Ifthe
water tablehasaparabolic shapebetweenthedrains.
deviationduetotheunsteady character ofthedrainageprocess.Figure 8shows

therelationbetweentherateofdeepdischarge andthehydraulichead inthe
third layerduringadischargeperiod.Duringtheperiodofrisingwatertable
therateofdischarge ishigher thanduring theperiod offall forthesameh3
value.During theperiod offalltherelationbetweenI13andqisconstantand
approximately thesameasduring steadyflow
deviationsdue toshallowdischarge through thetoplayerwhentheprecipita-
tionrateexceeds therateofdownward flowthrough theunderlyinglayer.
A B
Fig.8. Thedischargerateduringarise inwater tableisgreaterthan

during afallfor thesamehydraulichead,h 3 . A:Theshapeofthewater
tablemeasured inthehighlypervious subsoilbetween thedrainsduring
aperiod ofrise(-.-.-) andfall ( )for thesamehydraulichead,h 3 .
B:Relationbetween thedeepdischarge,q,and thehydraulichead,h 3 ,
during aperiod ofdischarge.
33.4.2 EXAMPLESFROMTHENETHERLANDS
Theequationspresented inthepreceding sectioncanbeapplied todetermine:the

productofthehydraulic conductivity and thethicknessbelowdraindepthofthe
highlypervious third layer (K3D3),thehydraulic conductivity abovedraindepth
ofthehighlypervious third layer,thedepthofthesecond layer,and theradial
resistance. 311
Example 2
Figure 9shows therelationbetweenqandh 3 inanexperimentalfieldwithadrain

spacing of20mandadraindepthof0.85m.With theexceptionofsomeobserva-
tionsmadeduring and shortly afterrainfall,thisrelation isarectilinearone,
sohorizontal flowabovedraindepth canbeconsiderednegligible.Theshapeof
thewater tablebetween thedrains,asmeasured inthehighlypervious thirdlayer,
isshown inFig.10.Thedischargerateis2.6mm/day and thehydraulicheadis
24.5cm.Thehead lossforradialflow (h)hasbeencalculated ontheassumption
r
ofaparabolic form (Fig.IIA)andanelliptical form (Fig.IIB),thelatterwith
twovalues forD3.Theresultof thethreecalculationswasah-valueof6.5 cm,
" r
soh equals 18cm.
Figure 10also shows thewater tablecalculated fromthestraight linesofFig.11,

whichdeviatesonly slightly (0.5to 1cm)fromthemeasured values.Wecannow
calculate thefollowingvalues
vK 3n'- qL2 0-0026x400 n 7 2.,

° 3 -8hT= 8x0.18 = °-7m / d a y
h
h
r 0.065 , , , ,
w =
^L = 0.0026 x 20 = K 2 day/m
Example 3
Figure 12showsacompletely differentrelationbetweenqandh3 foranexperi-

mental fieldwithadrainspacingof25mandadraindepthof 1.20m.Thisre-
lation,which iscurvilinear atvery lowdischargeratesandrectilinearat
higherdischargerates,indicates thepresenceofahighlypervious layerabove
draindepth,limited atitsupper sidebyapoorlyperviouslayer.
Inthiscasethehydraulichead lossforradial flow (h)isnegligible.Hence

h3 equalsh andwecanuseEq.8 inthefollowingform
8K3D3" 4K3
h
h L2 L2 h
Ifweuse theq-values0.75, 1.7,2.9,4.5,and6.1 mm/day and thecorresponding

h-values0.30,0.40,0.50,0.60,and0.70m,and ifweplotthevaluesofq/h
against thoseofh,weobtainthedashed line inFig.l3A.The intersectionof
thislinewith theabscissa insteadof theordinateindicates thepresenceof
animpervious layerbelowdraindepth,thedrainsevenpenetrating somewhatinto
thislayer.
312
Heavy clay soils
Fig.9. Relationbetween thedeepdischarge,q,and

thehydraulichead,h 3 ,inanexperimental fieldwith
drains spacedat20mand sited atadepthof0.85m
belowsoilsurface.
ooo = observations duringand shortly afterthe
.y' cessationofrain
= observations sometimeafterthecessation
ofrain
Fig.10. Theshapeofthewatertable
betweenthedrains.
measured calculated
D
3 + h 3 ~h ' n m
0.20
Fig.11. Determinationofthehead lossforradialflow,h . A:Ifthewater

r
tablehasaparabolic shapebetween thedrains. B:Ifthewater tablehasan
elliptical shapeandwe taketwovaluesofthethicknessofthehighlypervious
subsoilbelowdraindepth: • •Bj=1i o---o D3=0.5 m
in mm / d a y
"'V^~~^^\—
h3,ncm
Fig.12. Relationbetween thedeepdischarge,q,and thehydraulichead,h3

inanexperimental fieldwithdrains spaced at25mand sited atadepth
of 1.20m. 0 0 0 0 = observations during and shortly after thecessationof
rain; =observations sometimeafter thecessationoftherain.
313
Itisnotallowed tocalculate thevalueofK3 fromtheslopeofthis line,because
thelinedoesnotpassthrough theorigin.Bytrialanderrorandassumingdif-
ferentvalues forthedraindepthbelowthebaseofthehighlypervious layer,one
can,however,find suchaline.Ifweassumethebaseofthehighlyperviouslayer
at0.10mabovedraindepth (thedrainspenetrate0.10mintotheimpervious
layer),wemust subtract0.10mfromtheh-valuesabove.Aplotof thecorrected
q/handh-values gives thefulllineofFig.l3A,whichpasses through theorigin,
thusconfirming thesuppositionofthedrainsbeing located0.10mbelowthe
highlyperviouslayer.
Thedeviationofthepointq/h = 10.2x 10 3 ,h=0.60 fromthefullydrawnline,

aswellastherectilinearrelation inFig.12ath3-valuesexceeding0.50m,in-
dicates thepositionoftheupper limitofthehighlypervious layer coveredby
apoorlypervious layer.Hencewemayconclude thepresenceofahighlypervious
layerwithahydraulic conductivityK3 =2.9m/daylyingbetween0.10 and0.50m
abovedraindepthwhich,inthiscase,means 1.10and0.70mbelowtheground
surface.
q/h 3 x10 _3 day~ 1 q/h 3 x10" 3 day _ 1

12 12
10 -
8 tga.1/h . 6
* 1 0 " 3 =30x10-3
h 0.2
tg<IxL
K,=
J .4.7m/day
6 4
Y
4
8K3D3
5 x TCT3 ,.K3 D3=0.40m2/day
t
/ K3: 9'I4xL2.2.9m/day
J I l l I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.3
h3(m)
Fig.13. Relationbetweenthedischarge /.hydraulichead ratioand thehy-

draulichead inanexperimental fieldwithdrains spaced at25m. A:For
adraindepthof 1.20m,thedrainsbeing located inapoorlyperviouslayer.
--- relationfortheinitialvalues, relationforthedrainsbeing
located 0.10mbelowthebaseofthehighlypervious subsoil. B:Fora
draindepthof 1.10m,i.e. thedrain islocated inthehighlypervious
layer,whichiscoveredbyalesspervious layeratapproximately 0.20to
0.30mabovedraindepth.
314
Heavy clay soils
Example 4
Figure 14shows therelationbetweenqandh 3 inanexperimental fieldwitha

drainspacingof25mand adraindepthof !.J0m.Thecurvature islesspro-
nounced thanintheprecedingexample,sothatwemay conclude thepresenceof
ahighlypervious subsoilbelowaswellasabovedraindepth.Sinceh inthis
casewasalsosmallenoughtobeneglected,wecanapplyEq.8.
hînc m
Fig.14. Relationbetweenthedeepdischarge,q,and thehydraulic

head,h 3 inanexperimental fieldwithdrains spaced at25mand
sited atadepthof 1.10m. 0 0 0 0 = observations duringandshort-
lyafterthecessationoftherain;••••=observationssome
timeafter thecessationoftherain.
Ifweusetheq-values0.8,2.2,and3.6mm/dayand thecorrespondingh-values
0.10,0.20,and0.30m,aplotofq/h againsthgivesastraight lineasshown
inFig.13B.The intersectionof thislinewith theordinate indicates thepre-
senceofahighlypervious layerbothbelowandabovedraindepth,thetransmis-
sivitybelowdraindepthbeingK3D3=0.40m/dayand thehydraulic conductivity
abovedraindepthbeingK3 =4.7m/day.
Thedeviation ofthepointq/h= 12x 103 ,h=0.30 fromthestraight linein

Fig.l3Band therectilinearrelationinFig.14athighervaluesofhindicate
thepositionoftheupper limitwhere thehighlypervious subsoil iscoveredby
alesspervious layer.Hencewemayconclude theexistenceofahighlypervious
layer fromabout0.10mbelowdraindepthto0.20mabove itorbetween 1.20and
0.90mbelow theground surface,itshydraulic conductivitybeingabout4m/day.
Intheexamplesgivenabove,ahydraulic conductivity ofabout0.05m/daycould
315
be calculated with Eq.I, using the difference in hydraulic head measured in piezo-
meters placed in the poorly pervious layer and in the highly pervious subsoil. The
value was confirmed by measurements of the hydraulic conductivity made with the
auger hole and infiltrometer methods.
As shown in Figs.9, 12,and 14,the discharge rates during and shortly after rain-
fall deviated only slightly from those measured during tail recession. The calcu-
lations showed that for amajor part these deviations could be ascribed to the
unsteady character of the drainage process. The influence of shallow discharge
through the highly pervious top layer was generally small. This can be explained
by the ratio of the precipitation rate (which does not frequently exceed 2 mm/hour
under Dutch winter conditions) to the hydraulic conductivity of the poorly per-
vious layer (which for these soils,as mentioned above, is about 0.05 m/day or
2 mm/hour).
33.4.3 EXAMPLES FROM THE SAVA AREA IN YUGOSLAVIA
Two examples taken from the Rugvica Pilot Farm in the Sava area,Yugoslavia,will
now be given.
Example 5
Figure 15 shows the relation between the rate of discharge (q)and the hydraulic
head above drain depth ( h ) ,measured in double piezometers installed midway
between the drains, one with the lower edge of its filter at a depth of 0.5 m,
that of the other at a depth of 1.80 m. The experimental field is drained at a
spacing of 12.5 m and a drain depth of 1.30 m.
qinm m/day
6r
0 20 40 60 SO 100 120
hydraulic head in cm above drain depth
Fig.15. Relation between the deep discharge,

q, and the hydraulic head above drain depth in
an experimental field with drains spaced at
12.5 m and sited at a depth of 1.30 m.
o o o o = observations in a 0.5 m deep piezometer
• • • •= observations in a 1.8 m deep piezometer
316
Heavy clay soils
AscanbeseenfromFig.15,therelation forthedeeppiezometer installed inthe
highlypervious s'ubsoilisrectilinear atlowdischargevaluesbutcurvilinearat
q-valuesof3,4,and6mm/day.Thisdeviation fromthestraight linecannotbe
ascribed toahigherhydraulic conductivity ofthesoilabovedraindepth,because
thepoorlyperviousheavy-clay layerextends from0.3mbelowsoilsurface toa
depthofabout 1m.Instead,thedeviationmustbeascribed totheunsteadycharac-
terofthedrainageprocessand toshallowdischarge through thetoplayer.Hence
theseobservations shouldbeexcluded fromfurthercalculations.
Readings frompiezometersnear thedrain,whichwouldallowtheradialresistance

tobecalculated,arenotavailable.WecanthereforeuseFig.13tocalculatea
Kd-valueinwhich theradialresistance isincluded anddrepresents the"equi-
valent thickness"insteadofthereal thicknessDofthehighlypervious subsoil
„ , qL2= 0.0016x 156 n .. 2 ,,

K3d=
8h7 8x0.30 - 0 . 1 0 m /day
Thedifference inhydraulicheadbetweenthedoublepiezometersrepresentsthe
hydraulichead forvertical flowthrough thepoorlypervious layer.Ifwetake
0.5masthedepthofthislayerbelowthelowerendofthepiezometer,wecan
calculate thehydraulic conductivity asfollows
K2 = q P- = 0.0016 — = 0.0011 m/day

ri2 U. /
Example 6
Figure 16showstherelationbetween therateofdischargeandthehydraulichead

abovedraindepthinanexperimental fieldwith adrainspacing of 18.5mand
adraindepthof 1,15m. Inthiscase toothedischargeratedeviates considerably
fromthestraight lineforvaluesexceeding 1.5mm/day.Thecalculationofthe
K3d andK 2valuesyields
v A q1"2 0-00' x 342 n .. 2 / ,

K3d =
8ÏÏ7= 8x0.15 = °- 29m / d a y
K3 =q 5i=0.001 n — =0.0008m/day
IÏ2 U.0 5
Inthesituations illustrated inFigs.15and 16,thehydraulic conductivityof

thepoorlypervious layer isindeedvery low,approximately 1mm/day.Itisevi-
dentthatatsuchlowvalues asubstantialpartoftherainfall isdischarged
through thehighlypervious toplayer,whichexplains thedeviationoftheq/hre-
lationfromthestraight linewhendischargeratesexceed approximately 1.5mm/day.
317
Toavoidmisunderstanding,thereadershould notethat theexamplesofbasinclay
soils inTheNetherlands and thoseoftheSavaValley inYugoslaviahavebeen
givenmerely toillustrate themethod ofanalyzingdischargeobservations onheavy
claysoilsand theconclusions thatcanbedrawnfromthisanalysis.Theseexam-
plesdonotclaimtoberepresentative eitherof thebasinclayareainThe
Netherlands oroftheSavaValley,andnogeneralconclusions shouldbedrawnfrom
them.
33.5 SHALLOWDISCHARGETHROUGHTHETOPLAYER
Theaboveexampleshave shownthatshallowdischargemayoccurthrough thetop

layerofheavy claysoils,and that themore therateofprecipitation exceedsthe
rateofdownward flowthrough thepoorlypervious layer,themoreshallowdischarge
therewillbe.Iftherateofdownward flowisvery low,as inthetwoexamples
fromtheSavaValley,mostoftherainwaterwillbedischarged through thetop
layerduring and shortlyafterrainfall.Undersuchconditions theequationsof
Section3,whicharebased onpredominantdischarge through thepoorlypervious
layerand thehighlypervious subsoil,cannotbeused.
Iftherateofdownward flowthrough thepoorlypervious layer isvery low,we

may consider this layer imperviousanddescribe theflowthrough thetoplayer
asbeinghorizontal abovedrain level.Hence
q=î (16)
L2
Thisequationsupposes anelliptical shapeof thewater table inthe toplayer
and isvalid forconditionsofsteady flow.However,observationsmadeatthe
RugvicaPilotFarm intheSavaValleyhaveshown that thewater tablewasessen-
tiallyhorizontal andparallel tothebaseofthetoplayer.Forawater table
which ishorizontal over thewholedistancebetween thedrains,FURUDA (1957)
derived thefollowing equation (Fig.17)
q=i^lAl 07)
Figure 18shows therelationbetweenqandhiobserved ontheRugvicaPilotFarm

whereadrainspacing of30mwasapplied.Thedeviations fromthestraightline
atlowvaluesofqmaybeduetooneofthefollowing factors:thedifficulty
encountered indetermining theexactpositionof thebaseofthetoplayer,toa
discontinuity inthetoplayer,e.g. inthehydraulic conductivitywithdepth,
318
Heavy clay soils
q in mm/day
1«!
10 -
8 -
6
.
4 - 0
Fig.16. Relationbetween thedeepdis-
chargeandthehydraulicheadabove
2
• draindepth inanexperimental field
00
withdrainsspacedat 18.5mandsited
0
oi atadepthof 1.15m. ooo=observa-
tions inapiezometer 0.5mdeep;
- ' I I
20 40 60 80 100 * ••=observations inapiezometer
hydraulic head in cm above drain depth 1.8mdeep.
^Î?5^5??5^?Î?5^?ÎS^^ÇS^Î^^^^^^^^^^^
!1PI'ZQnta!_wçtertgb(e_ -q=üLM,-
^ T
hi
:4K,hf
L2
M \
J#
ÎPTPpfvlqMriup^rSum^3^^W?SS$$S$^
Fig.17. Horizontal flowthrough thetop

layer forahorizontalwater tableand
foranellipticalone.Theunderlyinglayer
isimpervious.
h, in cm
2 0 ,-
10
15
q in mm/day
Fig.18. Relationbetween theshallowdischarge,q,and

thehydraulichead,hi,inanexperimental fieldwith
drains spaced at30m
31<
ortocurvilinearrelationship asexpressed byEq.J6.However,acomparisonbetwee
hydraulic conductivityvaluesmeasuredwith infiltrometers (whichyielded 2to
3m/day)andcalculatedvaluesreveals thatEq.17describes thesituationmuch
betterthanEq.16
Eq.16withq=0.017m/day andhi=0.20myieldsKi=95m/day
Eq.17withq=0.017m/dayandhi=0.13myieldsKj=2.6m/day
Note thatinusingEq.17avalueof0.13m instead of0.20mhasbeen takenfor

hibecauseEq.17isbased onarectilinear relationshipbetweenqandhi.
Shallowdischarge isavery short-lasting processandconsequently shouldbe

described withformulasforunsteady flow.Thefollowing formulasweredeveloped
byDUMM (1954)andGUYON (1966).
h(t)h(t.) uL2
1
(18)
h(t )-h(t.) 4.46(t. -t)
0 1 1 0
and
3.46Kh2(t.)
q(t.)= — (19)
L2
These formulas,however,describeonly thetailrecessionofunsteady-state flow

and theydonotallowthehighdischarges ofshallowflowthrough the toplayer
tobeexplained.Theapplication ofEq.19tothedataofFig.18willyield aneven
highervalue forthehydraulic conductivity thantheoneobtainedwithEq.16.
GR00T (1974),whosupposed Eq.17valid forshallowflowunder steady-statecondi-

tions,derived equations forunsteady-state flowbyapplying aprocedure similar
tothatusedbyDEZEEUWandHELLINGA (1958).Unsteady flowwasconsidered to
asequence ofsteady-state flowsduring short timeintervalsdt.During suchan
intervaldischargeplus infiltration intothesecond layerminusprecipitation
(P)equals thechange inwater level times theeffectiveporosity (y).
qi(t)+ (q2 -P)= -V f± (20)
Substituting Eq.17 intoEq.20and integratinggives
l 1.5Ki .
in _ --- L p -(t. -to) (21)
320
Heavy clay soils
±UL^ (t.-t
1o
)
(q2 P)L (q2 P)L
hl(t.) hi(t„) (22)
1.5Ki 1.5Ki
Replacinghjbyqjgives
qi(t.) +q 2 - P l.5Ki
(23)
In
qi(t ) q2 pL
<Ci- V
l.SKi
(t.-t)
qi(t.)+ q2 P= qi(t )+ q 2 i o (24)
Figure 19showsthewater tableheightanddischarge inthetoplayerduringand

afterarainshower of30mmwhich lastedoneday.Thegraphsrefertotwodrain
spacingsL=1.5and30mrespectively,inasoilforwhichy=0.10andKi=lm/day.
h,inc m
JU
L in m
A\30
20
/ \
/Ats\
1 x
1 0 - i/ \ \ ^
i \
/ ^^
' i i i —-i i i ;
5 6 7
tindays
Fig.19. Water tableheight anddischarge through

thetoplayerduringandafterarainfallof30mm
inoneday;fortwodrainspacings,L=15andL=30m
(Kj=lm/dayandy=0.10).
AlthoughEqs.21 and22donotproduceanexactsolutionforunsteady-stateflow
duetotheprocedurebywhich theywerederived,theyneverthelessdescribethe
processwithgoodapproximation.Factors thatmayconstitutemoreseriouscompli-
cations infindinganexactsolutionareadecreaseinthehydraulicconductivity
withdepth,asimilardecrease intheeffectiveporosity,ortheslopeofthetop
layer.
321
33.6 DRAINAGESOLUTIONSFORHEAVYCLAYSOILS
From thepreceding sections itisapparent thatthereareseveralpossiblesolu-

tions totheproblemofdrainingheavy claysoils.Thesolutionsdependessential-
lyupon theratiooftherateofprecipitation totherateofdownward flowthrough
thepoorlypervious layer,and thepresenceorabsenceofahighlypervious sub-
soil.Apart fromthesefactors,thesolutionadopteddependsonwhetherornot
thehydraulic conductivity ofthepoorlypervious layercanbeimproved and,of
course,onthecostoftheworksand theexpectedbenefits.
Concerning thecostandbenefit factoritshouldbekept inmind thatheavyclay

soilsareoftenunsuitable forhigh-value cropping.Theinvestments thatcanbe
madeindrainingand improvingsuchsoilswill thereforebelessthanthosethat
arejustified inother,moreproductivesoils.
Thetechniquesofdrainingheavy clay soilscanbesummarized asfollows
- tiledrainage
-moledrainage
- surfacedrainage (furrows,ditches).
33.6.1 TILEDRAINAGE
Tiledrainagecanbeappliedundernearlyallcircumstances thoughsometimesit
maybenecessary tocombine thismethodwithanother.Tiledrainshavetheadvan-
tagethattheycanbeinstalled deepenoughnot toformanyhindrance tomecha-
nized farmingoperations.Thiswillmeanaminimumdepthof0.50 to0.60m,which
alsomeans thatthetileswillnotsufferfromfrostdamage.Otheradvantagesof
tilesare:lessmaintenance andnolossofland.
Tiledrainagecanbeparticularlyeffective ifahighlypervious layeroccurs

withinadepth thatcanbereachedbydrainagemachinery and iftherateofpre-
cipitationdoesnotexceed therateofdownward flowthrough theoverlyingpoorly
pervious clay layer.Ifsuchapervious layerispresentat,say,1mbelowsoil
surface,tilesinstalled inthislayercanlowerthegroundwater table,create
more storage inthesoilprofile,andwillperhaps inthelongrunimprovethe
hydraulic conductivity ofthepoorlypervious clay layer,thus leading tobetter
conditions forcropgrowthand tillage.Iftheabovesoilandclimatologicalcon-
ditionsaresatisfied,adrainagecriterionexpressed intermsofsteady-state
flowcanbeused.
322
Heavy clay soils
Ifthere isarisk thatthestructureofthetoplayerwilldeteriorate,bytramp-
lingof theturflayerongrassland,forinstance,orbyheavytransportonarable
land inwetperiods,itisadvisable tomakeuseofacombinationof tiledrainage
inthehighlypervious subsoiland someformofsurfacedrainage.Thiscould,for
instance,beabedding system,whichcanbemadebyarranging thesoilsurfacein
suchaway thatthebedsaresituatedbetweenthetilesandthedepressionsabove
thetiles.
Whentherateofprecipitationexceeds therateofdownward flowthroughthe
poorlypervious layerorwhenthereisnohighlypervious layerwithin thereach
ofdrainagemachinery,tiledrainagecanstillbeapplied,although thetileswill
nowfunctionmainly ascovered furrows.Sincemostofthewaterwill flowinto
thetilesthrough thetrenchthathasbeendugtoinstall them,thehydraulic
conductivity ofthematerialwithwhich thetrenchhasbeenrefilledwilllargely
decidewhether thetiledrainage systemworkseffectively ornot.Ifthereis
arisk that thehydraulic conductivity of thedisturbed soilinthetrenchwill
decrease inthecourseoftime,thetrench shouldbefilledwithhighlypervious
material (artificialbackfill).
Subsoiling isatechniqueoftenused incombinationwith tiledrainage,because
itenables economicdrain spacings tobeapplied.Since little isknownaboutthe
besttimeoftheyear thatsubsoiling canbeperformed,oraboutitsdurability
orcostsandbenefits,localfield trialsarerequired todecidewhetherornot
thetechniquecanbeapplied. If,forexample,theeffectofsubsoilingis
short-lasting,itsapplicationwillbe limited toarablelandaswithgrassland
thebenefitoftheimprovementwillmostlikelynotoutweigh thedamagedone
during itsexecution.
Insituationswhere tilesfunctionascovered furrowsand themaindischarge takes

placethrough thetop layer,itisdifficult toprevent thewater tablefrom
rising tonear theground surface.Thewater tablecontrolwillbelessstrict
thaninsituationswhere tilescanbeinstalled inahighlypervioussubsoil,
and thiswillhaveabearingonthetypesofcrops tobegrown,theirperformance,
and thetillageoperations.
Thedrainagecriteriatobeappliedunder suchcircumstances shouldbeformulated
ratherasarequired rateatwhich thegroundwater tablemustbelowered after
arise totheground surface thanintermsofsteady-state flow.Sincethetiles
canbeconsidered covered furrows,onemayquitewelluselocalexperienceon
furrowspacing indetermining thespacingofthetiles.UnderDutchconditions
thespacingvaries fromabout 10to20m.Recentexperiments intheSavaValley
suggestaspacingofabout 15m.
323
33.6.2 MOLEDRAINAGE
Moledrainage isanother technique thatmightbeappliedwhennohighlypervious

layer ispresentwithinadepth thatcanbereachedbydrainagemachinery.Since
theresults aswellastheexecutioncostofmoledrainagevary considerablyfrom
oneregiontoanother,localfield trialsmustbemade toenableareliablecom-
parisonbetween thismethod and tileandfurrowdrainage.
Successful usehasbeenreported insoilswithoutapermanentwater table,e.g.

inareaswhere themainproblem istodrainoffsnowmeltwateroverastill
frozensubsoil.Goodresultshavealsobeenobtainedwheremoleshavebeendrawn
over tiledrains.Themainriskinmoledrainage isthecollapseofthedrains
due tolackofstability ofthesoil.Ifmolesare theonly formofdrainage,
waterhas toflowthrough themoveradistanceofabout 100mormore.Bycombin-
ingmoleand tiledrains theeffective lengthoverwhich thewatermustflow
through themoledrain isshortened,and thisdiminishes theriskof themcol-
lapsingand consequently obstructing theflow.Thefrequencywithwhichmoling
isrequired variesgreatly,butevery5to 10years isagood guideformost
soils.Forfurtherdetails,seeChap.27,Sect.3,Vol.111.
33.6.3 SURFACEDRAINAGE
Furrowdrainageused tobeavery commonmethod ofdrainingheavy soils.Arable

land,for instance,wasformerlyploughed insuchamannerastoleaveafurrow
every 10metresorsotoremovethesurfacewater.Manygrasslandsonheavyclay
soilused tobe (orstillare)arranged ina"ridge"and furrow"pattern,the
rounded ridgelyingasmuchas 1mabovethebottomofthefurrow.Spacings
varied considerablybutwereusuallybetween 10and20m.
Furrowshavetheirdisadvantages:asfarmingbecomesmoremechanized,theypresent
obstacles tothedevelopment ofmodernagriculture;theyrequiremaintenance,and
they takeup land thatcouldbebetterused. Inspiteofall this,furrowdrainage
isalow-costmethod thatstillhasitsuses.
Ifirrigation ispractised onheavyclaysoils,furrowsandditchescanbeused

toremove surfacewastewater,although only tiledrainagewillallowleaching
andbeabletomaintainafavourable saltbalance inthesoil.Sinceunder
thesecircumstances thedischargeratewillbelowand thedepthoftheroot
zonelimited (ratherhighpermissiblewater table),verynarrowtilespacings
maynotberequired.Thisholds trueeven ifahighlypervious subsoil islacking.
Spacingsofbetween 10to20mwould beacceptable.
324
Heavy clay soils
33.7 IMPROVINGHYDRAULICCONDUCTIVITY
Ashasbeenpointed outinChap.32,Vol.IV,improvingdrainageconditions sometimes

results inaconsiderable improvement inthehydraulic conductivity ofthesoil
duetoitsphysical "ripening".Itshould,however,berecalled thatthisprocess
ofripeningrefersparticularly toclayey sedimentsdeposited inamarineenviron-
ment.Atthestartofreclamation these sedimentshaveanextremelyhighpore
volume andahigh initialmoisturecontent.
Conversely,riverclaysaredepositedduringoccasional floodingsofariverand
aretherefore alternately submitted towettinganddrying.Asaconsequencethey
donot showexceptionally highmoisture contentsandporevolumes.Hence,in
suchsoilswemayexpectripening andchanges inhydraulic conductivity,ifthey
occuratall,tobe lessintensive thaninmarine clays.Physical alterations
occurring inriverclaysoilsaremost likely lessamatterofchangeinmoisture
content and totalporevolume,butareessentially causedbychanges inporesize
distribution.
Althoughdrainageofheavyriverclay soilsmay result inonlyminorincreasesin

hydraulic conductivity,suchminor improvementsmayhaveanimportantbearing
onthedischargedistribution.Anincrease inhydraulic conductivity,forinstance,
from5mm/day to5cm/day,whichisstillalowvalue,willhaveaconsiderable
effectonthedistributionbetweenshallowdischarge throughthetoplayerand
deepdischarge through thepoorlypervious clay layerand thepervioussubsoil.
VANHOORN (1958)reported achange inhydraulic conductivity ofaclaysoil ina
groundwater table trialfield inthenorthernpartofTheNetherlands.Hefound
thatthehydraulic conductivity decreased ifthewater tablewaspermanently
highand increased ifitwaslow.Sincetheseresultsrefer toanexperimental
field inwhich thewater tableswerekeptpermanently atthesame level,these
findingsmightnotberepresentative.Evenso,KUNTZE (1964)alsoreportedan
increase inhydraulic conductivity observed overaperiod ofthreeyearsontile-
drained heavymarshclaysoils inNorthernGermany.
325
LITERATURE
DRAINAGEOFHEAVYSOILS.1971. EuropeanComm.onAgric.WorkingPartyonWater
ResourcesandIrrigation,TelAviv (Isr.), 1970. FAOWaterResourcesand
Development Service.Land andWaterDevelopmentDiv.,Rome.Irrigationand
DrainagePaper6, 109pp.
DEZEEUW,J.W.,HELLINGA,F. 1958.Neerslagenafvoer.Landbouwk.Tijdschr.
70:405-421.
DUMM,L.D. 1954. Drain-spacing formula.Agr.Engng.35 (Oct.).-726-730.
FUKUDA,H. 1957. Underdrainage intoditches insoiloverlying animpervioussub-

stratum.Trans.Am.GeophysicalUnion,38(5):730-739.
GROOT,J.M. 1974. Drainage investigationonheavysoil intheUpperSavaValley.

Univ.ofZagreb (Yugoslavia).Ed.byILACO,Arnhem (TheNetherlands). 167pp.
GUYON,G. 1966. Considérations surl'hydraulique dudrainagedesnappes.Min.

de1'agric.CentredeRecherches etd'ExpérimentationdeGénieRural.Sect.
del'Hydraulique etdel'Electricité. Bull.techniqueduGénieRural79,108pp.
KUNTZE,H. 1964. EinflussderDränung aufdieStrukturdesMarschbodens.Z.für

KulturtechnikundFlurbereinigung 5(3):129-134.
VANHOORN,J.W. 1958. Resultsofagroundwater levelexperimental fieldwith

arablecropsonclay soil.Neth.J.ofAgric.Sei.6(1):1-10.
VANH00RN,J.W. 1960. Grondwaterstroming inkomgrond endebepalingvanenige

hydrologischegroothedeninverbandmethetontwateringssysteem. (Ground-
water flowinbasinclaysoiland thedeterminationofsomehydrological
factors inrelationwith thedrainage system.)Inst.voorCultuurtechniek
enWaterhuishouding,Wageningen (TheNetherlands).PUD0C,Wageningen.Versl.
Landbouwk.Onderz.66.10,136pp. (WithEnglish summary.)
326
34. D R A I N A G E O F S L O P I N G L A N D S
J. W. VAN HOORN
Land Drainage and Salinity Specialist
W . H . VAN D E R M O L E N
Professor
W. H. van der Molen (1973)

PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Drainageproblemsonsloping landsarecausedbyinflowinggroundwater fromup-

slopeand/orlocalwaterfromprecipitationorirrigation.Principlesandappli-
cations ofcommonlyused equations fortheinterceptorand/or fielddrainage
required tosolvesuchproblemsarediscussed.
CONTENTS
34.2 INTERCEPTORDRAINAGEOFFOREIGNWATER 329

34.2.1 Appropriate situationsforinterceptordrainage 329
34.2.2 Field investigations 330
34.2.3 Theoretical approach 331
34.3 DRAINAGEOFLOCALWATER 335
LITERATURE 339
Sloping "lands
34.1 INTRODUCTION
Whensloping landsaretobedrained,itshouldbekept inmind thattheexcess

watermayoriginate fromdifferent sources.Adistinctionmustthereforebemade
between
-foreigngroundwater inflowingfromadjacentupslopelandsorfromariver
orirrigation canalwhosewater level ishigher thanthewater tableinthearea
underconsideration,
- localwater fromrainfallingontheareaorirrigationwater supplied

toit.
The inflowofforeigngroundwater fromupslopemaybecheckedby interceptor

drains,whicharedugatoneormoreappropriateplaces,dependingonthearea's
topographical andgeohydrological conditions.Ifthedrainageproblemiscaused
by localwater,thesolutionconsistsofasystemofequally spaceddrains.
34.2 INTERCEPTORDRAINAGEOFFOREIGNWATER
34.2.1 APPROPRIATE SITUATIONSFORINTERCEPTORDRAINAGE
Onsloping lands,groundwaterusually flowsthroughaperviousupper layerover-

lyinganimperviousbase,e.g.hard rock.Thisgroundwater flow,oftencalledin-
terflow,occupiesaposition intermediatebetweensurface flowanddeepground-
water flow.Itmaycausewaterlogging atcertainsites,suchaswhere theslope
oftheland changes (Fig.lA)orwhere locally theimperviousbaseformsathresh-
oldorbarrier (Fig.IB). Groundwatermay alsorisetotheground surfaceatthe
footofaslope (Fig.lC)oratthecontactofperviousandpoorlyperviouslayers
outcropping alongside theslope (Fig.ID).Inarid climates these sitesareoften
characterized bysalinization.
Seepage fromcanalsmaybeasignificant sourceoflateral flowtowardslower-

lyingadjacentlands.Thehighcontour linesalongwhich irrigationcanalsare
normally locatedoftencoincidewithformerriverbanks,whosesandy subsoilis
fairlypervious (Fig.IE).
Inalltheabovesituations,interceptor drains,whichmaybeeithertilesor
ditches,canbeinstalled tocutoffthelateral inflowfromsomesourceupslope.
329
m
HHm impervious
••'•• pervious Fig.]. Differentcauses
xxxxx water logging ofwaterloggingon
slopinglands
34.2.2 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Thegeohydrological situation inareaswhere theinflowofforeigngroundwater

occurs isoftenrathercomplicated. Becauseofthis,field investigationswill
berequired before theproper sitesforinterceptordrainscanbeselected.These
investigationswillcover
-delimitationof thewaterlogged areabyfield inspectionand theuseof

aerialphotographs
-determination ofthenature (phreatic,artesian)anddirectionofthe

groundwater flow
-determination ofthelateral extension,thickness,slope,andhydraulic

conductivity ofthewater-bearingstrata.
Piezometers shouldbe installed tomeasure thehydraulichead inphreaticaquifers

and ifconfined orsemiconfinedaquifersoccurpiezometers shouldbeinstalled
intheselayerstoo. Spacingsof 100to250mforthepiezometers intheprimary
observationnetwork arementioned byGEREB (1960).Thepiezometer readings canbe
used todrawwater tablecontourmapsaswellasPotentiometrieandhydraulic-
headdifferencemaps,ifnecessary (Chap.21,Vol.111).
330
Sloving lands
Thewater tableinthewater-bearing strataorveins isusuallyhigher thanin

adjacentareas,ascanbe seenfromcurvatures inthecontour linesofthewater
tablemap.Ifgroundwatermoundsorridgesarefound,thepiezometer spacing
intheseareas shouldbereduced i.e.anumberofadditionalpiezometers should
be installed.Readings fromthesepiezometerswillhelp toindicate theconfigu-
rationofthewatertable inmoredetailandwill reveal thelocationofthe
feedingveins.
Geophysical (e.g.geoelectricalorseismic)methodsmaybeapplied todetermine
thedepthoftheimperviousbase,andany localupdoming,barriers,ordepressions
occurring init.Theresultsofthese investigationswill indicate themostsuit-
able sitesfortheinterceptor drains.Thesedrains shouldbesitedperpendicular
tothedirectionofgroundwater flowand,ifpossible,shouldpenetrate farenough
intothewater-bearing stratatocutoffasmuchaspossibleofthelateralflow
fromupslope.
According toGEREB (1960)andKINORI (I960)therelativelyhighcostoffield
investigations paysoff,because inmostcasesafewproperly siteddrains atthe
rightdeptharemoreeffective and lessexpensive thanadensesystemofparallel
drains.
34.2.3 THEORETICALAPPROACH
Inatheoretical approach totheproblemofdraining sloping land,GLOVERand

DONNAN (1959)assumed ahomogeneous,uniformly sloping soiland appliedthe
DUPUIT-FORCHHEIMER assumptions (Chap.6,Vol.1). InFig.2theimpervious layerand
theinitialwater tablehaveaslope tana.Thecoordinatesystemhasbeenchosen
insuchaway that theabsciss coincideswiththeupper limitoftheimpervious
layer,while theordinatepasses through thecentreofthedrain.Hencetheco-
ordinatesof thecentreofthedrainarex=0andh=D.
Fig.2. Interceptor drainin

ahomogeneous soiloverlying
anuniformly sloping impervious
layer 33]
Since all inflowing groundwater originates from foreign sources upslope, we may
apply Darcy's law. The flow per unit width through cross section A is
qi = KH tan a (O
and through cross section
qi = Khi tan (a+ 8) (2)
where
qi = flow rate per unit width (m /day)

K = hydraulic conductivity of water-bearing material (m/day)
H = saturated thickness of water-bearing material not affected by drainage (m)
hi =watertable height above the impervious layer (m)
a =anglebetween theimpervious layerand thehorizontalplane
3 =anglebetween thewatertableafterdrainageandtheimpervious
layer (Fig.2B).
Forsmallvaluesofaand 3wemaywritewith fairapproximation
tan(a+3)=tan a +tan3=tana+-r- (3)

dx
SubstitutingEq.3intoEq.2gives
qi Kh, (tana+ ~) (4)

dx
EquatingEqs.1and4andreplacinghjbyhgives,afterrearranging,
h
tan adx dh (5)
H
Integrating thisequationwith theboundaryconditionsx=0,h=D yields

H-D
1
H In(• -\ - (h-D) (6)
H
FromEq.6 itisobvious that,theoretically speaking,thedrainhasaninfinite

influencebecauseweobtainaninfinitevalueofxforh=H.Ifweassume,how-
ever,thedistancecorrespondingwithh=0.9H tobetheeffectivedistanceover
which thedrainexertsa"significant"drawdown,wecanwrite,posingD =aH,
o
In(
- -) - (0.9-a) =b (7)
eff 0.1
332
Sloping lands
Thefollowingvaluesofbforincreasingvalues ofahavebeencalculated
a= 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
b = J.40 1.40 1.38 1.35 J.29 1.21 1.09 0.90 0.59 0.00
Itisapparent fromthesevalues that,foradraininstalled sothatD <0.5H,

wemaywrite,withsomeapproximation,fortheeffectivedistanceofdrawdown
upslope
- ~4 H (8)
'eff 3tana
Thedrawdowndownslopeequalsapproximately theheightofthewaterinthedrain,
provided theradialresistance isnegligible
h 2 =D o (9)
Thedischargeoftheinterceptor drainperunitwidthcanbeexpressedas
H -h 2
q =qi q2 = qi (10:>
dr ~ ÎT~
where
qj=KHtana=dischargeupslopeperunitwidth (m/day)
q2 =Kh2 tana=dischargedownslopeperunitwidth (m2/day).
Iftheradialresistance islow,h 2 -D.

o
Iftheradialresistanceishighandcannotbeneglected,apartofthewater
passingunder thedrainreturns,asisshown inFig.3.Attheright-hand sideof
pointP,where thewatertableattains itsmaximumheightaboveahorizontalre-
ferenceplane,water flowsbacktowardsthedrain,whereasontheleft-hand side
itflowsdownslope.Equations 9and 10areequallyvalid,providedh 2 isgreater
thanD.
o
Iftheradialresistancehas tobetakenintoaccount,electricalorviscousmo-
delsmaybeveryusefulindetermining theshapeofthewatertable.
333
Fig.3. Interceptordrainagefor
asituationwheretheradial
resistanceofthedraincannot
w* et ' beneglected
Example 1
Afairly flatplainhasaslopeof0.004and thehydraulic conductivity ofits

10m thickwater-bearing layeris 1m/day.Theplainiswaterlogged becauseofa
lateral inflowofforeigngroundwater fromadjacent land.Thislandhasaslope
of0.02 and thehydraulic conductivityofits5mthickwater-bearing layeris
2.5m/day.Thedepthtothegroundwater table inthisadjacent land is 1m (Fig.4).
Whatwillbethedischargeand thedepthofaninterceptordrainthatiscapable
ofmaintaining thegroundwater table inthewaterlogged plainat 1.5mbelowthe
land surface?
tan a, 0.004
watertable after drainage
K=1m/day
Fig.4. Exampleofinterceptor
drainage
Thelateral inflowofforeigngroundwater intotheplaincanbecalculatedwith

Eq.I
qi=2.5x4.0 x0.02 =0.200m2/day
Ifthewatertableintheplainistobemaintained at1.5mbelowthelandsur-
face,acertainamountoftheflowfromupslopemustby-pass theinterceptordrain.
334
Sloping lands
Thisamountcanalsobefound fromEq.1
q2 =1.0x8.5x0.004=0.034m2/day
Hencethedischarge interceptedbythedrainwillbe
q, =0.200-0.034=0.166m2/day
dr
Thedrawdownofthewater tableatthedrain (H-b.2)canbecalculatedwithEq.10
u ,.0.166 -i-n
H h2=4
- -°ÖT2ÖÖ =3-32m
The interceptordrainshould almostfullypenetratethewater-bearing layerand
thewater levelinitshouldbemaintainedatadepthofatleast4.3mbelow
thelandsurface.
34.3 DRAINAGEOFLOCALWATER
Theusualmethodofdrainingexcessrainorirrigationwater fromslopinglands,
istoinstallaherringbonedrainage systemwhose lateralsrunparallel tothe
contour linesoftheland surfaceandwhosemaindrain runs throughthehollow.
The spacingofthelateralsandthediameterofthetilesarenormally amatter
oflocalexperience.SCHMIDandLUTHIN (1964)gaveatheoretical approachtothe
problempresented inFig.5.ApplyingtheDupuit-Forchheimer assumptions,which
inthiscasearearoughapproximation,wecanexpressthegroundwater flowthrough
thewater-bearing layeratadistancexfromtheoriginofthecoordinatesystem
asfollows
q = - K z £ (11)
where
q=groundwater flowthroughwater-bearing layerperunitwidth (m/day)

K=hydraulic conductivity ofthewater-bearingmaterial (m/day)
h=hydraulichead atdistancexrelativetoahorizontalreference level(m)
z=heightofthewater tableabovetheimperviousbase layer(m)
FromFig.5itfollows that
h=z+(L-x)tana (12)
335
where
L =spacing ofthedrains (m)

tana=slopeoftheimpervious layeragainst thehorizontalplane
other symbols asdefinedabove.
Fig.5. Interceptordrainsin
sloping land (afterSCHMID
andLUTHIN,1964)
DifferentiatingEq.12gives
dh= dz
tana (13)
dx dx
and substituting thisintoEq.11gives
dz
K (z-; ztana) (14)
dx
Continuity requiresthat
dq=Rdx
or
dq
R (15)
dx
where
R=rateofrecharge fromrainperunit surface area(m/day)
SubstitutingEq.14into thecontinuity equation (15)giveswhat isknownasthe

Boussinesqequation
d , dz .
R=- K - r - ( z - ^ - z tana)
dx dx
336
Sloping lands
orafterrewriting
1
„dz „ dz
R+-r-K Ktana— =o (16)
1 , 2 dx
dx
Thesolutiontothisequation isquitecomplicated. If,however,thedrainsare

situated ontheimpervious layerandtheseepagesurface canbeneglected,orin
otherwords ifD = 0 andD =0,anomographcompiledbySCHMIDandLUTHIN (1964)
canbeused (Fig.6). Inthisnomograph theypresentL/H asafunctionofR/Kfor
differentvaluesoftana.Figure6showsthat,forR/Kvaluesexceeding0.01,the
difference inL/H issmallforslopeslessthan0.3.Thecurvefortana=0is
identicaltothatoftheRotheequation (Chap.8,Vol.11)forhorizontal flow
towardsdrains situated onanimpervious layer.Thisequation iswrittenas
L/H=2 / K 7 R (17)
Fig.6. RelationbetweenL/H andR/K

(afterSCHMIDandLUTHIN,1964)
WOODING and CHAPMAN (1966)gavethesame typeofnomograph forthesituationwhere

thedrainsarelocated abovetheimperviouslayer.
337
Toverifywhether theDupuit-Forchheimerassumptions arejustified andwhether
theseepage surfacecanbeneglected inthemathematical solutiongivenabove,
GUITJENS andLUTHIN (1965)conducted viscousmodel studieswithaHele-Shawmodel.
Table 1lists theresultsobtained fromtheHele-Shawmodel studies,fromtheno-
mographofFig.6,andfromEq.17,which isvalid forhorizontalland.
Itisapparent fromthis tablethat thedifferences inL/Hvalues aresmallfor

slopesup to0.3.Thismeans thatnotwithstanding thattheDupuit-Forchheimer
assumptions areroughapproximations and thattheseepage surface isneglected,
notonly isthemathematical solutionby Schmid andLuthinvalid,butalsothe
Rotheequation,whichcanbeapplied forall landshaving slopesup toabout
0.2 to0.3.
Fortheratherhypothetical circumstances ofslopes inexcessof0.3,Schmidand

Luthin'snomographyields spacings,thataretoolarge,whereas theRotheequation
gives spacings thataretoosmall.TheHele-Shawmodel studies forunsteady flow
conducted byLUTHINandGUITJENS (1967)have shownthatforslopes lessthan0.3,
therateoffallof thewater table isnearly independent oftheslopeofthe
land.Henceforunsteady-state conditions thedrainagetheoryforflatlandcan
beapplied tosloping landtoo.
Table 1. ComparisonofL/Hvaluesobtained bydifferentmethods
L/H
Slope R/K
model studies nomograph Equation 17
0 0.0157 16.2 16.0 16.0

0.0343 11.1 10.8 10.8
0.0452 9.4 9.4 9.4
0.0660 7.5 7.8 7.8
0.8640 6.3 6.8 6.8
0.10 0.0263 13.3 12.9 12.3
0.0439 9.3 9.7 9.5
0.0615 7.9 8.3 8.1
0.0909 6.3 6.8 6.6
0.20 0.0289 12.5 12.5 11.8
0.0432 9.6 10.1 9.6
0.0593 7.7 9.6 8.2
0.0822 6.3 7.2 7.0
0.30 0.0277 13.7 15.2 12.0
0.0446 10.1 11.0 9.5
0.0625 7.6 8.8 8.0
0.0885 6.1 7.2 6.7
338
Sloping lands
LITERATURE
DONNAN,W.W. 1959.Drainage ofagricultural landsusing interceptorlines.

J.ofIrr.SDrainageDiv.,Proc.ASAE 85,IR1:13-23.
GEREB,C. 1960.Locating feedingveins inwaterlogged areas.TAHAL,P.N.203,

TelAviv,20p.
GUITJENS,J.C.,andLUTHIN,J.N. 1965.Viscousmodelstudyofdrainspacingon
sloping landand comparisonwithmathematical solution.WaterRes.Research
1,4:523-530.
KINORI,B.Z. 1960.Investigationmethods forsubsoildrainagedesign.TAHAL,

P.N.87,TelAviv,13p.
LUTHIN,J.N., andGUITJENS,J.C. 1967.Transient solutions fordrainageofslo-

pinglands.J.ofIrr.&DrainageDiv.,Proc.ASAE93,IR3:43-51.
NELSON,R.W. 1961.Designof interceptor drains inheterogeneous soils.J.of

Irr.&DrainageDiv.,Proc.ASAE,87,IR4:41-53.
SCHMID,P.,andLUTHIN,J.N. 1964.Thedrainageofsloping lands.J.ofGeophys.

Res.69,8:1525-1529.
WOODING,R.A.,andCHAPMAN,T.G. 1966. Groundwater flowoveraslopingimper-

meable layer.J.ofGeophys.Res.71,12:2895-2902.
339
35. D R A I N A G E O F R I C E F I E L D S
G. A. W. VAN DE GOOR
Tropical agronomist
G. A. W. van de Goor (1969-1973)

PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Asurvey ofriceculture ispresented,asitisadapted tovariousclimaticand

hydrologicalconditions,withemphasisonlowland riceculture.Thepurpose,time
andrateofdrainageoflowland ricefields arediscussed intheirrelationship
toexistinginformationaboutexpected rainfall,permissibledepthofwaterlayer
onthesoil,andrateofpercolationofwater inthesoil.
CONTENTS
35.1 TYPESOFRICECULTURE 343
35.2 ECOLOGYOFLOWLANDRICE 346

35.2.1 Theplant 346
35.2.2 Thesoil 347
35.2.3 Thewater 349
35.3 WATERREGIMEINTHERICEFIELD 349

35.3.1 Waterrequirementofthericecrop 351
35.3.2 Waterrequirementduring saturation,tillage,
andpuddling 352
35.3.3 Chemical andbiological conditionsof
submerged ricesoils 353
35.3.4 Physical conditionsofsubmerged ricesoils 356
35.4 SPECIALFEATURESOFLOWLANDRICECULTURE 357
35.5 DRAINAGEOFLOWLANDRICEFIELDS 360

35.5.1 Thepurposeofdrainage 360
35.5.2 Desirabledepthofwater layeronrice fields 363
35.5.3 Percolation inricefields 368
35.5.4 Drainagefacilitiesonricefields 370
35.5.5 Drainagemoduleanddrainagepractices 371
LITERATURE 379
Rice fields
35.] TYPESOFRICECULTURE
Thecultivationofriceisadapted toavarietyofagrohydrologicalconditions.
Themain typesofriceculturearethefollowing:
- Upland rice, which israin-dependent,dryland ricegrowninthoseareas

oftropical and subtropical regionswheredistributionandamountofrainfallare
adequate foraregularwater supply tothecrop.
Upland rice isgrown likeothercereals (andmostothercrops)insoilswhose

moisture content remainsatorbelowfield capacityduring thetillageandvege-
tationperiods (VANDEGOOR, 1972).Thefieldsarelocated inhighandsloping
landwithnoannual inundationorwaterloggingproblems.Erosion,however,may
constituteaprobleminsuch slopingareas,iflittleornothing isdone topre-
ventit.Longrainlessperiodsmaybeharmfulas,likeothercrops,uplandrice
depends onthesoilmoisturewhich isavailablewithin therangeoffieldcapacity
andwiltingpoint.Bunds toimpound rainfallareessentially absent.Excessive
and intensiverainfall,ontheotherhand,maynotonly increase theriskof
erosion,butmayalsoleachnutrients fromtherooting zoneanddestroy soilag-
gregates,thushaving abad influenceonthesoil'sstructure,water infiltration
rate,andaeration.Suchrainfalls,moreover,maycauseluxuriantweedgrowth,
whichcanbeveryharmful.Therisksarethereforeratherhigh foruplandrice.
Yieldsaregenerally lower than1,000kgperha.Higheryields,orcomplete
failures,occasionallyoccur.
Avariant isshifting cultivation.Hereoneor twoyearsofdryland rice isro-

tatedwith longperiodsofbush-fallow toallowsoilproductivity torecuperate
through theregrowth ofnaturalvegetation.
- Lowland rice. Thisrice isgrown,during themajorpartof itsdevelonment,

withalayerofimpoundedwateronthesurfaceofthefields.Inthehumid tro-
pics,where themajority of lowland rice isgrown,lowland culture iseitherrain-
fedorirrigated.Theserice landsareusually,althoughnotexclusively,located
inlow-lyingplains alongriversand seacoastsand indeltas;hencethename,
lowland rice.Thesoilsofsuchareasarealluvialandmostlyofheavytexture.
i
Theareadevoted touplandrice isdifferent invariouscountries.InBurma
itis2%ofthetotalricearea,inJapan3%,inMalaysia 18%,inIndonesia
10-15%,and inthePhilippines 20%.InLatinAmericadryland rice isthe
dominant formofricecultivation.
343
Inslopingareasofhigheraltitude,riceisgrownsimilarlywhensufficientrain
and/or irrigationwater isavailable toallowwater tobeimpounded intheterraced
andbunded fields.Thesoilsaregenerally lessheavy intheseareas.Mostlow-
landriceintropicalandsubtropicalareas istransplanted.Forthispurpose
riceseed issownonsmallnurserybedsoccupying 1/10 to 1/20of thefuturerice
fields,theyoung seedlingsbeing transplanted tothefieldsaftersome20to40
days.
Puddlingof thefieldsisgeneralbutexceptionsoccur.
Thedepthofthewater layer inlowlandricefields isnormallykeptwithinlimits

of5to20cm,depending onthecultivarsused.
Lowland ricecultureadapted totropicalmonsoonclimatic conditions isuniqueand

oneofthemost stableagro-ecosystems of theworld.Most rice isgrowninthis
way.Yieldsarehigher thanthoseofanyother typeofricecultivation.Theave-
rageyield forSE-Asiain 1970wasabout2,000kgperha.Withnewvarieties,pro-
perwatermanagement,andadequate inputs,yieldsof5,000to7,000kg/haarenot
uncommon.Underoptimalconditionsproductionwillbeabove 10,000kg.Seedcanbe
obtainedwithinagrowingperiod of3to4months.
-Deep water ov floating viae. This isgenerally found inthemoreupstream

regionsofthetropical andsubtropicaldeltas,where landsaresubiect todeep
floodingduring therainymonsoonseason.Thedepthofinundationvaries from1
to5metresanditsdurationone toseveralmonths.Theculturalmethod isas
follows.
At theendofthedryseason,grassesandotherwildvegetationareburned.After
thefirstrains,theland isploughed andharrowed.Theseed isbroadcastedwhen
thesoil issufficientlymoist.Thisshouldbeabout twomonthsprior tothestart
offlooding toensure thattheplantsarewellestablished.Their shootsshould
haveattainedheights of50to90cmwhen thewater inthefield starts torise.
Deepwatervarietiesareable toelongateatarateequal tothegradualrisein
water level-depending onconditions,from3to 10cmperday-buttheyare
weak-stemmedwith longdroopy leaves likethetraditionalnon-floating riceva-
rietiesof tropicalAsia .Thecropisharvestedwhenthesoilsareeitherdryor
stillflooded.Yieldsareabout 700to 1,500kgperhabutmaybelowerorhigher
Therateofelongationoflowlandvarietiesduring thefirst4to6weeksafter
sowinggradually increases toabout 1cmperday.Hence thelengthoftheyoung
seedlingsattheendofthisperiod is20-40cm.Bytheendofflowering,the
elongationratehas increased to 1.5 to2cmperday.
344
Rice fields
dependingonconditions.Onceevery fiveorsevenyears thereistotalfailure.

Factors influencingthesuccessoffloatingriceare:thetimeofsowing,rain-
fallordroughtduringthefirstweeksafter sowing,thecompetitionofweed
plants,therateofriseofwater,thevelocityofthewinds,andtheactivities
ofbirdsandcrabs.With floatingrice,nospecialeffortsaremadetocontrol
thewater.Sometimeswind-breaksofleguminousplants likeSesbaniapaludosa
aregrowntopreventdamagebywaves.
- Semi-floating or semi-deep water rice cultivars (tall indicas). Theseare

usedinareaswhereinundationisconsiderably less thaninfloatingriceareas.
Themaximumdepthofinundation toleratedbythesevarietiesisabout1.5 metres.
Thistypeofriceisgenerally transplanted.
- Double transplanting ispractisedinareasdownstreamofthefloatingrice

areas,wherethefieldsaresubjecttoanaverage inundationof40to60cm(with
amaximumof100cm)duringthereproductive growthstageoftherice.Insuch
areas theweedvegetationwillgenerallybeabundant,thesoilwillhaveahigh
organicmattercontent (superabundantnitrogen supply},andtheland surfacewill
beuneven.Undersuchconditions,doubletransplantinghasprovedtogivethe
bestresults.Theyieldsareinbetween thoseofdeepwaterriceandnormally
transplanted lowlandrice.
- Marsh rice (riz de dêoruel isgrownduringthe off-seasoninareaswhere

therateofriseofthewaterorthetotaldepthofinundationistoogreatduring
themonsoon season.Seedsaresownduringthelatterpartofthewetseasoneither
onhighergroundinadjacentareasorinfloatingnurseries.Whenthewaterin
thefieldshasfallenlowenough,theseedlingsaretransplantedandfieldbunds
areerectedtokeeptheremainingwateronthe fields.
- The combination upland-lowland rice culture (inIndonesiaknownunderthe

vernacularname gogo rantjah) isanotheradaptationtotheinconstantancyof
moisture conditionsduring themonsoon.Becauseoftheunreliabilityofthestart
ofrainfallandthenon-availabilityofirrigationwaterwhenthericeshouldbe
plantedandtheoccurrenceoffloodslateron,riceseedsaresownindryfields
(andnotfirstinnurseries).Onlywhensufficientrainand/orirrigationwater
becomes available,iswater impoundedinthefields.Atthismoment,usually ljà
2monthsafter sowing,thecultivation,whichhasbeenlike thatofuplandrice,
isratherabruptly changed intolowland culture.One
ofthe advantagesofthis
methodisthatthefarmersdonotneedtowaituntil sufficientwaterisavailable
345
totillandpuddle thesoiland topond thefield.Thisearlysowinghastheadded
advantage thatwhendeep inundations lastingafewdaysorlongeroccur laterin
theseason,theseedlingshaverooted firmlyandhaveattained sufficient length
towithstand theadverse influenceoffloods.Adisadvantage ofthismethod isthe
abundant and luxuriantgrowthofweeds,especially during theuplandphase.
Thisarrayofdifferent typesofricecultivationdemonstrates thegreatadapta-

bilityofrice toawiderangeofecologieand,more specifically,hydrologie
conditions.
Theroleofwater inricecultivation isadominantone.
35.2 ECOLOGY OFLOWLANDRICE
35.2.1 THEPLANT
Mostcultivated varietiesofricebelong tothespecies Oryza sativa L., which

originated inSouth-EastAsia.Thecultivationof thespecies Oryza glaberrima
Steud fromAfricanorigin (CentralNigerianDelta)ismainlyconfined tosome
areas inWest-Africa.
Thecultivated varieties (cultivars) of Oryza sativa aredivided into twogroups:

those fromthe temperate zone (japonica Varieties) and those fromtropicalre-
gions (indiaa varieties).
Intermediatecultivarsarereferred toas bulu or javaniaa (found inBurmaand

Java).The indiaa group includesvarieties fromIndia,SriLanka,Indonesia,
SouthChina,and thePhilippines.The japoniaa group includesvarieties from
Japan,Korea,andNorthChina;thesearemoreadapted tolongdays thanthein-
dicavarieties.
Japonica cultivarsareshort-strawed (finallength0.8 to 1.2m)andhigh-yielding,

and respond toheavyapplications ofnitrogen fertilizerbyproducinghighyields
ofgrain.Indicavarietiesare longer (1.5to2.5m)and lesssturdy.Theyrespond
tonitrogen fertilizersusuallymorebyanincreasedproductionofstrawrather
thanofgrain.Indica strawisweak and tends tolodge.Atpresent,however,
short-strawed highyielding indicavarietiesarealsoavailableandareplanted
overvastareasofthetropics.Unlike theold traditionalvarieties,mostof
thesenewvarietiesarenotsensitive tophotoperiod,whichmeans that theycan
beplanted inany seasonwithoutmuchvariation ingrowthduration.
Thericeplant isadaptive towaterlogged and flooded conditions.Growingasa

hydrophyte,itontogenetically develops intercellular spaces inthecortical
346
Rice fields
tissuesofleaves,stems,androots.These internalchannels (lacunae), extending
fromtops toroot tips,facilitatetheinterchangeofgaseslike0 2 and C0 2 .The
general trendwillbe thatO2istransferredbasipetally fromtheleaves,which
aresurroundedbyair,tothesubmerged and subterraneanplantparts.Theresult
isthat therhizosphereoftherootsisaerated.Thisproperty isdesignatedas
theoxidizingpowerofriceroots.Theoxidizingpowerdiffersaccording tothe
varietyand ageofplants,thelightintensity,and thenutrientsupply.
Becauseof theinternalaeration systemand theinherentoxidizingpowerofthe

roots,itispossible forrice-aslongaspartof theleavesremainsabove
water-notonly tosurvivebuteven togrownormallyunderanaerobic conditions
ofsoilandwaterwhichwould causeasphyxia totherootsofalmostallother
cropplants.
During thereproductivephase theinternalpathwayofO2intherootsishampered

(ALBERDA, 1954).Atthatphaseofdevelopment,ahorizontal rootsystemdevelops
moreorless simultaneously inthesoil surface.Aswillbediscussed later,this
soillayer iswell suppliedwith freeO2toadepthof 1to2cm.Growthand
functioning ofroots inthisaerobicenvironmentare tobecomparedwiththose
ofdryland crops.Thisparticular rootdevelopment seems tobe inducedexogenously
by thepresenceoffree0 2 fromtheenvironment.
35.2.2 THESOIL
Themaintypesofsoil inwhichriceisgrownareinceptisols andvertisolsin

thelowerareas,andoxisols intheuplands.
Themajority of thelowlandpaddy soilshaveahighclaycontent ('40-60%,or

higher),preferably 2:1 typeclaymineral (montmorillonite),amediumorganic
mattercontentwithahighdegreeofhumification,andgoodbutnotexcessive
drainage.Thedepthof thetopsoil is15-20cm.ThepHmayrangefrom4.0 to 7.0
without affectingyield.
Conversely,sandy,shallow,highlyweathered,depleted soils,anddegraded soils

(Japan),and soilswhichdonotallowperiodical drainage,usuallyproducelow
yields.
Ontheotherhand,excellent resultsareobtained inNewSouthWales (Australia)

onshallow,medium toheavy clay soils,over-lying astiffclay sub-surfaceand
sub-soil (ANONYMOUS, 1965).
347
MATSUO (1963)stated thatoneof themost importantsoilcharacteristics influen-
cingtheyieldofriceisthetotalcationexchangecapacity (CEC).Highestrice
yields inJapanwereobtained onsoilshavinganexchangecapacityofnotless
than22m.e./100gms.
TABLE3. YieldsandcationexchangecapacityofsoilsinMalaysia
Statein Yields Typeofclay

Malaysia inkg/ha mineral
Selangor ashighas8,000kg high montmorillonite
Kedah 2,000-3,500 medium illite
Kelantan 1,000-1,500 low kaolinite
InSelangor themarineclaysoilsofrecently reclaimed deep swamp landsderive

theirexchangecapacitynotonlyfromtheirmontmorilloniticnaturebutalsofrom
theirhighorganicmattercontent.Fromasampleofrecently reclaimed swampsoils
ofthealluvial coastalplainofSurinam (SouthAmerica),themineral composition
ofthefractionsmallerthan2mu (60%ofthetotal)wasfound toconsistof
20%illite,20%quartz,20%montmorillonite, 10%kaolinite,and30%unknownmine-
rals.TheCECwas35meper 100gdrysoil (H+7;K + l,Na + 2, Ca ++ 9,Mg ++ 16)(VAN
BREEMEN etal., 1970).Somechemicalproperties of4typical ricesoilsinthe
Philippines:pH6.0,6.9,5.5 and 7.0;organicmatter (%) 2.0,1.5,4.4 and3.3;
andCEC (meq/100gsoil)45,36,29and59 (IRRI, 1973).
For thecultivationoflowlandrice,thesoilisusuallykeptsubmergedduring
levelling and tillageoperations and fromthetimeoftransplanting untilthe
harvestof thecrop.Asaresult,thesoilwilloftenundergo someprofoundand
permanentchanges.Alterationsarecaused
-by themodificationoftheland surfacenecessary tomakepondingofwater

possible (terracing inslopingareas)
-by thesedimentationofsiltfromirrigationwaterandenrichmentwith
nutrients insolutioninthewater
-by theestablishmentofamoreorlessimperviouslayer
-by theflooded andwaterlogged conditionsofthesoilduring thegreater

partoftheyear
-by thewatercontinuouslypercolating through thesoiland leachingit

(especially lighter soils).
348
Rice fields
35.2.3 THEWATER
Riceculturewasoriginally developed intropicalareasofS.E.Asiawithhigh
annualorseasonalrainfal (from1,000mmto5,000mm).After thestartofthe
wet season,theoftendryandveryhard soilsaresoftened andsoonbecomesatu-
rated.Oncesaturated,thesesoilscannolongerabsorborstoreanymorewater
sothatrunoffwilloccur.Thisincreased runoff isduenotonly tothefactthat
thereislittleporespaceavailable inthesesoils,butalsobecauseaggregates
disintegrate under theimpactofraindropsand thereleased elementary soilpar-
ticlesclogwhat littleporespace thereis.Moreover,clayminerals likemontmo-
rillonite swelland furtherreduceporespace.
Oriental farmersexperienced thatitwasonlypossible totillthesoilswiththeir

simpleimplements,whenthesoilsweredrenched.Bundswere thereforeerectedto
keepwateronthefieldsduring tillageoperations.Thewaterlevelalsoprovided
aconvenient guidebywhich tolevelthesoilsurface.Thesoil treated inthis
waywas transformed intoaliquidmudorslurry,whichcould alsoretainmore
water thananormalsoil (VANDEGOOR, 1950;KOENIGS, 1961).Theoverallresult
of theprocedureisthatmuchoftheexcesswatercanbestored inandonthe
soil.Thewaterlayercushions theimpactofraindropsandkeeps themfrombeating
against thesoilandcausingrainfallerosion,which isasignificant factorin
thedeteriorationofclaysoils.
Fortunately thericeplant isadapted tosuchwetconditionsandevenderives

benefit fromthem3.Itisnottherequirement oftheplantitself,buttheattendant
circumstances thatmake theuseofwaterhigherwith lowland riceculturethan
withmostothercrops.Thericeplanttoleratesbutdoesnotrequire,excessive
amountsofwater.Thelayerofwaterprovides storageandprotects thesoilat
thesametime.
35.3 WATERREGIMEINTHERICEFIELD
Toprovidea (shallow)layerofwateronthericefield throughout thegreater
partofthegrowingperiod,itisoftennecessary tosupply individual fields
withwater (inaddition torainwater).This isdonebymeans ofabasinor
border-check surfaceirrigation system.Toensure thatwaterisproperlydistri-
buted,thelowland riceareaisdivided intolotsborderedbybunds (levees).
Depending ontopographical conditions,thelots (paddies,orchecks)arelarge
orsmall.Inbetweenthebunds,thefieldsarelevelled.
1
Yetbecauseofthe (relatively)lowradiant energy supplyduring therainy
seasonhigheryieldsaregenerallyobtainedduring thedryoroff-season
provided sufficient irrigationwater isavailable (IRRI,1967,1968).
349
Withrain-grown,lowland rice,thefieldsareponded soonafter thestartofthe
rainy season,theoutletsof thefieldsremainingclosed.Withirrigatedrice
water fromother sources islet intothefields.Thiswaterwillbeconveyed
through canalsfromdiversiondams,reservoirs,orpumping stations,andwillbe
diverted intosecondary canals (distributaries or laterals),and,ifnecessary
intotertiarycanals (paddies).Whether thefieldsarerain-fed orirrigated,
water isallowed toaccumulatetomaximumpondage.Wetcultivationcanbestarted
whenthesoil issaturated andwhenthere isacertaindepthofpondageonthe
field (VANDEGOORandZIJLSTRA, 1968;CHAPMAN, 1972).
Aspecificfeatureoflowlandricecultureisthusthemaintenanceofalayer
ofwateronthefield (throughout thegrowingperiod ofthecrop),sothatrice
grows likeawaterplant inawater-saturated soil.This isquitedifferentfrom
theconditions favourableforthegrowthanddevelopment ofothercrops.
Depending onvariety,stageofdevelopment,andwatermanagement facilities,the

waterdepthgenerally rangesfrom5to20cm.Tokeep thewateronthefield,
either thesoilprofile isfilledwithwater sothatthesoil iscompletelywater-
logged andthegroundwater tablevirtually passes intothewater layeronthe
field,oramoreorlessimpervious layer isestablishedatashallowdepthto
preventexcessivewater lossestothesubsoil.Thenetwateruseinricefields
consistsofévapotranspiration-i.e.transpirationofwaterbytheplantsplus
directevaporationfromtheimmediateenvironment oftheplant-andpercolation
ofwater tothesubsoil.Thepercolation lossesmayoccurvertically tothedeeper
soillayers (Q inFig.1)andhorizontally throughthecultivated topsoiland
do
levees (Q ).Horizontal percolationorseepage ispredominant interracedrice
fields.Whenthisseepagewater flows intoadjacentfields,asfrequentlyhappens,
itisnotlostbutmaybeused inthosefields.Thehydrological situationina
flooded rice field isthatofapondedwater case.Itispresented inthefigure
below.
Thehydrologicalbalanceofaricefieldcanbeformulated asfollows
Q . + P +Q 1 . = S + E +Q, +(5 + Q
si 1st do ts so
where
Q . =surface inflow
si
P =rainfall
lsi=subsurfaceinflow
S =storageofwater inandonthesoil
350
Riae fields
E =évapotranspiration
Q, =verticalpercolationbelowthetopsoil
=horizontalpercolation throughthetopsoilandlevees
Q =surfaceoutflow
so
Q =Q, +Q =allpercolationlosses
perc do ts
Fig.1. Hydrologicalbalancecomponentsofaricefield.
35.3.1 WATERREQUIREMENTOFTHERICECROP
Thewaterused inthericefield canbeestimated inthefollowingway.Itis

possible tomeasuresurface inflow (Q .)and surfaceoutflow (Q )byusingweirs,
flumes,orothermeasuring devices.
6 ThedifferenceQ .-Q givesthenet amount
' si sos
of irrigationwaterrequired inthefield tomakeupforthevariouslosses.This
amountofwaterplus theeffectiverainfall istheconsumptiveuse (CU).Ifit
isassumed thatSdoesnotchangeafter thesaturationperiod and that0 .=0,
° lsi
then (VANDEGOORandZIJLSTRA, 1968):
CU
perc
Evapotranspiration canbeeithermeasured inthefieldbyusing evaporationpans,
orcalculated onthebasisofclimatologiedatamultiplied byacropfactor.
Dependingonmethodsofcalculation,thecrop factorused toestimate thepotential
évapotranspirationofriceintropicalareasvaries from 1to 1.5.Thehighest
Effectiverainfall isthatportionoftherainwhichcanbestored intherice

fieldswithoutdamaging thecropand isavailableforsubsequentconsumption,
thusdiminishing thedemand forirrigationwater (VANDEGOORandZIJLSTRA,1968).
351
factor istobeappliedduring thepanicle initiationandheading stage.Values
ofévapotranspirationmayvary from3-7mmperdayinhumid tropicalareasandfroir
4-8 insubtropical andmoderateclimates;averagesof8mmorhigherarefoundin
semi-aridclimates.
Inlow-lying flatareas likethealluvialplainswheremostriceisgrown,percola-

tion (Q )isnegligibleandCUisalmostequal toE (VANDEGOOR&ZIJLSTRA,1968
TheCUofthericecropisthensimilartothatofothercrops,beingessentially
identical toévapotranspirationonly.Inhigherareasandespeciallywithterraced
ricefields,consumptiveuseconsists forthegreaterpartofpercolation (VANDE
GOOR, 1950;FUKUDA, 1968).
Ifthevalueofévapotranspirationisknownandconsumptiveuseinthericefield
hasbeendeterminedbymeasuring surface inflowandoutflow,anestimateofthe
percolation losses inthefield canbemade.
Percolationlossescanbedecreased bypuddlingoperations,eitheraloneorin
combinationwithsoilamendments.Thispuddling isdonewhen thericefields
arebeingtilled.
Theirrigationrequirement during theperiod aftertransplanting is:water foréva-
potranspiration andpercolationandwaterlostintheirrigationconveyanceand
distributionsystem.Itisoftenassumed that theseirrigationlossesamountto
50%ofthenetrequirement inthefield,i.e.évapotranspirationpluspercolation.
Inthiscasetheirrigationefficiency is66%and thefieldrequirement issay
5mm/ha24hrs,thentheirrigationrequirement is7.5mm/ha24hrs.
35.3.2 WATERREQUIREMENTDURINGSATURATION,TILLAGE,ANDPUDDLING
Thewaterrequired totillandpuddle thesoilandtoestablishandmaintaina
layerofwateronthefieldconsistsof
- initial lossesofwaterthroughcrackstothesubsoil
-watertosaturateandpuddlethesoilandtoestablishawaterlayer (S)
-water tobalance thelossesbyevaporation andpercolation.
The totalamountofwaterrequired during thisperiod,which inpracticelasts

fromafewdaysto6weeksorlonger,varies from 100to300mmormore,depend-
ingonconditions (VANDEGOOR, 1950;FUKUDA, 1968;KUNG,1971;FA0,1971).In
thehumid tropics itisgenerally found tobehigherperunitoftimethanduring
thericegrowingperiod (150-200%).
Sometimes,especially inlargeirrigationunits,itmayoccur thatsomeofthe

fieldsarealreadyplantedwithrice.Thedifferencebetweenevaporation inun-
planted fieldsand thatinfieldsofyoung seedlings isnegligible,however.
352
Rice fields
Thenecessity fordrainage isthereforenon-existent orrelatively lowduring

thisperiod.
Inaridand temperate summerclimatesévapotranspirationmaybetwiceashigh

during thegrowthof thecropasduring theperiodofsoilcultivation.Insuch
climates,therefore,thepeakdemand forirrigationwilloccurduring thatperiod
andnotduring tillageof thesoil.
At thestartoftheirrigationperiod,mostofthewatersuppliedwillbeused
forsaturating thelandandonlyasmallpartwillgotowardsmaintaining the
water inthealready saturated area.But,asthepresaturationperiod goeson,a
smallerpartofthewatersuppliedwillgotosaturatenewlandandagreaterpart
willgotomaintain thewater inthealready saturated fields,until,towards
theendoftheperiod,nearlyallwater isused tomaintain thewater layer inthe
area.Thisprocesshasbeendescribedmathematically byVANDEGOORandZIJLSTRA
(1968).
Othermethodsforcalculating thewaterrequiredduring thisperiodhavebeen

proposed (LANEetal., 1941;FUKUDA,1968;CHIN, 1973).
35.3.3 CHEMICALANDBIOLOGICALCONDITIONSOFSUBMERGEDRICESOILS
Whensoilsare saturated andsubmerged underwater,asoccurswith lowlandrice,

theoxygensupplyisdrastically curtailed.Withinafewhours toafewdaysthe
available freeoxygeninthesoilisexhausted (PONNAMPERUMA,1965).Oneofthe
first thingstooccur isthattheobligateaerobicmicroorganismswillpassinto
a stateofdormancyordie.Thedecompositionoforganicmatter-oftenpresent
inamplesupply-isresumedbyanaerobicorganisms.Theseorganisms reducechemi-
calconstituents (NO3,MnÛ2,Fe(0H)3 and SOO byusing themaselectronacceptors.
Only intheuppermost layer,confined toadepthofafewmillimetres toonecenti-
metre,isthereanamplesupplyofoxygengenerated during theprocessofphotosyn-
thesisbyalgaedeveloping intheinterface soil-water.Thisistheoxidized
layer.PATRICKandDELAUNE (1972)found thatthethicknessoftheoxidizedlayer
increasedwithdurationofflooding.
Theoxygen-rich surface layercharacterized byabrowncolourand thepresence

ofoxidized ionslikeFe ,Mn ,NO3, SOi,,CO2 andaerobicorganisms is,al-
thoughwater saturated,comparablewith thewell-drained soilsofdrycultivated
crops (MITSUI,1955,1963;PONNAMPERUMA, 1965).
Thelayer inwhich reduction takesplaceconstitutes themainportionofthe

furrowslice.Uptilltheperiod ofstemelongation (shooting)therootsofrice
353
developonly inthisreduced slice.Hence,theimportanceof theoxidizingpower
oftheroots forthegrowthand survivalofrice.
Ithasbeennoted thatareduced soilconsumes oxygenmorerapidly thananaerobic

soilwhen submerged inoxygenatedwater (PATRICKandSTURGIS,1955;PATRICK, 1960).
Therefore,theoxygengenerated inthesurface layerdoesnotpenetrate intomore
thanabout 1cmdepthofaflooded soil.Thewater layernotonlyprecludesoxy-
genandotheratmosphericgasfromentering thesoil,butalsodrasticallycuts
downtheescapeofgases.Asaresult,gaseslike C0 2 , H2,N2, CHi,,andH2Smay
accumulate tohighconcentrations,whereas suchgasesarenotpresent,oronly
locallyinlowconcentrations,inwell-drained drysoils.Thisaccumulationof
gasesinbubblesmayhavegivenrise towhatisknownasthegas-bubble structure
(VANBREEMENetal., 1970). Important changesaccompanying thereductionofasoil
areadecrease inredoxpotential-ameasureoftheintensityofreduction-,
anincreaseofpH,and thechangeofchemical constituents.Thedecrease inredox
potential (E)expressed involtsormillivolts,isthemost strikingelectroche-
micalchangecausedby thefloodingofasoil (PONNAMPERUMA, 1965).TheE changes
after submergencedepend ontheinitialaerobicpotential,thetemperature,the
contentoforganicmatter,and thenatureoftheelectronacceptors inthesoil
(PATRICKandDELAUNE, 1972).
Organicmatter likegreenmanureand strawincrease therateofreductionwithout

havingasignificant influence onthevalueofthefinalredoxpotential.Asta-
bilizationofthepHvaluesofricesoilsat6.5 to7.5 takesplace twotothree
weeks afterflooding.
Thereductionofthedifferent chemical constituents of thesoilproceeds inthe

following thermodynamic sequence:nitrate (NO3),manganesedioxide (MnOO,ferric
hydroxideFe(0H)3 and intermediatedissimilationproductsoforganicmatter (at
about the samestandard electrodepotential atpH 7.0 asFe(0H)3),sulphate (SOO,
carbondioxide (C02),andperhapsphosphate (POO (PONNAMPERUMA, 1965).Denitrifi-
cation-thereductionofnitrate toloweroxidesofnitrogenortonitrogenous
gas-isthusthefirstandoneofthemost importantprocesses following sub-
mergence.
Themineralization oftheorganicnitrogen insubmerged soils stopsattheammoniac

stage.
Intheinterfacewater-soil,nitrogen fixation takesplacebytheactivityofblue

greenalgae.Afairly largeproportionofthenitrogen fixedby thesealgaeoccurs
assolubleextra-cellular compounds inthewaterandsurface soil (STEWART, 1971).
354
v.ice fields
Because ofitsmobility,nitrateaccumulated intheoxidized surface layerwill
be lost throughdiffusion intotheanaerobic layerwheredenitrificationoccurs
(PATRICKandDELAUNE, 1972).Only inthelaterphasesofricedevelopmentwill
thesuperficial rootsabsorb thenitrate formed intheaerobiclayer.
Therhizosphere ofthericeplant inthesubmerged field seems tobealsoafa-

vourable environment fornitrogenfixation (YOSHIDAandANCAJAS, 1973).Theprac-
ticeofnitrogenous fertilizer application isbased ontheknowledgeof theproces-
sesofdenitrificationandammonificationinsubmerged soils.Thiswillbediscus-
sedlater.
Thehigheroxidesofmanganeseare the soilconstituentswhicharereducedsub-
+?
sequent todenitrification.Thereducedmanganese (Mn )isreadily soluble,hence
mobile,andhasaninfluenceonthemanganesenutritionofrice.Reductionof
irontakesplacewhensubstancesathigher levelsofoxidation,suchasNO3and
Mn0 2 ,areabsent,whenreadily decomposable organicmatter isavailable,andwhen
activeironispresent ingood supply (PONNAMPERUHA, 1965).Thereduced ironis
soluble,thereforemobileandmoreavailable inhigherquantities,whichmaybe
favourableorunfavourable for thericeplant,depending onconditions.
Depending onthenatureandcontentoforganicmatter,onenvironmentalconditions,
andonthelengthofthesubmergenceperiod,anarray oforganic substancesis
produced.Thesemight include CO2,CHit,H2,fatty acids,hydroxy anddicarboxylic
acid,unsaturated acids,aldehydesandketones,alcohols,amines,andothercon-
stituents.Theorganic reductionproductsareharmfulbecauseoxygen inandaround
riceroots isusedup,whichmeans adecreaseofrootactivity.Someofthese
substancesare,assuch,toxic totheplants.
Inthesubmerged soils,themanganeseand ironsystems functionasabufferat

anintermediate redoxpotential (+100to+300millivolts).Consequently,MnandFe
mustbealmostcompletely reducedbefore theintensity ofreductionbecomesgreat
enoughforthesulphate tobereduced.
Whenreductionofsulphate takesplace,hydrogensulphide (H2S)isgenerated.

This sulphide,which isalsooneof theby-products oftheanaerobicdecomposition
ofthoseamines fromorganicmatterwhich containsulfur,may atconcentrations
aslowas0.1 ppmbecometoxicbyblockingrespirationoftheroots.
Becauseoftheincreasedmobility ofMnandFe,theyarereadily transported

by thepercolatingwater tolowersoillayerswhere,inthepresenceofO2
(underthepuddled layer),theyareoxidized andprecipitated inthereverse
orderofreduction,firstFeand then,whenallFeisoxidized,Mn.This isthe
reasonwhy often,inorderofdepth,firstanFe-and thenanM n -i a y er a r e found
under theploughsole (Fig.1).
355
ThepresenceofH2Sintherhizosphere,therefore,inhibits theabsorptionof
nutrientsbytheroots.Theuptakeofnutrients isdecreased inthefollowingorder
ofK + .H 2 P O " >Si(OH)„ >Mn + + .NH^ .H 2 0>Mg + + .Ca ++ (MITSUI,1955,1964).
Finally theavailability ofphosphateand silica (dissolved)inwaterasSi(OH)i,

isincreased by thesubmergenceofthesoil.TheconcentrationofK inthesoil
solutionmaybeincreasedbecauseoftheKdissolved intheirrigationwater
andbecauseofthedisplacement ofKfromtheclayminerals.Due totheubiquitous-
nessofwater,ahighcationexchangecapacity inthereducedpaddy soilispre-
requisiteincontrolling lossesofNHi,,K,andotheressentialnutritional ions.
35.3.4 PHYSICALCONDITONSOFSUBMERGEDRICESOILS
During tillageoperations thefloodedandsaturatedfieldsareploughed andhar-

rowed tosoftenand level thesoil.Unlike tillagefordrycrops,thesoilof
rice fields isprepared insuchaway thatamoreorless liquidmud isformed
(VANDEGOOR,1950;KOENIGS, 1961).Thesoilispuddled inthepresenceofan
excessofwater.Soildrainage,oftennecessary forthetillageofothercrops
(VANDEGOOR, 1972),isnotrequired forlowland rice.Byusingexcessivewater
during tillage,onlyasmallportionofthesoilaggregates isdisintegrated
and thesoilstructure issufficiently preserved toallow thesuccessfulcultiva-
tionofothercropsafter theharvestofrice.
Forthecropsinrotationwithrice itisimportant thatwaterstability ofthe

aggregatesbeincreased inasoilmaintained inwaterlogged conditions andthen
dried (HARRIS,1966).Ondrying,areoxidationofferrous ironoccurs,withthe
formationofprotective ironoxidecoatingsontheaggregates.This iswhathappens
inricesoils (BAVER,1966,1968).
IntheMurrumbidgee irrigationareainAustralia (ANONYMOUS, 1965),ricefarming,

successful initself,improvedpoorsoilphysically,made itmore friable,and
thusopened uppreviously unwanted landforothercrops-includingwheatand
oats. Inrice fieldsalesspervious layer,5cmormore inthicknesswilldeve-
lopatadepthof 15to25cmbelowsurface.This isbecauseofahigherdegreeof
puddlingofasoilwhich isrelativelydryatthatdepth,andbecausefinesoil
particleswill settledownfromabove.This layerisknownastheplough-sole;
ithasabulkdensityhigher thanthesoilabove:1.45to 1.60ascompared to 1.3
1.4 forthesurfacesoil -andoftenhasahydraulic conductivity ofzeroor
Ahighbulkdensityofthesoilmay initselfnotbeharmfulfortheproduction
ofrice.GHILDYAH (1969),incomparing soilsartificially compacted to1.4,1.6
and 1.8bulkdensity,obtained thehighestriceyieldwith thegreatestbulk
density.
356
Rice fields
slightlyabove (FAULKNER, 1965)1.According toSANCHEZ (1973), itisthepuddled

layer itself thatmayberesponsibleforthereduction inwaterlossesandnot
necessarily theplough-pan.
35.4 SPECIALFEATURESOFLOWLANDRICECULTURE
Thereasonswhy flooded conditionsaregenerally favourableforthegrowthand
productionofricemaybesummarized asfollows (VANDEGOOR,1950;YAMADA, 1965):
-Thecontinuouswatersupply.Because therootsaresurroundedbywater,
moisture stresswillneveroccurneartherootsofriceplantsasitdoeswith
othercrops.Riceplantswillnotshowcurlingofleavesorothersignsofwilting
inthemiddleoftheday,asfrequentlyhappenswithotherplants (including
upland rice).There,watermaybeexhaustedneartheroot tips,causingwater
stress inthearealplantparts.
-Asecond importantreasonisthenutrient supply,especially ofnitrogen,
which isthekeyelement forcropproduction.Inaerobic soilsnitrogenispresent
intheformofnitrate (NO3)becauseoftheprocessofnitrificationtakingplace
continuously2.Nitrogen transformations inflooded soilsarequitedifferent.As
alreadymentioned,bothnitrogenfixationand theaeration intheoxidized surface
layeraretheresultoftheactivityofbluegreenalgae,whichproliferatein
therelativelywarmwater .Thisoxidized layer,indynamicequilibriumwiththe
reduced layerbelow,remains thinalthough itsthickness increaseswithduration
of flooding (PATRICKandDELAUNE, 1972). Itislikely thatpartofthedecomposi-
tionofthesesurfacealgaeandtheirexudednitrogenous compounds takesplacein
Astudyofsoilsaffected bymechanized ricefarming inSurinamrevealeda
platy structureontopofmostpaddy soils.Theexplanationforthisisthat
thefinesuspended clayparticlesfromthepuddledmud settlelaterthanlarger
soilparticles (VANBREEMENet al., 1970).
Ithasbeenstated thattheeffectofdrainageonmost cropsismainlydueto
animprovednitrogen supply tothesoiland that theilleffectsofahighwater
tablecanbecounteracted by largerapplications ofnitrate fertilizer (VANDE
GOOR, 1972).Ammonia fertilizersdonotproducesuchaneffect.Exactly theop-
positehappens inlowland rice.Itrequires improvednitrogen supplies,notto
counteract theeffectsofahighwatertable,which isanormal feature,butto
counteract theeffectsofwater stress.Inrice,itisnotnitrate fertilizers
which increasenitrogensupplies,butammoniafertilizers (DEDATTAetal.,
1973A). Similarresultswithnitrogen fertilizer inmitigating theill-effects
ofwater stressarereportedbyWICKHAM (1973)andSANCHEZetal. (1973).
Nitrogen fixationalsooccurs inthereduced partoftherooting zone.YOSHIDA
andANCAJAS (1973)found thatanumberofbacteriawhich inhabit therhizosphere
areable tofixatmosphericnitrogen.Thisispossiblebecausenitrogen,like
oxygen,istransferred fromtheatmosphere throughtheair-conducting tissue
ofthericeplanttotherhizosphereandbecauseoftheavailability oforganic
acidsascarbonsourceinthesoil.Itisestimated that50to60kgofnitro-
genperhaarefixedbytheserhizospherebacteria.Nitrogensequesteredby
theserhizospherebacteriamaybeimportant forriceproduction.
357
thereduced zone.Thenitrogen fixedby thesealgaewill thusbereleased intothe
surrounding ecosystemandbecomeavailableasammonia (NH^)inthemainrooting
zoneofrice.Ammonia isreadily absorbed by thericerootsoradsorbed tothe
claycomplex,whichprevents excessive losses fromoccurringby leaching orvola-
tilization.Thusricehasamoreregularnitrogen supply thanispossiblewith
nitrates inclimateswithheavy rainfall.Nitratesarenotadsorbed andarehighly
soluble inwater. Fertilizerpractice isbased onthisknowledge.Nitrateferti-
lizersarenotrecommended forrice.Ammoniafertilizers,including thecheap
ureawhich isconverted toammoniacarbonatewithinafewdays,shouldbeplaced
inthereduced layer.Ifapplied tothesurface,ammoniawill eitherbelostby
volatilization orwillbetransformed tonitrates intheoxidized layer (PATRICK
andDELAUNE, 1972)2. Subsequently thisnitratewillbeleached into thereduced
layerand thendisappear intodeeperlayersorbedenitrified.Placing theappro-
priatenitrogeneous fertilizer inthereduced layerresults inahigh fertilizer
efficiency seldomobtainedwithdrycultivated crops.Ifgreenmanure isused,
itshouldbeploughed into theflooded soil toinhibitnitrificationduringdecom-
positionof theorganicmatter.The incorporationofgreenmanure should bedone
twotothreeweeksbefore transplanting inorder toderive themostbenefitfrom
theammoniareleased and toavoid toohighconcentrations oforganic acidsand
methane.
Asalreadymentioned,thesolubility ortheavailability ofothernutrientslike

P,K,Si,Mn,Fewill alsoincrease under flooded conditions,although,asalso
mentioned,under severely reduced conditions theabsorptionofKandPmaybe
hampered.
-Thecoverofwater inthefirstmonth to6weeksaftersowing ortrans-

planting isveryeffective inthecontrolofweeds.Thenumberofweedsdecreases
with increasing depthofwater.Experimentshavedemonstrated thataslittleas
2.5 cmofwaterdrastically reduces theweedpopulation;with 7.5 cmofwaterno
grasses occur,andwith 15cmthenumberofweedsdecreases tozero (IRRI, 1969).
Other factorsdiminishing theweedproblemare thewet tillageof thesoil,by
whichmanyweedplantsareburied inthemud,and thepracticeoftransplanting.
Nitratespresent insoilswhichare flooded or temporarilywaterlogged asa

resultofheavy rainfallwill therefore eitherbelostby leachingorbecon-
verted tonitrites,etc.,during theprocessofdenitrification.Due tothese
processes,lossesoffrom20kg tomore than 100kgofNmayoccurduringthe
firstdaysofflooding.
Nitrificationretarders areasyet littleused inricegrowing,althoughin
rice fieldssubject toalternatedrying and flooding nitrificationretarders
orslowreleasenitrogen fertilizers showmuchpromise (PRASADetal.,1971).
358
Rice fields
- Theprotectivewater layeronthefieldpreventssplasherosionandthe
formationofasurfacecrust.Thepracticeoflevellingand terracing,too,is
very effective inthestruggleagainst runoffand sheeterosion. (Erosioncould
otherwisebyextremelyharmful inthetropicalhighrainfallareaswherericeculti-
vation islargelypractised).Moreover,siltandclayparticles contained inthe
irrigationwatermaysettledownandenrichthesoil.
-Withregard totheworkability of thesoil,itwasalreadymentioned that

ricesoilsareoftencultivatedwhensaturated and flooded,and thatinthese
circumstances thegreaterpartoftheaggregates arepreserved.Moreover,active
ironreleased soonafter submergence favours thedevelopment ofnewwater-stable
aggregates. Itisevident thattheconceptofstructurehasadifferentmeaning
forlowland rice.Forwet soilcultivation,thefarmerswaituntil therainshave
comeandhavedrenched thefieldsoruntil sufficient irrigationwater isavailable,
toenablepuddlingand levellingoperations.The thoroughlywetsoilsarefar
beyond thestickypoint,and thesoilthereforedoesnotadheretothefarming
implements.Theexcesswateralso functionsasa"lubricator"andwashes theim-
plements. Ifthesoilwere tobetilled forothercrops,thefarmerswouldhave
towaituntil themoisture contentwas sufficiently lowtoovercomecohesive
forces inthesoilbutnotenough tocauseplasticity (BAVER, 1966).This isdif-
ficulttoachieve intherainy seasonofthehumidtropics.
-Withregard todiseases likeHelminthosporium andPyricularia,submergence

ofthesoilseems tohaveafavourableeffect,probablydue tohigheravailability
ofnutrients likeK,Fe,and Si (YAMADA, 1965).LIM (1972)found thattheFusarium
population,ofwhichmany speciesareplantpathogens,wasmuch smalleronpaddy
soils inWest-Malaysia thanonCalifornian soils.Ontheotherhand,theoccurrence
ofphysiological diseases ispromoted,inseverely reduced conditions,especially
ifthesoilsarepoor inironandrichinsulphides.
-Thewaterlayer canactasatemperatureregulator:inhotaridregions
thetemperatureofthewaterwillbelower thanthatof theairaboveand inhumid
regions itwillbehigher.Optimum temperature forricegrowthisbetween 24and
32 C,dependingonphaseofdevelopmentandcultivars.Thetemperatureofflowing
orstagnantwaterdiffers,thatoftheusually sluggishly flowingwater inthe
ricefieldsbeingafewdegrees (2ormore)lower thanthatofstagnantwater,
whichmaybejust lowenough forgoodproduction.InJapanduring summerthe
average temperature offlowingwaterwas28 Cand 31 Cforstagnantwater,the
maximum temperaturesbeing 36 Cand41 Crespectively.Thedepthofthewater
359
layermayalsoexertagreat influence.InCalifornia thetemperaturesduringa
period of40days forwaterdepthsof4,8,and 18cmwere35,34and 29 C(max-
imum)and 14, 15and 16 C(minimum)respectively.Sometimes thiseffect isput
topracticaluse.Insouth-westNewSouthWales,forinstance,thewaterlevel
isincreased atear initiation stage (earlyJanuary).This isalsodone inWestern
Japan.Therelativelywarmwatergivesabuffering effectagainst thelownight
temperature, whichmayoccurduringorjustpriortofloweringofrice.Lownight
temperatures cancauseconsiderable sterility (deadheads)(ANONYMOUS, 1969).In
Japanthericenurserybedsare submerged deeplywhere thetemperature islowor
where there isfearofoccurrenceoffrost.
35.5 DRAINAGEOFLOWLANDRICEFIELDS
35.5.1 THEPURPOSEOFDRAINAGE
Itwillbeevident thatricedoesnotrequiredrainageinthesamewayasother
agricultural crops.Theusualreasons fordrainageare summarizedbelowandcont-
rastedwith therequirements forrice (VANDEGOOR, 1972):
- topreventwaterlogging orshallowflooding;alayerofwateronthefield
isaspecific featureofricegrowing
- tomake tillageofthesoilpossible;excesswater isnecessary toprepare
therice fieldproperly
- toimprove thenutrient supply;paddy field conditionsareonthewhole
excellent forthenutritionof thericecrop
- foraerationoftherooting zone;ricerootshaveaneffectiveoxidizing
powerandcanthereforegrowanddevelopvigorously inwaterlogged soils
- forstorageofwaterandwatersupply tothesoil;theliquid ricefield
mudcontainsmorewater thanasoilatfield capacity;moreover,thewater
layeronthefieldprovidesanextrareserveagainstévapotranspiration
duringpossibledryspells
- forweed control;puddling,transplanting,and thepresenceandpropermani-
pulationofthewater layerareeffectivemeansofcheckingweedgrowth
- forerosioncontrol;thewaterlayerprotects thesoilagainst splashand
sheeterosion
- topreventdestructionofsoilaggregates,thuspreserving soilstructure;
puddling destroysonlyapartoftheaggregates,whereasasaresultof
reductionandsubsequentoxidationduring thedryperiodnewstableaggre-
gatesareformed
- forregulationof temperature;thelayerofwatercanbeeffective inthis
respect.
Hence,thesaturationof therooting zoneand theapplicationandmaintenanceof

alayerofwateronthefieldisnotonlyusefulbutisanessential featureof
lowland riceculture.Themostimportantaspectoftherightwatermanagementin
360
Riae fields
lowland rice fieldsistokeep thewaterlayeronthesoilsurfaceatitspermis-
sibledepth.Itisforthisreasonthatdrainage todischargeexcessive rainor
irrigationwater-essentially surfacedrainage-maybenecessary.
Fordesignpurposes,therefore,thedeterminant factor isnormally themaximum

rainfallcausinganexcessiveriseofthewater levelinthefield.Surfacedrai-
nageisalsonecessary tomakeculturalpractices likefertilizerapplicationand
harvestingpossible.
Surfacedrainage,sometimesincombinationwithrootzone (sub-surface)drainage,
mayberequired toremoveharmful substances suchasH2S,salts,mainly chlorides
and sulphates.
Ifdrainageofricefields isrequired toremoveharmful substances,themostsui-

table time forthisoperationwillbeatthelaterstagesofvegetativegrowth
whentilleringoftheplantsandsoilreductionprocesseshavegoneonforquite
atime.InJapan,thistypeofdrainage isapplied inmidseason (nakaboshi) ,which
coincides inthatcountrywithmidsummer (YAMADA, 1965).ThisNakaboshipractice
isasfollows.
Thefieldsaredrained forabout3to7daysatthelatetillering stage,30to

40daysbeforeheading.Duringthisperiod thewaterrequirementofriceisrela-
tively lowandkeeping thefield inadrystatewill generallyhavenoadverse
effectonyield.Drying ofthefieldsmaybecontinueduntil slightcracksbecome
visible.Thereasons forandeffectsofthisdrainagearethefollowing.
Aftermaximum tiller stagewhen thisdrainage isapplied,rootgrowthdeclines

andceasescompletely aroundheading;itisoftenonly laterduring shootingthat
a superficial rootmat develops.If,during thisperiod ofrootgrowthstagnancy,
toxicsubstancesareproduced-which,ashasbeenpointed out,ismost likely
tooccurafteralongsubmergenceperiod -thereisnonewrootgrowthtocope
with thedeterioration ofolderroots.Rottingofrootsshould,therefore,be
prevented andmeasures takentomaintainphysiological activity ofrootsaslong
aspossible.Thisisaccomplished bymid-summerdrainage.
Salineandacid sulphate soilscanbereclaimedbyimpoundingwater,ploughing

harrowing,and letting themud settle,draining thewaterand starting thepro-
cessoffloodinganddrainingagain.Inreclaimingandusing thesesoils,rice
isavaluablecrop (VANDEGOOR, 1967).PUTTASWAMYGOWDAetal.(1973)found
thatdrainagewasessential forthereclamationofasalinesodic soileven
under submerged conditionsand thatriceplantshastened thereclamationpro-
cessby increasing therateofdrainageand theconcentrationofCa+Mgin
thedrainagewater.Plantgrowthandyieldweregreatest inthedrainedsoils.
361
Hydrogen sulfide,e.g. formed inpoorly drainedpaddy soils,reduces root-oxidizing
powerand increases intakeofferrous iron,sometimes resulting inirontoxicityor
potassium (andPOôrothermineral)deficiency (WUetal., 1972).
Insufficientpotassiumnutritionofthericeplantcausesalargerexcretionof
organic compounds intherhizosphere thanwhenpotassium isinadequatesupply
(TROLLDENIER, 1973).
Thisagain stimulatesbacterial activity.Moreover,ithasbeenfound thatKmay

playaroleintheopeningprocess ofstomata;whenKisdeficient,thestomata
remainpartlyorcompletely closed.Thisdiminishesorblocks theentranceof
O2and CO2,whichagainhasrepercussions forphotosynthesis andoxygen transport
totheroots.Theoverall effectwillbeaseverereductionofrootenvironment
and theoccurrenceoffungal,bacterial,andphysiological diseases.Itwillbe
quiteobvious thatexternaloxygensupplybyrootzonedrainage andpossibleap-
plications ofpotassiumwillhelpgreatly inovercoming theseundesirablecondi-
tions.
Drainageand thesubsequent increased absorptionofK,POi+,Si,orothernutrients
atthisphaseofricegrowthmaybearemedy forfungal,physiological,ortoxi-
cantdiseases likeHelminthosporium,akiochi (summerdecline),straighthead,
browningdiseases,brusone,suffocatingdiseases,ormentek,whichoccur inmost
ricegrowingcountries.
Discharge of thewaterlayerand subsequentdrying ofthesurface soilwillpro-
mote theexchangeofsoil-borne gases likeCO2,CHi,,and H2, lockedup inthe
soil,withatmospheric gases like O2.
Drainageduring thistime isalsoeffective toremoveexcessivenitrogenby

changingNHi,-NintoNO3-N.When flooding isresumednitrate islostbyleaching
andwhatremains isremoved subsequentlyby theprocessofdenitrification
(PATRICK, 1967,1972;PONNAMPERUMA, 1965;DEDATTAetal., 1973A).Asaresult,
theformationofinvalid tillerswillbesuppressedand thesterilitypercentage
ofseeds lowered.Where littleornoN-fertilizersareused,as inmost tropical
areas,drainage forthispurpose isgenerallynotrequired.Thisdrainage isprac-
tised insomepartsofSumatra (Indonesia)where thesoilsarenaturallyvery
fertileand lodging ofthe tall traditional varieties islikely tooccur.The
preventionoflodging isanotherreasonfordraining thefields.With continually
flooded (depth5cm)broadcast-seededvarieties IR8and IR22, a decrease inthe
lodgingpercentage from 35to25and from68to41respectivelywas found inan
experimentwhenmid-seasondrainagewasapplied.Only IR22showed anincreasein
yield from6.5 to7.1 tonsperhaasaresultofthisdrainage (DEDATTAetal.,
1973B).
362
'Hce fields
That thepracticeofmid-seasondrainage isnotalwaysrecommendablewasfound
inexperiments onwatermanagement carriedoutattheIRRI (1969).Yielddata
obtained withastrongly acidclay,aneutral clay,andacalcareous clayloam
showednodeleterious consequenceofcontinuous soilsubmergencebutindicated
theinjurious effects ofmid-season soildrying,especially ifthesoilshadbeen
driedbetween tworicecrops.
35.5.2 DESIRABLEDEPTHOFWATERLAYERONRICEFIELDS
Thetwomost important considerations forthedrainagedesignare thedesirable

depthofwater layeronthericefieldsand therateofpercolation throughthe
soils.
Withregard tothemostdesirableandpractical depth forthewater layer,the

following experimental evidence isreviewed.
Theproductionofthevariety IR8oncontinually saturated soil (waterdepth
virtually 0cm)andoncontinually flooded soil (waterdepth5cm)wassimilar
forthree cropsperannum,viz.atotalof22tonsperha (DEDATTAetal.,1973B).
Obviously thepresence ofthelayerofwater per se wasnotessential forhigh
production.Theadvantages ofsubmergence,however,werebetterweed controland
higher efficiency offertilizersand granularpesticides.Inexperiments inCali-
forniawithanaveragewaterdepth of 1.5cm,theyieldofricewas8,000kg/ha,
and6,500kgwhendepthwas 7cm;withwaterdepthsof4,8,and 18cm,theaverage
yield for3yearswas 7,000,6,675and5,390kgperharespectively (OELKE, 1966).
Incontinually flooded fields (waterdepths2.5,5, 10,and 20cm)withbroadcast-
seeded varieties IR8and IR22,adecrease innumberofplants,tillers,panicles
andyieldwasobservedwithgreaterdepthofwater.Weed growthwas lessand
plantheightand lodging greater inthedeepfloodedplots (DEDATTA, 1973B).The
difference inyield for IR8was900kgand for IR22500kgbetweenwaterdepth
2.5 and 20cm,infavourof theshallowdepth.
Interesting informationhasbeenobtained ontheyieldsofdifferentupland,low-
land,anddeepwatervarietiesunderdifferentwatermanagement conditions (IRRI,
1973;seeFig.2). The irrigation treatments consisted ofcontinual floodingto
depths of5,30,and92cm.Continual flooding to5cmwasmaintained until20
daysafter transplanting.For the 30and92cmtreatments,thewaterdepthswere
thenincreased by 3cmeachdayuntil thedesired depths werereached and then
maintained until thecropmatured.Theyield of thewell-known lowlandvariety
IR8dropped 1.7 ton/hawhen thewaterdepthwas 30cmwhile thatof IR442-2-58-
apromising uplandvariety -wasonly0.3 t/ha lower.At92cmofwater IR8was
363
drowned and IR442-2-58had about thesameyield asT442-57,asemidwarfvariety
whichhasperformedwell inThailand inwater 130to150cmdeep.Theupland
variety C-22had intermediateyieldsat5cmand 30cmand lowyieldsat92cm.
LebMueNhangatraditionalvariety indeepwaterareasofThailand had lowyields
over thewholerangeofwaterdepthswiththelowestyield at92cm.Paradoxically
theuplandvariety IR442-2-58showed abetterperformanceundervirtuallylowland
anddeepwaterconditions,thanthelowland anddeepwatervarieties.
Fig.2. Yieldsofricevarietiesunder
100
cm differentwatermanagement conditions
water depth (IRRI,1972,wet season).
Insimilar experiments itwasfound that theuseofwaterwas lowerwithshallow
waterdepth (IRRI, 1967).Itwasalsofound that thedwarfand semidwarfvarieties
showedmoretolerance todeepwaterthanwas initiallypresumed.Moreover,cros-
sesofashortvarietywithatallfloatingparentvarietyproved that itispos-
sibletobreed forshort,stiff-strawedvarietieswhich stillretaintheability
toelongateunderdeepwater (anincreaseof2cmperdayfrom 10cmuntilthe
waterdepthwas 110cm;IRRI, 1972).
Itmaybeconcluded thatyieldsareusuallyhigherwith shallowwater (about
5cm)thanwithdeepwater (morethan5cm).Withdepthsofmorethan 15to20cm
thedecrease inyieldmaybeconsiderable.
Withregard tototalsubmergenceofriceplants thefollowing experimental
evidence isreviewed.
When20-day-old seedlingsofanIRvarietywere submerged toadepthof35cm,
80%oftheplantssurvived 6daysofsubmergence.Thesurvival rateafter8and
10dayswas50%,andafter 12days25%.Thetemperatureof thewater alsohadan
influence:whensubmerged for 10daysat25 C,93%oftheplantssurvivedand
364
Rice fields
forthesameperiodat30 C,survived only64%.Submerged inturbidwater (which

transmitted onlyhalf thelightofclearwater1)for 10daysat30 C,52%survived
against 91%ofplants submerged inclearwater.A lowersurvivalrateofplants
wasalsofoundwith increasingdepthofsubmergence (0to70cm).Thepercentage
ofsurvivalwasdefinitelyhigher inplantsgrownatlowsoilnitrogenlevels,
whichwasassociatedwithahighercarbohydratecontentoftheplants.Thefinal
conclusionoftheseexperiments isthatwithyoung seedlings longerdurationof
submergence,higherwatertemperature,greater turbidity,lowerlightintensity,
higher soilnitrogen,anddeeper submergencemaydecrease thecarbohydratecontent
oftheplant,anddecreasethepercentageofsurvivalundersubmerged conditions
(IRRI, 1972).Total submergenceofolderriceplants,eventhoughofrelatively
shortduration (1or2days), isdetrimental,asmaybeseeninTables2and3.
Susceptibility isgreatestduring latetillering,panicle formation,andflowering
ofrice .Whenpartoftheplantsremainabovethewater,damagebyflood isnot
asgreat.
Itisevident thatalthoughyoungplantsarelesssusceptibletodamagebysubmer-
gence,theywillbemoreeasily submerged andforlongerperiods thanthetaller
plantsatpanicleformationstage.Fromtheexperimental evidence itappearsthat
during thefirststages (1-2monthsaftertransplanting)varietieswhichattain
ultimatelengthsof 1-2mwillendure3to5daysofsubmergencewithoutsubstan-
tialdamage,provided thedepthisnotmorethan15cmabovethenormaldepthof
say5cm.Greaterdepthwill submerge theplantpartlyorwhollyandreduce
tilleringcapacity.Itwillbeevident thatfloodingduring earlygrowthphases
causesthemaintrouble.Drainageshould thereforepreventwaterlevels inrice
fieldsfromrisingbymore than15cm.Themaximumallowabledepthisthus20cm
foraperiodofthreetofivedays.Thisisthecriticaldepth.
The introductionofshortage,short straw,highproducingvarietiesdemandsamore
efficientsurfacedrainagetopreventcompletesubmergenceoftheshortseedlings
during thefirstweeksaftertransplanting3.Ithasbeenestimated that,without
Notonlydoesturbidmuddywater transmit lesslight,butitmayalsocause

stomatatobecloggedbythemud.Bothlesslightandcloggingofstomatase-
verelyreduceratesofphotosynthesis.This inturnhasabad influenceonthe
oxygensupplywithintheplanttissue,leadingultimatelytorepressionofthe
oxidizingpoweroftheroots.Thisagainmakestheplant lesstolerant tosub-
mergence.
Thiseffectofdeepwateronthericecropiscomparablewiththeeffectof
excessively shallowgroundwater levelsonothercrops (VANDEGOOR, 1972).
Ontheotherhand itisworthwhilementioning thatthesevarietiescomplete
their lifecycleinashortperiodof90-100days.Atabout45to55daysafter
transplanting theseplantsarealreadyintheelongationphase.Moreover,as
wasfound forsomeoftheseshortvarieties,therateofelongationmay
increaseunder thestimulusofdeeperwater.
365
improved water control, the new short-strawed varieties cannot be introduced in
about 30% of the current rice-cultivation area of Bangla Desh, Thailand, and the
Mekong Delta.
A consequence of the short growth and early maturing age of these new varieties is
that the crop has to be harvested during the rainy season when heavy rainfall may
interfere with operations. Not only is it impossible to store rainfall during
harvesting, but it may even be necessary to remove all surface water within a few
days. This will mean that the drainage requirement will not be determined by the
rainfall during 4 to 6weeks after transplanting, but by the heavy rainfall during
this final phase of maturation. Hence, in calculating the drainage requirement
from rainfall data, it is necessary to take into account the sowing, transplanting,
and the harvesting date. In a study of double cropping in different parts of the
Mekong Delta, taken as decisive in estimating the drainage, requirement was the
rainfall that could be expected during harvest of the first crop (BALK, 1973).
The permissible water depth will generally be a compromise between that which is
optimal and that which is practical or feasible. To provide for possible future
shortages of rainfall or irrigation water, itmay be necessary to store more
water in the field than would be desirable for the best development of the crop
TABLE 2. Submergence and therateofyield decrease (FUKUDA,]968)
Floodingperiod (days)
Crop growth stage Type of submergence
1-2 3-4 5-7 7+
% % % %
20daysafter Completely under
10 20 30 35
transplanting clearwater
Young panicle Partly under

10 30 65 90-100
formation clearwater
Partly under
20 50 85 90-100
muddywater
Completely under
25 45 80 80-100
clearwater
Completely under
70 80 85 90-100
muddywater
(50% ifsubmerged forhalf days)
Heading
30 80 90 90-100
muddywater
Completely under
15 25 30 70
clearwater
Ripening Completelyunder
5 20 30 30
muddywater
Completely under
clearwater 15 20 30
Partly means leaves (9-15 cm long) rema-in above water surface

366
Rice fields
atthat specificmoment.Theoptimal depthofthewater layer isnotconstant
throughout thevariousphasesofthecrop'sgrowthanddevelopment;itmaynotbe
thesamefordifferentcultivars,although forthemajority oflowlandvarieties
therange isnotgreat.Thedepthofthewater layerwillalsovaryaccordingto
otherrequirements,suchascontrolofweedsand insectsandvariouscultural
practices.
Inmechanized farmingwherericeisbroadcast straight intolargefieldswithcor-
responding greatervariation insoilsurfacelevels,thedepthofwateratthe
lowest spotsofthefieldwillhave tobe 15to20cmorevenmore tomaintain
waterof sufficientdepthonthehighestspots.
InN.Australia itwasfound that,depending onwater temperatureandwind,satis-
factory seedling establishment couldbeobtained in6inches (15cm)ofstanding
waterduring themonthafter sowing.Inthisrain-grown lowland ricearea,evena
maximumpondageof10inches isallowed tobridgedryspells.Deepwater,however,
mayresult inpoor tillering.Ifthisbecomesobvious,thewater layermustbe
reduced toshallowdepthassoonaspossible toencourage stooling.Ontheother
hand,if,toprevent slimedamage,very shallowdepthsareapplied until theplants
commencestoolingorifaheatwaveoccursduring tillering,theshallowwater
may causethericeplants toscald.Theavailable informationonappropriatedepths
forthewater layerallows thefollowing general guidelines tobepresented.For
oneormoreweeks (uptofourormore)prior tosowingortransplanting,alayer
of5cmormore iskeptonthefield
- toallowcultivationand levellingofthesoil
- tomaintain thesoil inpuddled and saturated condition sothatcracking
and aerationofthesurface soil isprevented,hencetoreducelossesof
nitrogenandwater
- tocontrol thedevelopment ofweeds
- topromote theanaerobic decomposition oforganicmatter,.greenmanure,or
compostedweeds sothatnitrogen ispreserved asammonia,and togetrid
ofharmfulsubstances.
Between sowingandharvest,thedepthofthewater layer should preferablybema-
nipulated asfollows:
During germinationandearly growthoftheseedlings (15-30days),depth shouldbe
shallow (1or2cm).If,during thisperiod,thericeisgrowninnurseries (the
areaofwhich isonly 1/10 to 1/20ofthefieldstowhich thericewillbelater
transplanted)therewillbenodifficulty inmaintaining thisdepth.Aftertrans-
planting,thedepth iskeptbetween5and 10cm.Thisrelatively greatdepth
during thefirst 10to 15daysafter transplanting servestocontrol thegermina-
tionandgrowthofweed plants,topreventdesiccationofthevulnerableandoften
almostrootlessriceseedlings,andtopromotedevelopmentofnewrootsandelon-
gationofleaves.
Thisisvery important sinceyoung seedlingsaremost susceptible todamageby
salts,acids,and sulphides (JACQ, 1973).
367
If a great depth of water is retained after this "rooting" phase, the development
of tillers will be repressed. Deep water during panicle formation results in ste-
rility and smaller panicles.Hence, the overall effect of toomuch water during
these phases is a lower yield of grain. Nor is "deep"water required at this time
for the control of weed growth; the increasing number of tillers and leaves of
the rice plants chokes the weeds effectively. Thus, from about twoweeks after
transplanting until two or three weeks before harvest, the level of water in the
field should be kept at about 5 cm. Arbitrarily this may be somewhat less (from
3-5 cm) for short indicas and japonicas and more (from 5-10 cm) for traditional
tall indica varieties. In practice,more depth can be tolerated without too much
reduction inyield if taller transplantable seedlings are used, if double trans-
planting is practised, or if,with direct sowing,more seed is sown to counteract
the negative effect on germination and tillering.
TABLE 3. Submergencedamage ofriceaccording togrowth

stage inKorea1
clearwater muddywater
1 3 5 7 1 3 5 7
(daysofsubmergence)
%yield reduction
Tillering period mid-July 25 55 100 100 30 100 100 100
Panicle formation earlyAug. 15 45 90 95 20 50 90 100
Head sprouting lateAug. 25 95 100 100 45 100 100 100
After-flowering early Sept. 15 50 50 50 45 85 85 85
Milky stage mid-Sept. 5 5 10 10 15 35 40 65
Ripening 5 20 20 30 10 20 30 30
1
Source: FAO, Rome. Report on the Mokpo'o Yongsan Scheme (1965)
35.5.3 PERCOLATION IN RICE FIELDS
Percolation water leaches soluble non-adsorbed chemical constituents from the root-
zone. In lowland rice culture,natural percolation functions as a kind of rootzone
drainage or internal drainage. In flat areas with heavy impervious clay and organic
soils, but also on pervious soils inmore advanced rice farming (e.g.Japan), it may
be necessary or profitable to apply artificial rootzone drainage since natural
percolation will be inadequate.
Natural percolation will to some extent prevent the accumulation of noxious sub-
stances to harmful concentrations, but at the same time it may cause the loss of
useful nutrients. In an experiment in the Philippines it was found that internal
drainage at 10mm per day for 12weeks caused losses of between 29 and 56 kg of
N per ha without any compensating benefits (IRRI, 1967). The value of percolation
in aerating the soil is negligible.
368
Riee fields
During periodsofhighrainfallorfloods,therateofpercolationwillgenerally
betoolowtocopewithexcesswateronthefield.Moreover,harmful inundations
predominantly occur inlow-lying,flatareaswherepercolation lossesaresmall
ornon-existentanyway.
Theoptimumrateofpercolationvarieswiththekindandconcentration oftoxic
substances,soilproperties,cropgrowing stage,availabilityofwater,andfarming
practices suchasfertilizerapplication.Tntheadvanced agricultureofJapan
highyieldsofriceareobtained fromfieldswithapercolationrateof10-15
mm/day (ISOSAKI,1957;FUJIOKA,1958;FUKUDA,1968).
Inmost traditionalrice-growing countries,however,wheretallindicavarieties
withalowfertilizerresponsepredominate,percolation isgenerally considered
harmful sincebothwater andfertilizerareoftenscarce.Inthesecountries
measures todiminishpercolationlossesbelong tothenormalcultivationpractices.
Horizontal percolation (leveepercolation,lateral seepage)isusuallypredominant
interraced fieldsand lessornegligible inflatareas.Therateofthisperco-
lationmaybe3to10timesthatofverticalpercolation.Theactual lossesare
lessbecausepartofthelateralseepagewater isre-used intheadjacentareas.
Also,thelargerthearea,thelessthelossesperunitarea.
Percolationdependsonsoilcharacteristics suchastexture,structure,andprofile
differentiation.Somesoilscrackheavilyduring theoff-seasonand ifafterflood-
ingthey swellonly slightly,percolation lossesmayremainratherhighduring
therice-growing period.Ontheotherhandheavy swelling soilslikevertisols
willsoonbecomealmostorcompletely impervious.Asaresultofmanyyearsof
ricecultivation,othersoilsshowamarkedhorizondifferentiation inwhich
compact layersandFeandMn-layersarefound,thepresenceoftheselayers
causingpercolation todecrease (KOENIGS, 1961).Thepercolationrategenerally
declines to20or30%oftheinitialratewithinthreetofouryearsofreclama-
tion (FUKUDA, 1968).
Puddling,asmentioned already,mayhaveagreat influence.Onaloamy soilade-

creaseoffrom37.7mm/day to6.7mm/daywasachievedbypuddlingoperations,
andafurtherdecreasewas foundlater inthegrowing seasonwhenévapotranspira-
tionincreased (FUJIOKA, 1958;VANDEGOOR, 1960).
Percolationcanbedecreasedbymixing thesoilwithclayorbentonite (claybe-
longing tothemontmorillonitefamilyasinvertisols).Vinylclothspread ata
depthof30-40cmbelowsoilsurfaceissporadicallyused inheavypervioussoils
during thefirstyearsofreclamation (MATSUBAYASHI, 1967).
During experiments inIndia (RAOetal., 1972)good resultswereobtained onlate-
ritic sandyclayloamsoilswithahighhydraulicconductivityof0.3cm/hrwhen
369
subsurfacebarrierswereprovided atadepthof20,30or40cm.Bitumenwasused
tolayabarrierat20and40cmdepthand cementat30cm.Yieldsofricegrown
over thesubsurfacebarriersweresignificantlyhigher thanthoseover thecontrol.
The increase inyieldwasattributed toincreased uptakeofN,P,andFerendered
availablebyconduciveredoxpotential.Thesubsurfacebarriersreduced thewater
requirement drastically from3,173mmto896mmintheboro (dry)seasonandfrom
706to476mmintheaman (wet)season.Thedecreases inwater lossesarecompa-
rablewith thoseofthepuddling experiment inIran (VANDEGOOR, I960).
Another effectivemeansofreducingpercolation lossesistokeep thewater inthe
supplychannels,onthefields,and inthedrainsatapproximately thesamelevel,
which is,essentially,controlled inundation.
35.5.4 DRAINAGEFACILITIESONRICEFIELDS
From thediscussion intheprecedingpages,itwillbeevident that lowlandrice
fieldsrequiredrainage inorder tomaintainawater layerofpreferably 5cm
onthesoilsurface and toprevent thiswaterfromrising tomore than20cmabove
soilsurface.
Sincemanyofthelowlandriceareasarelocated inflat low-lying alluvialplains,
withhighlocalrainfallduring themaingrowth season,runoff from thehinter-
land,andriver-floods,itisoftennotphysically oreconomically feasibleto
haveaperfect surfacedrainage system.Instead,acertainsubmergencewillbe
allowed foracertaintime.Thegreatest intensityofrainfall inaperiodofone
toseveraldaysofcontinuous rainisusuallyduring thefirsthoursofthatpe-
riod.Thenaturaldrainagefacilitiesoftheindividual ricefieldscannotcope
with thesegreat initial amounts ofrainwater.After thestartoftherainthe
higher fieldswillbegin todischarge tothelowerfields,but inmost fieldsthe
water level inthefirsthourswillrisealmostproportionallywith theamount
ofrainfall andmay eventemporarily overtop thebunds.Aslongasthecrests
ofthebundsarenotabovethemaximumallowabledepthofsubmergenceofthe
riceplantsanddischargeover thebunds tolower fieldsisnotchecked toomuch,
littleharm isdone.Withadecrease intheintensityofrainfall thewaterin
thefieldswillfalltomoreacceptabledepths,provided theoutflowthrough
openings inthebunds isadequate.Thedrainagecapacitydependsonthedepthand
thevelocityofthewater inthefieldand thewidthorcross-sectional areaof
theopenings.Theopenings inthebundsmayconsistofgapsororifices,the
latteroftenmadeofbamboo.Inslopingareas theflowthrough theopeningwill
dischargefreely,whileinflatareas itwilloccurundersubmerged (drowned)
conditions.Thedischargethendependsalsoonthedownstreamwater level,which
maybeahandicap fortherapidevacuationofwater fromthefield.Although
farmerswillusuallykeepbundsandopenings inpropercondition,itwillbe
370
Rice fields
beyond theirmeans toprovideforgooddrains.Thedrainagecapacity insuch
areas isthereforeoftenverylimited.Thehigher fieldsmaydischarge tothelower
fieldsbutundesirable submergencewillgradually spreadover thelowerpaddies.
Theproblem isthereforetolimitthedepthof submersionbyprovidingadequate
out-flowfromthelowest-lying fields.Ifthesefieldsaresituated incoastal
areas,drainagecanalsand theiroutfalls totheseamayprovetobebottlenecks.
All toooften,drainsandnaturalwaterwaysareof inadequatecapacityandare
siltedupandchokedwithweeds (waterhyacinth,Eichhorniacrassipes,reeds,etc.),
whilegates totheseamaybeeroded and inneed ofrepair.
35.5.5 DRAINAGEMODULEANDDRAINAGEPRACTICES
Tocontrol thewater level inthericefield,adesigncapacityhastobeestimated
forthedrainagesystem.Thisdesigncapacity,ordrainagemodulus (D) ,isbased
ontheamountofrainfallwhichmay causeundesirable floodingduringcritical
phasesofricegrowthinperiods lasting 1,2,3,4,5ormore (n)daysandex-
pected tooccuronce in1,2,3,4,5, ...10ormore (T)years.1Themethodused
toestimate thisdrainage criterion isessentially thesameasthatdiscussed in
Chap.18,Vol.111.Thepermissible increaseinthedepthofthewater layerwill
usuallynotbemore than50-150mmand theperiod thisincreasewillbetolerated
may rangefromafewhours toafewdays.
InFig.3itisassumed thatthehighest rainfall intensityoccurs inthefirst
hours (1-6hours)ofthe5-dayperiod,whichasmentioned isoftenthecase.It
isfurtherassumed that theamountofwater thatcanbetemporarily storedwithout
harming thericeplant is3inchesor75mmabovethenormallevel.Tofindthe
drainagemodule,oneproceeds asfollows.Fromthe75mmpointoftherainfall
axis,tangent linesaredrawntothevariousrainfallduration frequencycurves.
The slopeofthetangent linenowrepresents thedesigndischarge.Tofindthe
values fordrainagedesignthelinesparallel tothetangent linespassing through
theoriginaredrawn.Witha5-^yearreturnperiod thisvalueis1inch/day
(25mm/day); fora10-yearreturnperiod itis2inches/day (50mm/day),andfor
a20-year returnperiod 6inches/day (150mm/day).
Therainfalldurationfrequencies intheexamples arerepresentative fortropical

riceregions.Itwillbeevident thatwitharainfallreturnperiod of20years
andamaximum storageofonly 75mm,therequireddrainagecapacitywouldbeex-
tremelyhigh (150mm/dayor 17.31/secha).Alowerdrainagemodulecanbeapplied,
however,ifagreatertemporary rise inwater levelispermitted.Ifthedrainage
module istakentobe2inches instead of6inches,themaximumwaterdepthwould
Intheexamplespresentedhereithasbeenassumed thatanyrunoff fromadjacent
areasorany irrigationwaterentering thedrainage systemofthericeareaare
compensated forbyévapotranspirationandpercolationlosses.
be5.5 inches (138mm)insteadof3inches,andwithadrainagemoduleof 1.5
inches itwouldbe6.3 inches (158mm). Fromtheintersectionofthecumulative
drainagecapacity linesand therainfallfrequencydurationcurves,thetime
required before thewater isbacktoitsoriginal levelcanbeestimated.Witha
rainfallonce inthe20yearsandadrainagemoduleof50mm (2inches),itwould
takeabout5.5 days,andwith adrainagemoduleof37.5mm,itwould take7.3days.
Althoughaswillbeseeninotherexamplesadrainagemoduleof37.5mm (1.5in.)
andamaximumincreaseofwaterdepthof 158mmisnotabnormal,usuallyless
extremerainfalldurationfrequencieswithreturnperiodsof three,five,orten
years arechosenfordrainagedesignpurposes.
4 5 6 F i g . 3 . R a i n f a l l d u r a t i o n frequency
duration in days ( F i g . 7 , Chap.18, V o l . 1 1 1 ) .
Itisonly inrecentyears thatthesubjectofdrainageofricefieldshasbeen
givendueattention.Asmostoftheknowledge thathasbeenacquired isonly
available inrestricted reports,itwill thereforebereviewedhere.
InTable4anexample infigures ispresented fora5-dayrainfallperiod oncein
5yearsandonce in10yearswithassumed drainagemodulesof20and 25mmper
day.Itwasassumed thatdamage tothericecropcouldbeexpected ifthedepth
ofthewaterlayer inthefieldwere toexceed 150mmforfivedaysorlongerin
thefirstmonths after transplanting.
With arecurrenceperiodof 10yearsandadrainagemoduleof20mm,thepermis-
sibledepthwouldbe surpassed formore than5days.Tobeonthesafeside,
therefore,adesigncriterionof30mm/day (3.51/secha)wasproposed.
ForariceareaintheRuzizivalley (Chap.28,Vol.IV)agreatervariationin
drainagecapacitieswasassumed forthreerainfallduration frequencies toesti-
mate thetimerequired (inhours)forthewater inthericefield toregainits
normal level (Table 5). ThevaluedHmaxgivesanestimateofthemaximumheight
inmmbywhich theoriginalwater levelwillbeexceeded during theindicated
rainfall period.Ifthepermissiblemaximumheightofwaterthatcanbetolerated
onthefieldduring acertaincriticalperiod isknown,itispossible toselect
372
Rice fields
the drainage capacity for a certain rainfall duration frequency. For instance,
one can read from the table that,with a drainage capacity of 40mm/24 hrs, the
normal water level in the rice field will be exceeded by amaximum of 55mm once
in five years and that itwill take 58 hours before thewater level is back to its
original level again. For this particular area a drainage module of 43.2 mm
(5 1/sec ha) was chosen,which means that the greatest amount of rainfall (130 mm)
will be discharged within 3 days.
TABLE 4. Cumulative rainfall and drainage inthe SetjanggangArea

(Sumatra,Indonesia;Rep.to theGov.of Indonesia, 1971,ILACO)
Once in 5 years, 3-day rainfall
Cumulative Cumulative d:rainage Excesswater Wati3r1; ayer

Day rainfall inthefield
20mm/day 25 mm/day normalhe: ight totaldepth
(ram) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b)
1 110 20 25 90 85 50 140 135

2 130 40 50 90 80 50 140 130
3 150 60 75 90 75 50 140 125
4 165 80 100 85 65 50 135 115
5 180 100 125 80 55 50 130 105
6 180 120 150 60 30 50 110 80
7 180 140 175 40 5 50 90 55
Once in 10 yeavss 5-day raïnfalt

1 120 20 25 100 95 50 150 145
2 150 40 50 110 100 50 160 150
3 170 60 75 110 95 50 160 145
4 190 80 100 110 90 50 160 140
5 210 100 125 110 85 50 160 135
6 210 120 150 90 60 50 140 110
7 210 140 175 70 35 50 120 85
8 210 160 200 50 10 50 100 60
9 210 180 225 30 - 50 80 50
10 210 200 250 10 - 50 60 50
TABLE 5. Time required inhours todrain theindicated rainfall
Rainfall duration dHmax drainaige c iapacity mm/24 hrs

frequency mm
30 40 50 60 70
1x2years,
(46,69, 82) r 40 60 32 21 . 17 14
1x5years ,
(63,91,107) 55 108 58 37 26 21
1x 10years ,
(74, 112,130) 65 >120 83 57 40 31
rainfall in wn on the first, second, and third day of a 2-day rain period
373
D r a i n a g e m o d u l e s e s t i m a t e d on t h e b a s i s of r a i n f a l l r e c u r r e n c e a r e p r e s e n t e d in
T a b l e s 6 and 7 f o r r i c e i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s i n I n d o n e s i a and f o r t h e Kemubu r i c e
p r o j e c t i n K e l a n t a n ( M a l a y s i a ) (ANONYMOUS, 1 9 7 0 ) .
TABLE 6. Drainage modules a c c o r d i n g to r a i n f a l l r e c u r r e n c e i n I n d o n e s i a
Recurrence mm/day litres/sec ha

years range average
range average
2 19 26 32 46 65 37 2.3 3 3.7 5.3 7.5 4.3
5 31 39 59 75 110 63 3.6 4.5 6.8 8.7 12.7 7.3
TABLE 7. Drainage module a c c o r d i n g t o r a i n f a l l r e c u r r e n c e i n K e l a n t a n
Recurrence Drainage module Equivalent Equivalent

years acres per cusec w a t e r d e p t h (mm) l i t r e s / s e c o n d ha
2 20 31 3.6
5 11 57 6.5
10 7.5 83 9.6
P r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8 a r e d r a i n a g e modules p r o p o s e d f o r t e r t i a r y and s e c o n d a r y
c a n a l s i n t h e Kemubu p r o j e c t . ( T e r t i a r y d r a i n s a r e d r a i n s a t farm l e v e l ; secondary
d r a i n s c o n v e y t h e w a t e r t o t h e p r i m a r y s y s t e m . ) T h e s e m o d u l e s w e r e b a s e d on s e p a -
r a t e e s t i m a t e s o f damage t h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e c a u s e d b y u n d u e s u b m e r g e n c e o f
t h e r i c e by maximum r a i n f a l l e v e r y f i v e y e a r .
TABLE 8. Proposed d r a i n a g e module f o r t e r t i a r y and s e c o n d a r y c a n a l s i n K e l a n t a n
Acres Equivalent
L i t r e s / s e c o n d ha
p e r cusec w a t e r d e p t h (cm)
Secondary canal 12.5 5.0 5.7

Tertiary canal 11 5.6 6.5
Source Tables 7 and 8: Government of Malaysia, Division of Irrigation and

Drainage. Feasibility Project of Kerubu Project. Sogreah (1966). (From
AllOiriMOVS, 1970.)
374
nee. : i-eLas
For the Chao Phya delta in Thailand, with three-day periods of rainfall ranging
from 110mm once every two years to J75 mm once every 10years,a design criterion
of 46 mm or 5.32 litres/second ha was selected for tertiary drains (ANONYMOUS,
1970). In this study it was demonstrated that if the maximum rainfall frequency
duration were considered over an increasingly larger area, it would reduce as
shown in Table 9.
TABLE 9. Maximum rainfall/total arearelationship during 10-day period in

ChaoPhyaDelta (inmm)
Returnperiod 1station 2stations JOstations 18stations

(years) (10,000ha) (220,000ha) (700,000ha)
2 160 140 135 135
5 250 230 200 200
10 320 280 250 250
On the basis of these data the drainage module 6.25 litres/second ha for tertiary
systems could be reduced to 3.5 litres/second ha for primary systems.
As has been discussed, drainage is mostly needed during the first 4-6 weeks after
transplanting. It is possible, however, that rainfall during other stages of growth
may be critical:when double cropping with short duration varieties is practised,
for instance, deep water layers during the harvest period would be harmful.
In estimating the drainage requirements for rice areas in different parts of the
Mekong Delta, it was assumed that the removal of a three-day rainfall within
three days during harvest time was determinative (BALK, 1973). Rainfall during
this period would interfere with harvesting operations, and high water levels at
this stage would be detrimental to the quality of the rice seed. Hence, drainage
criteria were estimated to range between 47 mm (5.4 1/sec ha) for a three-day
rainfall of 140mm, to 57mm (6.6 1/sec ha) for a three-day rainfall of 170 mm
during harvest time. If the rainwater were removed within a period of 5 days -
instead of 3 days -which is acceptable, the drainage requirement would be 40%
lower or 3.3 - 4 1/sec ha.
In comparing the drainage modules estimated for different conditions,one finds

that, excluding exceptionally low and exceptionally high values, they range between
30-60 mm per day (3.5-6.8 1/sec h a ) . The average value is 45 mm or 5.3 1/sec ha.
In general, this average is considerably higher than that usual for temperate
areas.
375
For the secondary and primary drainage canals, these values can be reduced consi-
derably if the area to be drained by the system is large (Table 9 ) .If a reduction
of 40% is applied, the average value of 45 mm for the tertiary systems becomes
27 mm (3.1 1/sec ha) for the primary canals. If requirements are less strict with
regard to permissible and tolerable depth of water on the field, more rain-water
could temporarily be stored on the field and the drainage capacity could be re-
duced accordingly (Fig.3). The average D (tertiary canals)might become 40% lower
or 30-35 mm (3.5 to 4 l/sech a ) .
When intermittent or rotational irrigation is supplied, as is the practice in a

large area of Taiwan, drainage (to some extent) recurs at certain intervals. After
the rice is transplanted the irrigation cycles of such a system are as follows:
10days submerged and 5 days drained

8 days submerged and 6 days drained
9 days submerged and 7days drained
10days submerged and 10 days drained.
Economic water use and good yields are being obtained in Taiwan with this system.
Less favourable results were found, however, in an experiment with rotational
irrigation carried out at the IRRI (IRRI, 1972). These results are presented in
Table 10.
TABLE 10. Drymatterproduction,height,leafarea index (LAI)andyield

of IR20inarotational irrigation experiment (IRRI,1971,
dry season)
Drymatter Grain
Irrigation treatment production Height LAI yield
(g/hill) (cm) (t/ha)
(a) (h) (a)
Continuous flooding 37 90 4.7 6.98
2cmevery 4days 35 84 3.9 5.44
3 cmevery 6days 34 79 3.6 5.42
4 cmevery 8days 30 71 2.5 5.36
5 cmevery 10days 3) 79 2.5 4.05
(a) at harvest
(b) LAI = leaf area index at heading
(a) rriean of two revliaations
The irrigation intervals were different but the average daily application rate
(0.5 cm)was constant.
As is clear from the table, each increase in the irrigation interval resulted
in a reduction in dry matter, height leaf (LAI), and grain production of the plants.
376
Riae fields
Moreextensive soildrying during thelonger irrigation intervals resulted inmore

severemoisture stressand lessefficientwateruse.Thepuddled soilcracked
during thelonger intervalsandallowed rapidseepage,causing theplotstodry
morerapidly thanthemore frequently irrigatedplots,resulting inmoistureand
nitrogenstress.Theconclusionthereforeisthatthepermanentpresenceofthe
layerofwateronthefieldwasfarthebestmethod ofirrigation.
Ashasbeendiscussed,thenormalwaterlayeronthericefieldwillhavetobe
drained toallowfarmpractices suchasfertilizerapplication,weeding,andhar-
vesting.This typeofdrainage issometimesapplied tostopexcessive tilleringor
topreventandcurediseasesand togetridofpests.Undernormal conditions
thismeans thatalayer ofwaterof5to10cmhas toberemoved in2to3days,
or inotherwordsatarateof25to35mm/day (2.8-4.0 1/secha).Usually irri-
gationwillbecutoffbefore thattimesothatthelayerofwater isgradually
consumed intheprocessofévapotranspirationandlesswaterhastobedrained.
Theamountofwater tobedischarged forsuchpurposes istherefore generally
lower thanthatofexcessiverainfall,andhenceisnotdeterminativefordrainage
capacitydesign.
Surfacedrainage todrythesoilforharvesting ispartoftheregularpractice

inriceculture,although thewatermustbeheldontheland longenough topermit
thericetoreachpropermaturity.
Drainage todry thesoil isgenerally done10to20daysprior toharvestingwhen

thepaniclesareturned andthegrainsatthetipsofthepaniclesaremoreor
lessripeand thoseatthebaseofthepanicleareinthehard-dough Stage.This
stagewillbereached 20to25daysafterheading.Sufficientmoisturewillthen
usually remaintoensurethematuring ofgoodnon-cracking rice.Theresidual
moisturecontentofthesoillargelydetermineswhenlandpreparationforcrops
inrotationwithricecanbegin.
Experiments ontheeffectoftimeofsurfacedrainageonyield andyield components
revealed theresults shown inTable ]](IRRI, 1972).
Itisevident fromtheyield results that therightmomentofdrainage formatu-

rationandharvestwarrantsacareful selection.Moisture stressnear the timeof
headingprevented theemergenceofpanicles;otheryield components likenumber
ofgrainsperpanicleand 100-grainweightwerealsoadversely influenced.More-
over,when themoisture contentof theseedbecomes toolow,crackingandbreaking
percentagesof thericewillbehigh.Ontheotherhand,ifdrainage isdelayed
unduly,ripeningwillberetarded andmoregreenricewillbeharvested.
377
During the off-season the soils will be drained thoroughly and will dry out.Re-
duced Fe and Mn will be re-oxidized during the dry period and give the future
rice fields an improved oxidation potential again.
TABLE 11. Effect of timeof surfacedrainage forharvest
Time of 100-grain No.of No.of Yield

drainage weight panicles filled grains perpot
(daysafterheading) (ingram) perpanicle (ingram)
0 0 9 0 0
3 0 H 33 1.8
6 0 12 0 0.8
9 1.7 23 121 14.8
11 1.9 21 155 12.5
13 2.2 23 186 22.2
15 2.4 22 178 35.2
18 2.8 23 246 48.0
21 2.6 22 218 49.0
Different types of farm drainage are recognized in rice fields (ANONYMOUS, 1970):
- A shallow surface drainage system for the removal of excess water from the
soil surface. Allowance is sometimes made for this system during operations to
smooth and shape the land surface. This system is generally needed on all rice
fields except those on highly pervious soils.
- A shallow surface drainage system combined with a deeper system designed

to lower the water table at critical times. The deeper system normally consists
of open ditches one metre deep at a spacing of 50 to 100metres. This system is
applied when undesirable conditions exist in the rooting zone of rice fields (the
deeper drains accelerating percolation),when other crops requiring a lower water
table are grown, and when conditions are such that leaching is required.
- A shallow surface system combined with a subsurface system to provide

groundwater table control, e.g. in areas where salinity control is required or in
other problem areas. In parts of Japan low-lying paddy lands are provided with
underground pipe drains to permit the growth of winter crops.The earthenware or
concrete tubes 6 cm in diameter are placed at a depth of about 1metre below
soil surface and at intervals of from 7 to 12metres for soils high in organic
matter content, from 12 to 1 8 m for sandy clay soils, and from 18 to 25m lighter
soils. At the lower end of each pipe line, i.e. at the point where it enters
the collector canal, an upright tube with valve is placed. This valve is kept
closed when the fields are flooded for rice and opened only when drainage is
necessary for rice, it is kept open continuously during the growth of winter crops.
If necessary, pumps are used to remove drainage water.
378
Rioe fields
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382
36. P R O C E D U R E S I N D R A I N A G E S U R V E Y S
N . A. DE R I D D E R
Geohydrologist
International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement
R. VAN AART
Land Reclamation Specialist
International Agricultural Centre,
Wageningen
PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Ageneral guideforadrainage survey.Procedures,datacollection,processing

and integrationasabasisfordrainagedesignsarebrieflydiscussed.
CONTENTS
36.2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY 385

36.2.1 Topography 386
36.2.2 Geology andphysiography 386
36.2.3 Soilsand landuse 387
36.2.4 Surfacedrainage conditions 387
36.2.5 Subsurfacedrainageconditions 389
36.3 DETAILED SURVEY 392

36.3.1 Topography 392
36.3.2 Dischargecriteria 392
36.3.3 Fielddrainagedata 393
36.3.4 Densityofobservationnetwork 394
36.3.5 Mapping procedures 396
LITERATURE 409
Procedures
36.1 INTRODUCTION
The separateelementsofalanddrainage surveyand thetechniques thatcanbe

appliedwhenconducting suchsurveyshaveallbeencovered inVolumeIII.Since
these subjectswere treated somewhat inisolation,however,acertainneedis
felt forastep-by-step accountofhowtoproceedwhen facedwith thedrainage
problemsofanarea.Somefurtherclarificationmaybefoundusefulastothe
typeandnumberofdatatobecollected andhowsuchdatashouldbeprocessedand
integrated inordertoarriveatalternativeplansforimprovementandeventually
ataproperdrainagedesign.
Inthischapterweshalllimitourconsiderations tothereconnaissanceand
detailed drainagesurvey,thesebeing thetypesofinvestigationsmostcommonin
drainagework.Indoing sowedonotmeantoimply thatthesearetheonlytypes
ofsurveys tobeconducted.Itmay incidentallybefoundnecessary toperform
anexploratorydrainagesurveytofindoutwhether adrainageprojectmakesany
senseatall,orasemi-detailed surveymayberequired asanintermediatestep
betweenareconnaissance and adetailed survey.Nordowesuggest thatthepro-
ceduresoutlinedbelowwillbeunconditionally applicableunderallcircumstances.
36.2 RECONNAISSANCESURVEY
Asmentioned inChap.17,Vol.111,thefirststeptotakewhenfacedwiththe
drainageproblemsofanareaistoconductareconnaissance survey.Itsaimis
todetermine thetechnical andeconomic feasibility oftheproposed project.If
theoutcomeofthis survey ispositive,amoredetailed survey isthenconducted.
Areconnaissance survey canbegreatly simplified ifdatafromallpossible

sourcesarecollectedbeforehand:aerialphotographs,photomosaics,topographi-
cal,geological,physiographical,soil,andlandusemaps,thelogsofshallow
anddeepwells,water tableandriverwater levelrecords,climatologicaland
agriculturaldata.Ifonehasallthis informationatone'sdisposal,verylittle
fieldworkwillberequired.Usually,however,thisinformationwillbefarfrom
completeandadditional fieldworkwillhave tosupply themissingpieces.The
specific information thatareconnaissance survey shouldprovide isreviewed
brieflybelow.
385
36.2.1 TOPOGRAPHY
Areconnaissance drainage survey isusually conducted inareaswhose sizeranges

fromabout 50,000to250,000ha.Atopographicalmaponascaleof 1:100,000to
1:250,000and showing thecontour linesof theland surface isoneofthefirst
requirements.Ifsuchamapdoesnot exist,aprovisional topographicalmap
shouldbemadeusingpreferably controlled aerialphotomosaics.Themapshould
showall topographic andphysiographic features relevant todrainage:towns,vil-
lages,roads,railroads,pathwaysand tracks,rivers,creeks,canals,ditches,
cultivated land,waste land,naturalvegetation,etc.
Governed by thetopography oftheareaaresuchmatters asthesitingofobser-

vationpoints,thealignment and slopeofmaincanals,collectorditches,and
field laterals,themaximum lengthofthefield laterals,theinstallationof
weirs,and theselectionofthedrainageoutlet. Spotwise elevationsofthe
land surface shouldbeshownonthetopographicalmap,enabling theslopeofthe
land tobederived.Asimplegeodeticfield surveywillprovide thisinformation.
36.2.2 GEOLOGYANDPHYSIOGRAPHY
During areconnaissance survey,onewillacquireacertainknowledgeofthegeo-

logyoftheproject areaandof itssurroundings.Sincegeological conditions
cancausedrainageproblems,ashasbeenexplained inChap.1,Vol.1,ageological
mapoftheregionmaybemosthelpful indelineating problemareas.Smallscale
geologicalmapswillusuallynotshowdetailed informationofthegeologyof
alluvialplains.Hencemajorandminor landscapefeatureswillhavetobemapped
onthebasisofaerialphotographs,withalimitedamountoffieldworktoassess
theirgeology.
Inareconnaissance survey therewillusuallynotbesufficient timeormoney

available forexploratorydrilling.Yet,itisofcrucial importance thatsome
knowledgebegainedofthesubsurfacegeological conditions oftheprojectarea.
Thegeologicalmap shouldbesupplemented byanumberofcrosssections showing
thelithological sequence,thedepthand thicknessofwater-transmitting layers,
and thedepthoftheimpervious layer.Forthispurposeasearchshouldbemade
forthelogsofexistingwells (deepwellsandvillagewells).Ifsuchlogsdo
notexist,anumberofhand augerholes canbemadetoadepthof5or6m.For
reasonsofefficiency andeconomy thisworkcanbecoordinatedwiththatofthe
soilsurvey (seebelow).
386
t'roceaures
36.2.3 SOILSANDLANDUSE
Prior toplanning adrainagesystem,onemustknowwhat theland istobeused

for.Theproposed landusewill largelydeterminethedegreeofdrainagerequired
and thetypeofdrainage system thatwillbeinstalled. Thiscallsforaproper
knowledgeofthesuitability ofthesoiltogrowcertaincrops. Thedegreeand
typeofdrainagedependsonwhether thelandwillbeused for, say, annualor
perennial crops,cottonorrice,wheat orirrigated pasture. Thetypeofcrop
isthusaleading factor intheeconomyofthedesign.This isalsothereasonwhy
alternative solutions toanarea'sdrainageproblemsoftenhave tobeprovided.
During areconnaissance survey theproject area's soilsshouldbemapped toa

depthofabout 1.20m.Thisshouldprovideaclear answer tothequestionwhether
thesoilsaresuitable fortheproposed cropsor,ifnot,whatothercropscould
begrownsuccessfully.Special attentionshould thereforebegiventothecon-
ditions oftheupperrootzone (0.0to0.30 m ) : itsworkability,waterholding
capacity,erodibility,and,ifirrigation istobepractised,itsinfiltration
rateandwhethercrustsorimpedinglayerswillform.Factorstobestudiedin
thelowerrootzone (0.30to 1.20 m ) , aretheeffective soildepth,internal
drainage (limiting layersforwaterpercolation),andwaterholdingcapacity.
Based ontheresultsofwhatwemight callthis "conventional"soilsurvey,an
agronomic appraisaloftheprojectarea'ssoilpotentialcanbemade,using
current standardsofsoilclassification.Obviously,thesoils inventoryshould
beaccompanied byaninventoryof thepresent landuse.
36.2.4 SURFACEDRAINAGECONDITIONS
Surfacedrainageproblems canhavevariouscauses:flooding fromriversorside-

hillcreeks,runoff fromoutside theproject area (rainwater fromadjacent
higher grounds),orrunoffwithin thearea (rainor irrigationwater).
Areas sufferingfromfloodingmustbeinvestigated for:thelocationandextent

offlooding,thefrequency,depth,anddurationofflooding,timeoftheyear
inwhichfloodingmay occur,theharmful side-effects oftheflooding (erosion,
siltation).Clear statementsmustbemade astowhether floodprotectionmeasures
arenecessary,whichwillrequireacarefulstudyoftheriver regime (water
levels,discharge)inrelationtoprecipitation.
387
Whentheproblem isrunoff fromoutside thearea,astudymustbemadeofrainfall
characteristics (depth,duration,and frequency analysis)andwatershed character-
istics (size,shape,relief,vegetation,and soil).Thiswill enableonetodecide
whether thewatershouldbeprevented fromentering theproject areabyupstream,
regulatoryworksand/ora"catch"canal.
Onflatland,thepresenceofexcesswatermaybedue toinadequate storagecapa-

citiesofnaturalwatercourses,obstructions insuchcourses,irregulartopo-
graphy (localdepressions),poor topsoil conditions (lowinfiltration rate),low
storagecapacity ofthesubsoil (denselayersclosetothesoilsurfaceorshal-
lowwater tables),ortotheabsenceofanoutlet.
Thedesignofasurfacedrainage systemdepends,amongst other things,onthe

amount ofexcesswater tobeexpected intheproject areawithinagivenperiod
and the timeallowed foritsremoval.Thetimewithinwhich thewatermustbe
removed dependsgreatlyontheuseofthelandatthetimetheexcesswateris
present andontheweather conditionsatthatmoment. Forexample,winter
wheat inasubtropical climatecanwithstand severaldaysoffloodingwithout
beingdamaged ifthetemperature isrelatively lowand theskyiscloudy.
The reconnaissance surveyshould provide clear statementsastowhether amain

drainage system isrequired and ifso,whether itstaskwillbetointerceptand
collect floodwater fromadjacent sloping landsortocollectandremoveexcess
surfacewater thatoccurs locally intheproject area.Anestimateofthequanti-
tiesofexcess surfacewater toberemoved perunitoftimemustbemade.In
regions thatarecomparatively unexplored,thiswill requireanumberoffield
measurements having tobemade.Methodsofestimating runoffonflat landand
sloping landarepresented inChap.29,Vol.IV.
Excess surfacewater fromanagricultural areashould obviouslyberemoved along

theshortestpossibleroutes tokeep thecostsofexcavation toaminimum.From
theresultsofareconnaissance survey,onewillbeabletodecidewhethernatural
drainagewayscanbeutilized toremove thewaterorwhether anartificialdrainage
systemwillhavetobe installed.Sincethedirectionandalignmentofthemain
canalsdepend largelyonthetopography and theslopeof theland,thenumberof
alternative routesforthemaincanalswillbelimited,unlessampleuseismade
ofweirs,dropstructures,pumping stations,etc.,whichwillundoubtedlyraise
thecostoftheventure.
388
Procédures
The conditions of the outlet merit special attention during a reconnaissance

survey. It must be investigated whether the excess surface water can be disposed
of by gravity or whether a pumping station will have to be constructed. The survey
report should be accompanied by amap showing roughly the routes of themain drai-
nage canals and the possible site of the outlet (with or without pumping station).
If necessary, suggested sites for storage reservoirs, embankments, protection
works, culverts, bridges, drop structures, etc., should also be shown on the map
and an estimate of their costs included in the report.
36.2.5 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE CONDITIONS
When the problem concerns subsurface drainage conditions, a reconnaissance survey

should focus on the following topics:
- an assessment of the groundwater situation, comprising the depth to the

water table at different times of the year, changes in this depth over short time
spans, the general direction of the groundwater flow, the salt content of the
groundwater, and the areas of groundwater recharge, transmission, and discharge.
From the outcome of the groundwater studies, one can assess:
a) the natural drainage of the project area. If thewater table rises quickly
during heavy rainfall or irrigation, itwill fall after the cessation of rain or
irrigation. The rate of fall is ameasure of the natural drainage: high rates mean
a good natural drainage, low rates a poor natural drainage.
b) the need for subsurface drainage (delimitation of the areas inneed of

subsurface drainage).
- an assessment of the drainabitity of the project area, comprising a study

of the possible outlet (drainage by gravity or pumping), the ability of the sub-
soil to transmit water (the average hydraulic conductivity) and the depth to
the first layer of poor hydraulic conductivity.
- an assessment of the costs of subsurface drainage based on the estimated

kilometres of ditches or pipe drains to be installed.
Some of this information may already have been obtained during the conventional
soil survey mentioned in Section 2.3. For example, if thewater table is shallow
in certain parts of the project area, the auger holes drilled to a depth of
1.20 m will provide information on the water table depth. Similarly, if the im-
pervious layer occurs within 1.20 m of the soil surface, this fact will be revea-
led in these auger holes.
389
Inmany instances,however,thewater tableand theimpervious layer liedeeper
than 1.20m,sono informationontheirpositions canbeobtained fromaconven—
tional soilsurvey.During suchasurvey,noattention is,orcanbe,givento
theimportant questionof thehydrological characteristics ofthesubsoil,i.e.
thelayersatandbelow theenvisaged draindepth.Hence,instudying thesub-
surfacedrainage conditionsofaproject areatheconventional soilmap isof
limitedvalueand ahydropedological (andsometimes alsoageological)survey
ofthedeeperlayerswillhave tobeconducted (Chap.20,Vol.111).
During areconnaissance survey anumberofsoilpits should bedug toadepthof

1.50mandanumberofhandboringsmade toadepthof5m.Asaroughguideto
thenumberofhandborings,wewould suggestoneboringper 1to10km , depend-
ingonthesizeoftheprojectareaandthecomplexityofitsgeologyandphysio-
graphy.Withregard tothesitingoftheborings,nostrictrulescanbegiven,
but thephysiography and thedirectionofsedimentationwill serveasguidelines
inselecting thesites for theborings.Borings should bemade ineachmajor
physiographic unitorinaseriesoftraverses aligned inthedirectionofsedi-
mentation.
Thenumberofsoilpits tobedug shouldberoughly 10percentofthenumber

of5maugerborings thatwillbemade.Thesepits shouldbesitedwithinthe
physiographic unitsdistinguished during thegeomorphological studies.Thepits
will reveal thetexture,structure,mottling,andcolourof theexposed soil
profileandwill allowthesaltandgypsumcontentand thehydraulic conductivity
tobedetermined.Ahandboring isthenmadeatthebottomofeachsoilpitto
5mbelowsoilsurface,whichwillallowsoilcharacteristics liketextureand
mottling tobedescribed,andenablehydraulic conductivitymeasurements tobe
takenatregulardepthintervals. Notethat thezonebetween 1.50 and2.50m
belowsoil surfaceisparticularly important asthedrainspacing islargelyef-
fectedby thehydraulic conductivity ofthematerialbelowdraindepth.
Usuallyboreholesmadewithahand augercannotpenetratedeeper than5mbelow

thesoil surface.Ifnoimpervious layer isfoundwithin thisdepth,itisadvis-
able tomakeasearchforthelogsofdeepwellsortohavesome20mdeepbor-
ingsmade toinvestigate thelayersbelow5m.This information isrequiredbe-
cause thedrainage flow inthosehomogeneous soilswhichallowwidedrainspacings
extendsdeeper than5mbelowsoilsurface (seeSection3.5).
390
Procedures
With alltheaboveinformationatone'sdisposal,itwillbepossible tomake

clear statementson
-whether thesoilprofile ishomogeneous orlayered
-thedepth totheimperviousbase,usually apoorlypervious claybed
-thepresenceorabsenceofapervious tohighlypervioushorizonatorbe-
lowdraindepth (between 1.50and 2.50m)
- thepresenceorabsenceofimpedinghorizonswithintheupper 2mofthe
soilprofile
-thedepth tothewatertableandthezoneinwhich itfluctuatesduring
theyear (mottlingmaybeanindication)
- thesalinity of thegroundwater (electrical conductivity andsodiumadsorp-
tionratio).
Aonce-only observationofthewater tableinasoilpitorboreholewillnot
provide aclear and accuratepictureofthegroundwater situation intheproject
area,thoughmottlingmay indicate thehighestand lowestwater tableheights.
Theobservationsmustberepeated atvarious timesoftheyear.Ifthere isa
riskoftheopenboreholes collapsing,they shouldbeprovidedwithapiezometer
pipe.Villagewells,ifany,canbe included intheobservationnetwork,provided
one issurethat they indicate thetruepositionofthewater table (Chap.21,
Vol.111).Areaswhere thewater table ispermanently lessthan2mbelowsoil
surfaceareclearlyproblemareasand shouldbeindicated onamap.
Itisadvisable todrawanumberofcrosssectionsperpendicular tothenatural
drainageways,showing theelevationoftheland surface,thesoilprofile,and
thewater tableheight (mean,maximum,andminimumheight).
Togainsomeknowledgeof thenaturalgroundwaterdrainageor theinflowofground-

water fromoutside theproject area (foreign Water), anumberofdeepborings
shouldbemade along theprojectarea'sboundaries.Theseborings shouldpenetrate
theentireaquifer throughwhichgroundwatermaybeenteringorleaving thepro-
jectarea.Afewpumping testsshould thenbeperformed,whichwillallowtheaqui-
fer's transmissivity tobecalculated.This information,togetherwithawater table
contourmap,allows therateofgroundwater infloworoutflowtobecalculated
(seeChap.21,Vol.Ill).
Inlow-lying landpartly surroundedbyhighergrounds theinflowofgroundwater
mayconsiderably exceed theoutflow,thuscausingwaterlogging.Thisphenomenon
shouldnotbeunderestimated. Ifdeepmaincanalscutthrough thetopclaylayer,
theymay interceptunexpectedly largeamountsof"seepage".
Insummary,areconnaissancedrainage surveyprovides informationonthenecessity
fordrainage,enables atentative layoutofthemaindrainsand theoutlet tobe
prepared,and allowsthefeasibility ofthedrainageschemetobedetermined.
391
36.3 DETAILEDSURVEY
Thepurposeofadetailed drainagesurvey istocollect alltherelevantfield

data thatwill allowanefficientandeffectivedrainagesystem tobedesigned.
All topicsdiscussed intheprevious sectionre-appear,butnowmuchmoredetail
andgreaterprecision isrequired.
36.3.1 TOPOGRAPHY
Inadetailed drainage survey,topographicalmapsonvarious scaleswillbere-

quired.Besides thesmall-scalemapsusedduring thereconnaissance survey,topo-
graphicalmapsonscalesof 1:2,500and 1:10,000willbeneeded,withcontour
intervals of0.25morless iftheland isveryflat.
36.3.2 DISCHARGE CRITERIA
Toobtainthecorrect dimensions forthemaincanals,collectorditches,andpump-

ingstation,ifany,thedischargecriterionof theproject areamustbeassessed
asaccurately aspossible.
Aprimaryquestion tobeanswered iswhatquantities ofexcesswaterdrained from

thefieldswill themaindrainagesystemhave tocopewithperunitoftimein
different partsoftheyear?Thisdependsonthetypeofsoilandontheagricul-
turalrequirements.Ifthesoil isclay,therewillbemore surfacerunoffand
lessdeepdrainage thanifthesoil issandy.Theheight towhich thewatertable
isallowed torise indifferentpartsoftheyeardepends entirelyonthetype
ofcrops thatwillbegrown.Allexternalwater -whether itbeexcessrainor
irrigationwaterornetgroundwater inflow-thatcauses thewater tabletorise
toahigher levelthanisallowedmustbedrained offbythefield drainsand
ditchcollectorswhichdischarge intothemaincanals.Hence thefielddrainage
criterion forms thestartingpoint indimensioningdischargecapacitiesofditch
collectors andmaincanals.Theprinciples ofassessingfielddrainagecriteria
arediscussed inChap.11,Vol.11.
Acareful studyoftherunoff of indraining streams andcreeksshould bemade,

based onprecipitation dataanddischargemeasurements takeninthesecreekand
streamchannels.
Itshould furtherbedecidedwhether thissurfacewaterwillpass throughthe

project areaorwillbediverted around thearea.Oncethefielddrainagecriteria
havebeenassessed asprecisely aspossible,thedischarge criteriaofthemain
canalscanbecalculated.Alsotobetakenintoaccount istherunoff fromout-
392
Vroaedures
sidetheproject area (ifitistopassthrough thearea),aswellasthedisposal

ofwastewater orsewagewater,ifany.Furtherdetailsonthissubjectarefound
inChap.29,Vol.IV.,which alsodiscussesvariousengineering aspects suchas
permissible flowvelocities incanals,cross sectionsofcanals,embankmentpro-
tection,structures,andpumps.
36.3.3 FIELDDRAINAGEDATA
Withanassessment ofthedrainage criteriabased onclimatologicaldataand

agricultural requirements,quiteanamountoffieldworkyetremains tobedone
beforeonearrivesatacorrectdesign.Thisfieldworkcoversthesametopics
asmentioned under thereconnaissance survey,butnowconsiderablymoredetails
areneeded andhencemoreobservationsmustbemade.
Theresultsofthedetailed survey should giveascompleteapictureaspossible

on
-thesoiltextureandsoilsalinity,preferably toadepthof4to5m
belowgroundsurface
- theoccurrence anddepthoftheimperviousbaselayer;by"impervious"
wemeanalayerwhosehydraulic conductivity isabout 10percentorless
thanthatofthematerialoverlyingit
- theoccurrenceanddepthof impeding layersorhardpanswithin theupper
4 to5mofthesoilprofile
- theoccurrence,depth,and thicknessofhighlypervious sandyorgravelly
layers
- thehydraulic conductivityofthesoilprofileatregulardepthintervals,
especially intherangeof 1.50to2.50morevendeeper
- thedepthtothegroundwater table,thewatertable fluctuation,andthe
directionofgroundwater flow
- thechemicalcompositionofthegroundwater,itselectrical conductivity
and sodiumadsorptionratio
- thePotentiometrieheadof thegroundwater atdifferentdepth intervals
(e.g.at3,5,and 10m,oratanyotherdepthdependingonsubsurface
geological conditions),asabasis forestimatingupward ordownward flow
ofgroundwater,inflowintoandoutflowfromtheprojectarea,andnatural
drainage.
Thetechniques andmethods tobeapplied incollecting all thisinformationhave

beendiscussed inthevarious chaptersofVolumeIII,towhich thereaderis
referred.Somepertinentquestions,however,remaintobeanswered.Theseare:
howmany observations tomake,howtohandleandevaluatehydraulic conductivity
values,andhowtoarriveatdrainage sub-areas,eachofwhich ischaracterized
byasingledrainspacing?
393
36.3.4 DENSITYOFOBSERVATIONNETWORK
Thedensityoftheobservationsitesdependson
-geomorphology oftheareaand thecorrespondingheterogeneity orhomogeneity

tobeexpected.Toattainthesamelevelofaccuracy,fewerobservationsites
arerequired inareasofhomogeneous soilsthaninareasofheterogeneous soils
- the intensityofthesurveyand thecorrespondingmapping scales.The

expecteddrainspacinghasabearingonthedensityoftheobservation sitesin
that thecloser thedrainspacing,thedenserthenetworkofobservationpoints
shouldbe.
Inalluvial plains liketheNileValleyand itsDelta,itwasfound thatone

observation siteperfourhectareswassufficient togainaproperknowledgeof
themost important soilcharacteristics.
Alogical question thatcouldberaised iswhether aconventional soilmapmight

beused asabasis forselecting observation sites.Very similarsoilunitscould,
forexample,belumped intolargerunits ineachofwhichanumberofobservation
sitescouldbeselected todetermine thehydraulic conductivity.Recentinvesti-
gations insomeDutch sandy soilswith loamandboulder clayatdifferentdepth
inthesubsoil,however,have shownthat thenumberofmajor soildrainability
classeswhichcouldbederived fromaconventional soilmap islimited (Med.No.
109, Cultuurtechn.Dienst, 1973). Althougharelationwasfoundbetweenthese
classes and theaveragedrainspacing perclass,thevariation indrainspacing
insideeach classappeared tobevery large.Theobvious reasonforthiswasthat
theconventional soilmapdoesnotcontaininformationonthesoilprofilebelow
1.20m,azonewhichplaysavery important role indetermining thespacingof
thedrains.
Inpractice,therefore,theobservation sitesareplaced inagrid system.Such

asystemhas theadvantages ofbeing objectivewithrespect totheunknown
geological conditionsbelow 1.20m,whiletheobservationsitesareeasilyde-
tectable inthefield.
Deepboringsandpiezometers areoftensited inarectangular grid,whichmaybe
oriented inanyconvenientdirection suitablefortheinvestigations.Itisad-
visable,however,tohaveoneaxisofthegrid coincidingwith thegeneraldi-
rectionofgroundwater flowwhich,undernormal conditions,isperpendicularto
theland surface contour linesandparallel tothemaindirectionofsedimenta-
tion.
394
Procedures
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395
Figure 1illustrates several grid layouts.Inarivervalleyoneaxisofthegrid
isoriented inthedirectionofthevalley,and theotheraxisisperpendicular
toit (Fig.lA).Onuniformly sloping land thegrid isoriented atrightangles
totheslopeoftheland (Fig.IB),and innearly levelalluvialplains thegrid
isoriented tostreams,canals,roads,etc. (Fig.lC).
Inplanning thelayoutofagridorthetraversesalongwhich thedeephand

augerholes andhydraulic conductivity testsaretobemade,oneshouldmakeuse
ofallinformationavailableongeology,physiography,andsoils,andofany
aerialphotomosaics.
Astothespacing oftheaugerholetraversesorgrid lines,oneshouldkeepin

mind thatthemappingdistance isbound toacertainminimum.Theminimummapping
distancebetween twoobservation siteswithinatraverseisonecentimetreand
thatbetweentwotraverses twocentimetres.Wider spacingsmayofcoursebetaken
iftheavailablegeological,physiographical,and soildatasuggest relatively
homogeneous conditions.Neitherwill itbenecessary toinstall,forinstance,
apiezometer ateachnodalpointofthegridor ineachaugerholeofatraverse.
Ontheotherhand,someadditional piezometersmaybenecessarywhere grid lines
crossopenwatercourses,soastodetermine theprecise shapeof thewatertable
near suchchannels (Chap.21,Vol.111).Ifthesoiland subsurfacegeological
conditions arefound tovary considerablybetweentwonodalpointsofthegrid,
someadditional augerholeswillbenecessary todeterminethelocationoftransi-
tionzones.
36.3.5 MAPPINGPROCEDURES
All theinformationcollected atthenodalpointsof thegrid onsoils,soil

characteristics,andgroundwater shouldbeprocessed and transferred toworking
mapswhose scalesaregenerally 1:2,500or 1:10,000,dependingonthesizeof
theareaand theaccuracy required.Figure2(AtoF)givesexamplesofthedif-
ferenttypesofmaps tobeprepared.Sincetheyareself-explanatory,theywill
notbediscussedfurther.
Someremarks,however,willbemadeonthefollowing typeofmaps.
396
Procedures
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399
Contour map of the impervious base layer
Theoccurrenceanddepthoftheimperviousbaselayer isofmajor importancein

anystudyofsubsurfacedrainagebecause ithasagreatbearingonthespacing
ofthefielddrains.Thedeeper thisimpervious layer,thegreater thethickness
oftheoverlyingwatertransmitting layer,andconsequently thewider thedrain
spacing canbe. This isdemonstrated inFig.3,inwhichahomogeneous soilis
assumedwithahydraulic conductivityK=0.50m/day.Theimperviousbaselayer
isfound atthreedifferentdepths:3,8,and50mbelowsoilsurface.
-L= 5 0 m
ivMSïtógiTJ.
SäÖtrtW:
K= 0.5 m/day
i48.20rrfc
Fig.3. Theeffectofthedepthoftheimperviouslayeronthedrainspacing
inahomogeneous soil (afterVANBEERS,unpublished)
400
Procedures
FromHooghoudt'sequationforsteady flowitisfound thatthedrainspacingsfor

adischargeofq=2mm/dayarerespectively 50,95,and 147m ifditchesare
usedwithawettedperimeterofu=2m andanavailableheadofh=0.80m.For
tiledrainswithawetted perimeter ofu=0.30m,thespacingsarerespectively
49,83,and 113m.
Theseresults showthegreateffectwhich thesoilprofilebelowdraindepthhas

onthedrainspacing,more specifically theeffectoftheKD-valuewhich,inho-
mogeneous soil,increases asthethicknessofthewater transmitting layer,D,
increases.Hence itisof theutmost importance that inadrainage surveythe
depthoftheimperviousbaselayerbeexplored andacontourmapof itsupperside
beprepared,showing linesofequaldepth.
Contour map of the aquifer
Theoccurrence,depth,and thicknessofacoarse sandyaquiferunderaproject

areaisalsoofgreat importance inadrainage survey,asittoo,mayhavea
pronounced effectonthedrainspacing tobeapplied (seealsoChap.33,Vol.IV).
Figure4 (A,B,andC)showssomehypothetical examplesofatwo-layered soilpro-
filedrainedbyshallowanddeepditches.Ahomogeneous toplayer isassumed,
3mthick,andwithahydraulic conductivityKi=0.5m/day.Itoverliesalayer
ofcoarsesand,5m thickwithahydraulicconductivityK2=10m/day (K2D2=
50m /day).Thisaquifer isbounded belowbyanimpervious claybed.Itisfurther
assumed that thesteadydischargeq=2mm/day,theavailableheadh=0.80m,
and thewetted perimeter oftheditchu=2m.
Ascanbeseenfromtheseexamples,theaquifer,more specifically itstransmis-

sivity,K2D2,hasaconsiderable effectonthedrainspacings.Iftheditches
donotpenetrate theaquifer,thespacingL=300mand,iftilesareusedwith
u=0.30m,L= 180m.Iftheditchespenetratetheaquifer,thespacing canbe
more thantwiceaswide:L=630m.Tilesplacedjust intheuppermostpartof
theaquifer canbelaid 620m apart.Itcanfurtherberecognized thatthehigher
thetransmissivityoftheaquifer,thewider thedrainspacings canbe.For
example,ifK2D2 inthesituationdepicted inFig.4Awere 100,400,or 1600m2/day,
thecorresponding drainspacingswouldbe385,530,and635m.
Figure4Cshowsasituationwhere thehomogeneous upper layerwithhydrauliccon-

ductivityKi=0.50m/day is8m thick instead of3m.Ifthetransmissivityof
theunderlying aquiferK2D2=50m2/day,thespacing oftheditchesortilesre-
duces to206or 135m,respectively.Forhighervaluesofthetransmissivity,
401
... .HSOfrfrM
tl.2Örrf;S
-L=630 m-
l-qyo'ift'::--
Ki^so^/tjày::;
:'K 2='1.Q'.^Vd.óy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : D2.='6,oö
::K2=10'rhyâày;X;X;lvXxXxXxXÛ2=.5U'Ç3m:
Fig.4. Effectofanaquiferonthedrainspacing (afterVANBEERS,unpublished).
402
Procedures
thespacingoftheditches increasesonly slightly;forexample:ifK2D2 is100,

400,or 1600m2/day,ditch spacingsLare220,236,and 248m.
Theseexamples showhowimportant itistoinvestigate thelayersatandbelowthe

envisaged draindepth.Ifthisisneglected,anuneconomicdrainspacingmay
result.Ontheotherhand,aditch thatpenetrates asandy layermayrequire
special embankmentprovisions toprevent itfromcaving in.This,ofcourse,will
raisetheconstructioncostssothat,ifthisislikely tohappen,itmaybebetter
not tolettheditchpenetrate intothesandlayer.
Itisalsoobvious that inthesituationsdepicted inFig.4boring equipmenthea-

vier thanhand auger toolswillbenecessary topenetrate thedeepaquiferfully.
Norcantheaugerhole testsbeapplied tocalculate theaquifer's transmissivity
and instead pumping testsmustbeperformed (Chap.25,Vol.111).
Hydraulic conductivity mo.v

Measuringhydraulic conductivity isamajorpartofany survey forsubsurface
drainage.Fieldmethodswerediscussed inChap.24,Vol.111.Moreoftenthannot
thehydraulic conductivity varies considerably both invertical andhorizontal
directions.Foraproperdesignof thefield drainage system,onemustknowthe
magnitudeandvariationofthisparameterwithsufficientaccuracy.Thenumber
ofmeasurements thatshouldbe taken,theprocessing ofthehydraulicconducti-
vityvalues,and theiruse indesigning thedrainsystemwillbediscussedbelow.
Number of measurements
Measuringhydraulic conductivity ateachnodalpointofagrid systemmaybe,a
timeconsuming andcostlywork,especially iftheareatobesurveyed islarge.
Anaturalquestion thatarises iswhether itispossible toeconomizeonthese
measurements.
Astatistical studyofthenumberofhydraulic conductivitymeasurementswas

recentlymade inanareaof9000ha inthenorthernpartofTheNetherlands
(Mededelingen No.109, Cultuurtechn. Dienst, 197'i). Theareawasmadeupofpeat,
peaty soils,and sandy soilswith theimperviousbase (boulder clay)atdifferent
depths (lessthan 1m tomore than4mbelowsoil surface).Itwas found thatthe
numberofhydraulic conductivitymeasurements could bereducedby25to50per
cent ifthesoilsweregrouped onthebasisofthepercentage ofclay+siltin
thesandsand thedepthoftheimperviousbaselayer.Fifteensoilgroupswere
thusdistinguished andarather closerelationshipwasfoundbetween thecalcula-
teddrainspacings ineach soilgroupand thesetwosoilprofilecharacteristics.
403
Statisticalmethodswereapplied forerrorpercentagesof5,10,and20percent,
tofind theoptimumnumberofhydraulic conductivitymeasurements tobetakenin
theprojectarea.Foranerrorpercentageof5,nearlyfourtimesasmanymeasure-
mentswererequired asforapercentageof10.
Thisresultshouldofcoursenotberegarded asbeingvalidelsewhere inthe
world,wheregeological and soilconditionsmaybecompletelydifferentfromthose
intheabovearea.Moreover,otherfactors likegrainsize,cementation,andcom-
pactionalsoeffect thehydraulic conductivity.Asageneralguidewewouldsug-
gestonemeasurement per 1to 10ha,dependingonthesizeandhomogeneityof
theareaand therequired accuracy.
Processing hydraulic conductivity values
Thehydraulic conductivityoflayersbelowthewatertableisusuallymeasuredby
theauger-holemethod and,forlayersabove thewater table,bytheinversed
auger-holemethod (Chap.24,Vol.111).Measurements aretakenatregulardepth
intervals,sayeverymetre,till theimperviousbaselayer isreached.Themaximum
depthofahand augerholebeing approximately 5m,ingeneral some4to5measure-
ments canbetakeninonehole.However,itisnoteasyand sometimesevenimpos-
sible totakemeasurements inthelowerhorizonsof thesoilprofile.Underthese
circumstances,andalsowhentheimperviousbaselayerliesdeeper than5m,the
hydraulic conductivity ofthelowerhorizon isestimated fromthelithologyas
described inthelogsofthehandboringsorfromthoseofmechanicallymadedeep
borings.Insituationswhere theaquifer isthick,itwillbenecessary toperform
a (limited)numberofpumping tests tofind thevalueofthehydraulicconductivi-
ty.The testwellsneednotbemadedeeper thanabout 1/4 to1/6oftheestimated
drainspacingbecause itisthisdepthofthetransmission zonewhichplaysthe
majorrole intheflowofgroundwater towards thedrains.
Once themeasurements atsuccessivedepthshavebeentaken,thequestionarises

whichhydraulic conductivityvalue shouldbeaccepted forcalculating thedrain
spacing?Toanswer thisquestion,eachsetofK-valuesmustbeexamined asto
itsuniformity ornon-uniformity. Suppose thatall4or5valuesofKhavethe
sameorderofmagnitude.Wethenconclude that theentiresoilprofile ishomo-
geneous andwecanaccept thevalueofKmeasured atthegreatestdepthasbeing
representative ofthewholeprofile.Thisvalue equalsthesumofthethicknesses
ofthevarioushorizonsmultiplied bytheir respectivehydraulic conductivities
anddividedby thetotalthicknessofallthehorizons (Chap.6,Sect.4.2,Vol.1).
Thevalueisthenplotted onamapand linesofequalhydraulic conductivitycan
bedrawn (Fig.5;seealsoChap.20,Sect.3.5,Vol.111).
404
Procedures
Moreoften thannotasoilprofile ismadeupofalternating layersofvarying

textureand thickness.Insuchasituation theaboveprocedure forhomogeneous
soils isalsoapplied.
Itmayhappen,however,thatadistinctly two-layered profileoccurs,forinstance
loamonsand,clayonfinesand,fineclayey sandoncoarseclay-free sand.Itis
thennecessary toplot twoK-valuesonthemap,oneforthetoplayerand theother
for thesub-layer.Theprocedure tobefollowed isthensomewhat different from
theabove,asfirst theboundarybetween thetwolayersshouldbedetected.Itis
commonpractice toworkwith twoboreholesofdifferentdepths,takingcarethat
thebottomoftheshallowhole isatleast 10to15cmabovethelowerlayer
(VANBEERS,1963).
ThevalueofKaloneisnot sufficient toenabledrainspacings tobecalculated,
and itisconvenient ifthevaluesofthethickness (D)ofthelayer(s)arealso
plotted onthehydraulic conductivitymap.
sline of equal hydraulic \

conductivity in m/day \
\
\
\
U \
Fig.5. Contourmapofthehydraulic conductivitybelowthewatertable

(FAO, 1966).
405
Acomparisonof thevarious singlevaluemapsoftenreveals that thedifferent
typesofvalues arein (good)agreementwitheachother and thatcertainrela-
tionships exist.Besides thesemaps,aselected cross sectionof soilprofiles
through theareawillbeofgreathelp ingainingabetter insight intotherela-
tionshipbetween thevariousparameters.Such acrosssectionwill,forinstance,
clearly showthecontinuity ordiscontinuity ofthesubsoil stratigraphy andthe
occurrence and lateral extentofbarriers and aquifers.The informationthus
processed andpresentedwill allowacorrect collectordrainage system tobe
laidout.
Design map of drainage system
Aswasmentioned before,hydraulic conductivityvaluesmaydiffer considerably

over theproject areaandrather greatdifferencesmay occurevenwithinadi-
stinct soilgroup,though theymaybelessthanthoseencountered intheproject
areaasawhole.
Becauseof thesedifferences inK-values,anattempt todelineatedrainagesub-
areasonthebasisofahydraulic conductivitymapmay end infailure,evenif
extremely loworextremelyhighK-values aredisregarded. Itisrecalledhere
that thedrain spacing (L)varieswith thesquarerootof thehydraulicconducti-
vity (K).Hence,although largedifferences inK-valuesmaybefound,thedif-
ferences indrainspacingswillbemuch less.Itisthereforebetter tousethe
plottingsonthehydraulic conductivitymap fordirectcalculations ofthedrain
spacing foreachmeasuringsite.
Forknownvaluesof theh/q ratio (availablehead/drain discharge),convenient

usecanbemadeofadiagram similar totheonedevelopedbyVANBEERS (unpu-
blished)tofind thedrainspacing,L (seeFig.6).ForgivenvaluesofKandD,
toberead fromthehydraulic conductivitymap,thedrainspacing (L)canberead
direct fromtheordinateofsuchadiagram.
Thevalues ofLthusobtained arethenplotted onamaponwhich thecollector

drainage systemhasalreadybeendelineated.Itwillbe seenthattheL-values
differ lessthantheK-values.
Thenext step isthedivisionofthewholeareaintoanumberofdrainagesub-areas,
eachofthemcharacterized byasingledrainspacing.These sub-areas aredefined
asareaswhosedrainspacingsmaydifferbutwhichhaveroughly thesameorderof
magnitude.Theuniformdrainspacingofasub-area isfound simplybycalculating
thearithmeticmeanof thevariousdrainspacings inside thesub-area (Fig.7).
Thedrainagesub-areas should,inprinciple,coincidewith thecollectorblock
406
Fig.6.Nomograph forthe
determination ofdrain
0.1 ! 0.2 spacingswiththeHoog-
h/q=80 —
houdt equation,assuming
0.1 0.2 homogeneous soil,r=0.]0m,
h/q;60 —
h=0.70m,and threedif-
ferentvaluesofq(after
VANBEERS,unpublished)
k L= 5 0 m /
1
I
•ri L=60m v
\
^^-^__iU- L=50m \
^>ff>^ r \
\
\ \
—•-— limit of drainage subarea
collector drain
Fig.7. Distinctionofdrainage sub-areas,eachof themcharacterized byanequal

drainspacinganddepth;---limitofdrainage sub-area, collectordrain
(FAO, 1966).
407
boundaries.Butiftwoormorecollectorunitshaveequaldrainspacingsthey
maybelumped together intooneunit.
Itisobvious thatwithinadrainagesub-areawemayspotwisefindacalculated
drainspacingwhichdeviates substantially fromthemean spacing.Suchanextreme
value isusually disregarded and thesub-area'smeanspacing ismaintained asfar
aspossible.Onlywhen inacertainpartofthesub-area severaldrainspacing
valuesdeviate greatlyfromthemean,cananarrower orwiderdrainspacingbe
adopted inthat particularpart,asisrequired.
408
Procédures
LITERATURE
BEERS,W.F.J.van 1963.TheAuger-holeMethod.Afieldmeasurement ofthehy-

draulic conductivity ofsoilbelow thewater table.Bull.1,International
Institute forLand Reclamation and Improvement,32pp.
FAO. 1966.Pilotproject fordrainageofirrigated land,UnitedArabRepublic.

Report ofNEDECO/ILACO,Vols.I-IV.FAONo.SF4/5UAR/1,Rome.
MEDEDELINGNo.109. 1973. CultuurtechnischeDienst.Verband tussenprofielopbouw

engewenstedrainafstand inderuilverkaveling "Slochteren".Afd.Onderzoek
Cultuurtechn.Dienst,Groningen,Sept.1973,35pp.Mimeograph.
WINGER,R.J.andLUTHIN,J.N. 1966. Guidefor investigationofsubsurface

drainageproblemson irrigated lands.Drainageofirrigated landsCommission,
SW-234,BureauofReclamation,Denver,Colorado,39pp.Mimeograph.
409
37. M A N A G E M E N T O F DR AI N A G E P R O J E C T S
F. HELLINGA
Professor
J. M . VAN STAVEREN
Resident Engineer
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
UnitedNations, Marocco
F. Hellinga (1962)
J. M. van Staveren, (1963-1970)

PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Abriefdiscussionoftheorganizationrequired toimplement,operate,and
maintainadrainageproject.
CONTENTS
37 .1 INTRODUCTION 413
37 .2 FUNCTIONS 414
37,.3 ADMINISTRATIVE LEVELS 414
37,.4 SIZEANDDELIMITATIONOFWATERCONTROLAREAS 417
37..5 LEGALFRAMEWORK 418
37,.6 INTERNALADMINISTRATIONANDSTAFFING 419
37..7 !FINANCING 422
37..8 I DESIGNANDIMPLEMENTATION OFDRAINAGEPROJECTS 423
ANNEX I. TYPESOFORGANIZATION INASIA/FAREAST 425
ANNEXII. POLDERDISTRICT"RIJKVANNIJMEGENENMAASENWAAL"
INTHENETHERLANDS 428
LITERATURE 430
Manag'ement
37.1 INTRODUCTION
Although thetitleof thischapter is"Management ofDrainageProjects",itwill

notalwaysbepossible toconsiderdrainage separately fromotheractivitiesof
watercontrol.Projectsdevoted exclusively todrainagewill scarcelyexist.In
arid areasdrainagewillusually formanecessary complement toirrigation;in
humid areas itwill frequently formacombinationwith flood controlmeasures.
Itisunderstandable,therefore,thattheorganizationchargedwith themanagement
ofdrainageworkswillusuallyalsobeinchargeofotherwater controlworks.
Nevertheless inthischapterwe shallconfineourremarksasfaraspossibleto
themanagementofdrainageworks.
Managementmeans toguide (tocontrol,toconduct,tobeinchargeof)asystem

with theobjectofmaking thatsystemfulfil itsfunction.Inconsidering the
appropriateorganization forthemanagement ofawatercontrolproject oneshould
firstgive thoughttoanumberofquestions
-whatwillbe thefunctions oftheorganization?

-whatwillbetheappropriateadministrative levelfortheorganization
(state,province,district,project)?
-whatwillbetheproperdelimitationoftheareaofwatercontrol?
-what legal framework isnecessary?
-what internal administrationandstaffingareneeded fortheplanning,
operation,andmaintenanceoftheworks?
-howand fromwhat sources should theorganizationobtainitsfinances?
-who shouldberesponsible forconstructing theprojectworks?
Inthefollowing sections eachof theabovequestionswillbedealtwith.It

shouldbestressedbeforehand thatitisimpossible toreviewallthenumerous
organizational formswhichhavedeveloped throughout theworld.Norwould itmake
much sensesincecopyingorganizational formswithoutadaptation tospecific
circumstanceswillrarelyofferabalanced solution.Thecontentsofthischapter
must thereforeberegarded inavery general lightalthough someexamplesof
organizations inAsiaand theFarEastandinTheNetherlands aregivenin
AnnexesIandII.
413
37.2. FUNCTIONS
Anareainneed ofdrainagemay requiresurfacedrainage,subsurfacedrainage,

shallowordeepwells,outlets,orpumping stations.Themeasures introducedmay
beeitherpreventiveorremedial.Preventivemeasuresmaybeneeded tokeepthe
water table fromrising aboveasafelimit,toavoid salinizationandalkalini-
zation,ortorestrict soilerosion.Remedialmeasuresmight cover thereclamation
ofareas thatarewaterlogged,marshy,polder,deltaic,saline,oralkaline,to
enableirrigated ornon-irrigated agriculture tobepractised insuchareas.All
theseworkswillbetheresponsibility ofawatercontrolorganizationand,as
alreadymentioned,willusuallybehandled incombinationwith irrigationor
floodcontrolworks.Arecentaddition tothetasksofsomewater controlorgani-
zations isthecontrolofpollution.
Considerationmustbegiventothequestionwhetheraseparateorganizationshould
besetup foreach functionorwhether oneorganizationcanhandleallfunctions.
There isnothingagainstnumerous functionsbeingperformed byoneorganization.
Generally speaking,onemightevensaythatitispreferableifallaspectsof
watercontrolaremanaged byoneand thesameorganization,asthisenablesan
integral andcomprehensiveapproach.
Onceanorganization forwater controlhasbeenconstituted,itwillberesponsible

notonlyfortheplanningand construction,butalsoforthepropermaintenance
andoperationofallworks initscharge.
37.3 ADMINISTRATIVELEVELS
Althoughnational governments arebecoming increasingly responsible forseeing

that land andwaterresourcesareused inthebest interestsofthecountry,his-
toricallywatercontrolhasalwaysbeentheconcernofgroupsofpeoplewhose
immediate interestswereaffected.Incountrieswithalong traditionofwater
control,organizations of interested partieshavedeveloped over thecenturies
andmanyofthemtodayarehighlysophisticated corporations,handlingallaspects
ofwater controlwithinanareawhich canberegarded asanappropriateunitfor
thatpurpose.Assuch,theboundaries ofthesedistrictswill rarelycoincide
with thoseofgovernmental administrativeunits.Thesedistrictshave thechar-
acterofacorporationofpublicrightandallpeople inthedistrictwhoshare
acommoninterest inwatercontrolparticipate,decisionsbeingmadebyamajori-
tyvote.
414
Management
There arenohardand fastrulesastowhether landdrainage andotheragricultural

water controlworks shouldbemanaged by thenational orlower levelsofgovern-
mentorbyotherorganizations.Sometimes thetaskofwatercontrol restswith
thestateorprovincial government,orevenwithalower levelofgovernment:
perhaps thecounty,shire,borough,ormunicipality.Among theadvantagesofwater
controlbylocalgovernments,onemightreckontheexistenceofadequateadmini-
strative services.Thedrawbacks,however,oftenoutweigh theadvantages.The
most importantdrawback isthattheterritoryunder thejurisdictionofsuch
governments generally doesnotcoincidewiththeareawhich formsaunit fromthe
pointofviewofwatercontrol.Suchaunitoftencoversareasbelonging tomany
localadministrativebodiesandclosecooperationwould thenbenecessarybetween
allthesebodies.Aswatercontrol requires specific technical services,which
areusually lacking inlocalgovernmentalbodies,atleast inthesmallerones,
thewholemight thenbedifficult torealize.Asecond drawback isthat thetypi-
calworkdoneby localgovernment isintheinterestsofitsentirepopulation,
whereas theworkofwatercontrolwillusuallyonlyreflect theinterestsof
certaingroups.
Landdrainageandother agricultural watercontrolworks differ frompublicworks

likeroads,waterways,etc.,inthattheyserve,firstand foremost,theinterests
ofthefarmers.Ofcourse,someaspectsofsuchworksextendbeyond theimmediate
interestsofthefarmersandmay touchthepublicinterestonanationalorlower
level.For instance,theinterests ofindustry,traffic,recreation,andthe
landscapemustbeprotected,thedomesticwater supplymustbesafeguarded,and
drainageworksmustnothaveanadverseeffectonthewatermanagement ofadjacent
areas.
Itisbecause ofthesebroader interests thatthenationalgovernments ofmany

countrieshavebegun totakeamoreactivepartinmattersofwater control.Their
participationmay take theformof legislation,financing,controlling lowergo-
vernmentalbodiesorpublicwaterdistricts topreventorremedynegligence,and
initiating,planning,and implementing largeorimportantprojectswhichcannot
beundertakenproperlyby lower,lesswell-equipped bodies.TheDutchnational
government,forinstance,hasundertakenthereclamationofpolders intheformer
Zuyderzee;intheUSA thenationalgovernment isexecuting largeprojectsunder
theReclamationAct;Greecemight alsobementioned asanexample.Inthese
countries thenational government initiates,plans,andimplements theprojects
andlateronhands theiroperationandmanagement overtolocalauthorities
orpublicdistricts.
415
Incountrieswhere irrigation isagreatnational interest aspecial"ministry
ofIrrigation"isoftenfound.Inothercountries,constructions likedamsand
reservoirs,water-ways andmainroadsareofteninitiated,financed,andmaintained
by theMinistry ofPublicWorks.Incountries likeBurma,Ceylon,India,Iraq,
Pakistan,andEgypt,irrigationdevelopments inrecenttimeshavebeenpublic
worksundertakenby theState.TheUSSR and othersocialist stateshavebuilt
irrigationworksassocialwelfaremeasures forthepeople.Incountrieslike
Australia,Canada,and theUSAthegovernments playedonlyapassive role inthe
early stages,encouraging irrigationdevelopmentsbyprivate individuals,groups
ofindividuals,orassociations,but theyhave longsincecometoappreciate
theimportanceoflarge-scalenationalplanningfortheutilizationofwater
resources andareassuming increasing responsibility forthedevelopments.
Incountries likeMexico andGreecewhere themajority oflandusersaresmall-
holdersunable toestablish,finance,andmaintain thenecessaryworks,onefinds
mixed organizations inwhichbothgovernmentandprivate landusersarerepre-
sented.
Many countriesaredeveloping orhavealreadydeveloped anationalpolicyon

land andwateruse.Within theframework ofsuchapolicy,national governments
arestriving todevelop resources tothefull.Insodoing,theywish tostimulate
localactivities sothatfulladvantagebe takenofmoderndevelopments inirri-
gation,flood control,anddrainage,andalso tointroducenewtaskslikequality
control.Nationalgovernmentsonthewholenowtendtoinfluencelowergovernmen-
talbodiesorpublicdistrictsontheway inwhich local waterresourcesareto
bedeveloped.
While there isnodoubt thatanationalpolicyonwatercontrol isofgreatvalue,

itshouldbementioned thattherearecertaindrawbacks ifwatercontrolrests
solely inthehandsof thenationalgovernment.Whenproblemsofaspecific local
naturearise (minorimprovements,maintenancequestions),itoftenhappensthat
decisionscannotbemadeuntil reportsaresubmitted through theusual government
channels.Itmustbeadmitted that thiscansometimesbealongdrawn-outprocess.
Drastic decentralization oftherelevant government agencywillovercome suchdis-
advantages,provided theheadsoflocalofficesareaccordedproperpowers.An-
otherdrawback tolocalwatercontrolby thenational government isthat thepar-
tiesinterestedmay find itdifficult tomake theirwishes feltatthenational
level.
416
Management
37.4 SIZEANDDELIMITATION OFWATERCONTROLAREAS
Itissometimespossible toregardasinglefarmasaunitofwatercontrol.In
areaswhere thehydrographical andhydrological territorial entitiesaresmall
and theplotsoflandutilized are large,watermanagementmeasuresmaybecon-
finedwithin theboundaries ofasinglefarm,independentlyofneighbouring farms.
Itisquiteconceivable,forinstance,thatasystemoffielddrainage andsprink-
lerirrigationwithpumped groundwater canbeapplied farmwise.Often,however,
suchmeasureswillcall forjointarrangements foragroupoffarms.
Inhillyareas,unitsofwatercontrolmayalsobefairly small.Foreffective
watermanagement inestuaries,however,itmaybenecessary toregardhundreds
ofthousandsofhectaresasanindividual unit,andmanydiverseandcomplex
structures andoperationswillbeneededwithin suchaunit.
Otherextensiveunitsofwatercontrolmaybefoundwherewater isdiverted
fromriversandconveyed toirrigationareas.Conveyancechannelswillprobably
have topass throughmanyholdingsand cooperationbetweenmany landholders
willberequired.
Inmanypartsoftheworld,theneed forcommunal actionforthemanagementof

waterhasbeenrecognized forcenturies.Communities ofpeople,facedwiththe
sameproblems,have longbanded together toprotect life,property,andagricul-
turalcrops.Informer timessuchcommunalactionwasusuallyundertakenbypeople
wholivednearoneanotherand theareacoveredby theiractionwas,ofcourse,
small.
Thepresent tendencyofenlargement ofscale-theresultoftechnologicalprogress
and theneed forgreatermonetary fundstotakeadvantageofnewdevelopments-
isleading totheamalgamationofmanysmallerunits intolargerones.
Onealsofindsnewlyestablished organizationswhicharevestedwiththepowers
ofjointwatercontroloverlargedistricts.Theseorganizationsareestablished
by thenationalgovernment asnewgovernmental authorities.Theydonotneces-
sarilyoriginate frompreviousassociations of landownersorinterestedparties.
Sometimes thesenewauthorities aregiventhe taskofcoordinatingtheactivities
ofexisting localdistricts.
Asarule,thesmaller theareacoveredbyanorganization,thegreater thecohe-
sionwithin thatorganization.Thisfactisreflected inthemany relativelysmall
districts stillfound insomecountries.Whatever thesizeofthedistrict,it
willbenecessary todelimit theareawithinwhichjointmanagementwillapply.A
generalanswer tothequestionofwhere theboundaries shouldbesetis,of
course,impossible togive.
417
Recently,hydrologistshavebegun tofeel thatwhenproblems ofwatercontrol
arebeing considered,theriverbasin should formthestartingpointofdeliber-
ations. Inhydrological investigations,theriverbasin istakenasanindivi-
sibleobject.Itsrun-offproblems»irrigationprojects,flood controlandstorage
works,supplemented nowadaysbypollutioncontrol,areallstudiedjointly,
sinceworks executed inonepartofthebasinwill almostalwaysaffectcondi-
tions inotherpartsofthebasin.
37.5 LEGALFRAMEWORK
History reveals thatpeople,oncesettlednearasupply ofwater,soonfeelthe

need foradequate regulations tobringwaterundercontrol and todefinewater
ownership,distribution,anduse.Evidencealsoexists thatcivilizationsgrew
andprosperedwhenever theregulatory controls imposed uponwaterwereeffective,
and thatcivilizations oftendeclined ordisappeared asaconsequenceofthere-
laxationorineffectivenessofsuchregulatorycontrols.
Thephilosophy ofthoseearlywaterregulations depended,asitstilldepends
today,onthephysiographic factorsofthecountries orareasconcerned,andon
theirsocial,technical,economicandpolitical situations.Inregionswherewater
wasabundant,waterregulationswerelargelydirected towardsdefenceagainstthe
harmful effectsofwater (floodcontrol,embankmentanddykeconstruction);in
otherareaswherewaterwas scarce,regulationsbecamemoredetailed andcompli-
cated inviewoftheneed toconserveavailablewaterand toensureafairand
equaldistribution.
Anywatercontrolorganization shouldbegivenasoundlegalbasis.Thisstate-
mentappliesparticularly tothepublicwatercontroldistrictswhich,unlike
provincesormunicipalities,donotfitprecisely into thenormalframeworkof
governmental administration.
Apublicwatercontroldistrictcanbe setupbyaspecialactofthehighest
legislativeauthority,orwithin theframeworkofageneralactbydecreeof
thenationalorprovincialgovernment.Itsestablishmentwillusuallybepreceded
byconsultationwith thelandownerswithin thearea;frequently itsestablish-
mentwillevendependontheirfavourablemajoritydecision.
Thebasic legislation shouldprovidenotonlyfortheestablishmentoftheorgani-
zation,butalso forthepowersaccorded toit.Thesepowerswillcovertheorga-
nization's righttoacquireproperty fortheconstructionofwatercontrolworks,
therighttolevycharges,therighttoenactby-laws toensureeffectivewater
control,and therighttomake itsdecisionsbindingonaminority.
418
'Management
Itisimportant thatthefunctions andpowersofthepublicwatercontrolorgani-

zationbeaccurately formulated initsregulations orcharter,because -whenever
difficulties arise-thecourtorotheragency ofappealwill take theseregula-
tionsasastartingpoint foritsdeliberations.
Theby-laws constituteavitalpartof theorganizational structureofawater

controldistrict.Theynotonlyfixtherightsandobligationsofthelandand
waterusers,buttheyalsoimposerestrictions onthirdparties,forinstance,by
making itanoffence totrespassondikes.
By-laws canprovide fortheobligatorymaintenance ofwatercoursesby theowners
oflandsadjoining thewatercourses.Ifanyonefailstocomplywith thisobli-
gation,theboard canexecute thework itselfandrecover therelevantcosts
fromthelandowner inquestion.Thissystem,asfarasitexists,usuallyonly
applies tothesmaller courses inthedistrict.
Drainage canals servingmanyproperties sometimes flowthroughprivatelyowned

land.Theirproper functioningmustbeguaranteed and individual landownersmust
beforbidden fromhindering theflowofwaterbymakingalterations inthecanals.
Inirrigation districts thedistributionofthewatermustberegulated andthere
mustberulestopreventuncontrolled useofwater.Indistrictswherepollution
control isoneofthefunctions,rulesmustbelaiddownforwastewaterdisposal;
itmustbepossible tohavewastewateroutlets subject tocertainterms.
Ingeneral,thenecessary by-lawsofawatercontrol districtdonotbecome

effectiveuntil theyhavebeenapprovedby somehigherauthority.Theactof
approval isusuallypreceded byaperiod inwhich theproposedby-lawsaremade
public.Anyonewhohasanyobjections tothemmay appeal totheaforesaidhigher
authority.Thisprocedure isprescribed toensurethat theby-lawscontainno
regulations thatmightbeprejudicial totheinterestsofsomethirdparty.
When something isdonecontrary totheprovisions oftheby-laws,thedistrict
authorities shouldhavethepower toimposeand collectfines.
37.6 INTERNALADMINISTRATIONANDSTAFFING
Ifwatercontrolisataskofthenationalgovernmentoranylowergovernmental
body,therewillusuallybeaspecialministry ordepartment inchargeofthe
planning,construction,operation,andmaintenance ofthenecessaryworks.Con-
tacts betweenthestaffofsuchexecuting agenciesand thelandownersmaytake
place through localcommittees,inwhichbothpartiesarerepresented.
419
There isnoreason togointofurtherdetailabout theinternal administration
of governmental water control agencies ; eachcountry inwhich this typeoforga-
nization existshasitsownsystemofadministration.
Itmaybeuseful,however,tosaysomethingmoreabout theadministrationof
public districts astheseexist inanumberofcountries.
Inawater control district,all thoseconcernedwith the landmaybe termedin-

terested parties;whether theybelandownersortenants,whether theirinterests
begreatorsmall.All these interested partieswill form thegeneralassembly
ofthedistrict.
Onthewhole,however,onefinds that thegeneralassemblywillbeconfinedto

landowners.Watercontrol isregarded asanaspect thatdetermines thevalueof
landandassuchitisthedomainofthelandowners.Thissituationwillnaturally
bemostobvious inregionswithmany tenanciesandamoreorlessfrequentchange
oftenants.Atenantwillnotusuallybeeagertospendmuchmoney onimprovements
tolandorbuildings ifthese improvements are likely tooutlasthisperiodof
tenancy.Andyet itmustbeobserved thatinsomecountries tenants arenowgra-
dually beingbrought into thegeneralassemblybecauseefficientwatercontrolis
alsoof theutmost importance tothemandbecause theyaregraduallybecoming
willing toshare thecostofwatercontrolschemes.
Thegeneral assemblyofsmalldistrictswillusuallybecomposed ofallland

owners,possibly including tenants.Inlargerdistricts,withmany interested
parties,representativesareoftenchosenpersub-district.Indistrictswith
greatlydifferingareasorwithmanifold functions,efforts shouldbemadeto
bring representation intolinewith thesevariations.Forinstance,inadistrict
whose functions cover flood control,drainage,andpollutioncontrol,representa-
tivesshouldbedrawn fromthecircleoffarmers (representing drainageand
flood control),othersfrom themunicipalities inthedistrict (representingthe
interestsof theresidential areas inflood control andpollution control),and
representatives fromtheindustries inthedistrict (alsoforflood controland
pollution control).
The taskofthegeneralassemblywillbetodecideonthebroadoutline ofthe

policy tobepursued and toelectaboardwhichwillberesponsible forseeing
that thispolicy iscarried out.Theboardwillbeempowered toappoint thene-
cessary technicalandadministrative staffand todraftby-lawsdesignedto
guarantee theefficient functioning of thedistrict.Theboardwillbeauthorized
420
'•"anagernent
toassesscharges and toacquire land compulsorilyorbyagreement forthecon-

structionofwater controlworks.Itwillhave thepower tolevyfines ifthe
by-lawsare infringed.
Insomecountries thechairmanof theboard isnominatedby thenationalgovern-

ment toensure thattheleading figureisunbiasedbylocalinterests.Thisneed
notbearule.Generally speaking,allmembersof theboardwillhaveequalvoting
rights,irrespective oftheextentoftheintereststheyhaveorrepresent inthe
district.
Voting rights inthegeneralassemblymaynotbeoftheone-man/one-vote system.

Frequently,thenumberofhectaresowned forms thebasisofvoting rights.In
districtswhere thebenefitsderived fromwatercontroldiffergreatly,voting
rightsmayberegulated according totheextentofthebenefitsgained.Since
theassessmentofcharges isoftenindirectrelationshipwith thebenefits,the
votingrightsofeachlandownermaybemadeproportionate tohis shareofthe
costs.
Toensure thatthemajority ofvotesdonotgetinto thehandsofonepersonor

asmallgroupofpersonswith large interests inthedistrict,acertainrestric-
tioncanbeapplied tothevoting rightsastheinterestsperpersonaregreater.
Insomecountriesvoting rightsproportional toavoter's interest inwater
control aregranted onlywhen theballot concerns financialmatters.Whenthe
ballotconcerns theelectionofboardmembers,each individualhasonlyone
vote.
Asheadofstaff inawatercontrolorganization,thereshouldbeeitheragene-
ralmanager toassume fullresponsibility forthedistrict,ortheresponsibility
willbedividedbetweenachiefadministratorandachiefengineer.Underthem
shouldbecompetent staffs tohandle theoperationandmaintenance and theneces-
saryofficework.Most largedistrictswillhavetheirownlaboratory fortesting
soilandwatersamples.
Weshouldnotconclude thissectionwithoutmentioning asubjectwhich,although

oftenoverlooked,isofvital importance toeveryagriculturaldevelopmentpro-
ject.That istheworkofpreparing farmers totakefulladvantage oftheimpro-
vementsmadepossibleby theproject.Astheultimateaimofagriculturalprojects
For furtherdetails about theadministrationofapublicwatercontroldistrict

thereader isreferred toAnnexII.
421
istoincrease theprosperity of thefarmers,itisa conditio sine qua non that
everyeffortbemade toletthefarmerbenefit fromthenewconditions.This
possibly constitutes themostdifficult taskofall.Thefarmermayhave tobe
persuaded toadoptnewmethodsofcultivationmadepossibleby thenewwater
regime.Hemayhave tobetaught theprinciplesofmaintaining his farmdrains
andmayhave tobeadvisedonleachingprocesses.
Thisextensionwork shouldbestarted ingood timeandnotbepostponeduntil

theprojecthasbeencompleted,asotherwise severalgainfulyearsmaybelost.
37.7 FINANCING
Inmany countries thegovernmentassumes fullfinancial responsibility forthe

constructionofwater controlworksand for theirmaintenance andoperation.The
manner inwhichgovernmentsdivide thecostsbetweennational andotherfunds
and reimburse themselves for theexpenditure,inwholeorinpart,varywidely.
Insomecountries (Egypt,Thailand,andUSSR)theconstruction,maintenance,and
operationofsuchworks isregarded asapublic serviceandnochargesareasses-
sed;but thegovernments benefit fromincreased land taxand/orexciseorother
taxesontheproduce.Even inthosecountrieswherecharges are levied,these
arenotdirectly related tothecostofconstructionandmaintenance;theyare
determined fromotherconsiderations suchastheincreaseinproductiondueto
irrigationordrainageorboth,butaregenerally limited totheabilityofthe
cultivators topay.Insomeothercountries,thebeneficiariesarerequiredto
reimburse togovernment theinitial costofconstruction,whollyor inpartand
generallywithout interest (asintheUSA)orwithalowrateofinterest,and
toundertakemaintenanceandoperationofworks throughrecognisedassociations.
Whenchargesarebeingassessed inawatercontroldistrict inTheNetherlands,
thefollowingfactorscome intoplay.
Thecosts incurred insuchadistrictnormally includeamortizationandinterest

onloanswhich served constructionpurposes,recurringpayments for themaintenance
andoperationofsuchworksaspumping stations,andgeneral administrativecosts.
Thesecostshave tobemetby the levyofcharges.
Generally speaking,chargesareassessed ontwopoints
- thebenefitsderived fromthewatercontrol,and
- theextent towhichcertainareascontribute tothenecessity forwater
control.
422
•a'riagement
If,forexample,highand lowlying landsarefoundwithinonedistrict,the
assessmentprinciplesmaybeapplied asfollows:
The lowlandsbear the flood control costsbecause theyare theonlyareasbene-

fitingfromtheflood controlworks;thedrainagecostsarespreadoverbothhigh
and lowlandsbecause thelowlandsbenefit fromdrainagewhile irrigation inthe
high landscontributes totheneed fordrainage inthelowlands,
Following theseprinciples,thetotalareaofadistrictmaybedivided intoa

numberofclasses-say five-eachclasswithacertainchargeperhectare.This
classificationrequiresacareful field investigationoftopographical andhydrolo-
gicalconditions.Greatdifferences inlandusemightalsoenter intotheclassi-
fication,horticultural landrequiringmoreexactwatercontrol thangrazing
landorforest.
Inassessing charges forresidential and industrialareas,oneshouldremember

that suchareasderivegreatbenefit fromflood controlmeasuresand shouldbe
charged accordingly.Drainage charges shouldalsobeleviedasthedischarge
fromsuchareasresults inhighdesignrunoffvaluesand thusinhighconstruction
costs.
37.8 DESIGNAND IMPLEMENTATION OFDRAINAGEPROJECTS
The term drainage vrojeat mightbeused tocover thedigging ofafewsimple

trenchesoritmightmeantheconstructionofavastnetworkofmajorandminor
canals,completewithexpensive structures likepumpingstations.
Withaproject ofthefirsttype,therewillbelittle "design"involved andits

"implementation"mightbeamatteroftheprovisionofcompulsory labourbyvil-
lageheadmenorvoluntary serviceby thefarmerswhowillbenefit.
Whenaprojectofthesecond typeistobedesigned,itwill callfortheservi-

cesofhighly skilled teamsofengineersand scientists.Somegovernmentshave
theirownteamsofexpertsavailable forsuchwork;sometimesprojectsarede-
signedbyinternationalagencies;othertimestheservicesofconsultingengineer-
ingbureauxmightbecalledin.
Theactual constructionworkwillusuallybeputupforcontractbypublictender.
Ifso,therewillbeaneed forsomesupervisingagency toseethatmeasurements,
materials,andworkingmethodsareup tostandard.This supervisoryworkwill
usuallybeinthehandsof thosewhodesigned theproject.
423
Mostsuchlarge-scaleprojectswillbefinancedbygovernment.Ifanoutside
agencyhasbeencalled inforthedesignand supervisionwork,government toowill
feelaneed toshareinthesupervision inordertoprotect itsinterests.Govern-
ment supervision,ofcourse,shouldnotbesostringent thatitinterfereswith
day-to-dayaffairs.
Itisimportant foralloftheparties involved that therebeclearagreements

inwriting stipulating thekindandextentofthework tobeperformedbyeach.
424
"anagement
ANNEXI
TYPESOFORGANIZATION INASIA/FAREAST
Mentioned inapublicationbyECAFE/UN (WaterResources SeriesNo.38)arevarious

typesoforganizations forthemanagement ofwaterresources.Excerpts fromthis
publicationarequotedbelow.
Describedmore fully inthesamepublication isaproject operationandmaintenance

organization inTaiwan.Although thisorganizationdealsmainlywithirrigation,
itisconsidered thatdetailsofitsset-upareinteresting enough tojustify
inclusioninthischapterandthis tooisquotedbelow.
Government agencies
Mostprojects inAsiaand theFarEastaremanaged,operated,andmaintainedby

governmentagencies,whoseorganization,authority,and internalarrangements for
operationvary fromcountry tocountry.Where strong stateorganizationsexist,
manyof theprojectsareoperated atthestate level.Inmostcountries theagency
responsible fortheprimary functionofamultipurposeprojectusually operates
theproject.Forexample,theYanheeElectricAuthorityofThailand operates
thelargeBhumipholmultipurpose dam,reservoir,andpowerplant,while theRoyal
IrrigationDepartmentoperates thedownstream ChaoPhyadiversiondamforirriga-
tionandnavigationalpurposes.Inmost casespowerprojectsareoperatedby
agenciesother thanirrigationagencies.Floodcontrolprojects involving sto-
rageareusuallyoperated inconjunctionwithpowerorirrigationprojects.They
maybeoperated byaseparateagencywhen theyareprimarily forfloodcontrol,
utilizing trainingdikesorother similar features forriverregulation.Irrigation
projectsmaybeoperated under thedirect controlofacentral'agency,oreach
projectmayhave itsownorganizationunder thegeneral supervisionofaparent
agency.The sizeandcomplexityof theprojectmaydictate thetypeoforganization
developed foritsmanagement,operation,andmaintenance.
Authorities
Operation oflargemultipurpose riverbasinprojects requires some formoforga-

nization toconsiderand co-ordinate theinterestsof thevariousagenciesinvol-
ved intheproject.Not infrequently theinterestsarediverse andconflicting.
For instance,waterregulationrequirements forpowergenerationand irrigation
needsarenotentirely compatibleandrequire someadjustmentonthepartofboth
interests.This situation isfrequently trueofotherpurposes.Aspecial committee
425
orboardmaybeformed tooperateaproject,eachoftheagencieshavingan
interest intheprojectbeing represented.Theoperationof theprojectmaybe
byastaffunder thegeneraldirectionofthecommittee orboard.
Another typeoforganization thatcanbeadopted forariverbasindevelopment

isanautonomous agencyorauthoritywithstatutorypowerscreatedby thecentral
government.Anexampleof thiskind oforganization istheDamodarValleyCorpo-
ration inIndia,whichwasauthorized in 1948byActofParliament and theconcur-
renceoftheStatesofBiharandBengal,throughwhich theriver flows.Thevalley
development includesprojects forflood control,irrigation,generationandtrans-
missionofelectricpower,andpromotionofnavigation.TheCorporationadministers
theorganization andhasextensivepowers.While theseauthoritiesprovidean
efficientmeansofmanaging,operating andmaintainingprojects theycutacross
theusual linesofresponsibility andauthority oftheregulargovernmentagencies
andusually lack their support.Thisreduces theireffectiveness,particularly
infinancial support,when theycompetewith themoreestablishedagenciesfora
shareof thenationalbudget.
'flater user organizations

Except inJapanandChina (Taiwan),ithasnotbeen thepracticeofthecountries
ofAsiaand theFarEast toestablishwaterusers'organizations tooperatethe
largerprojects.Mostprojectshavealargenumberofsmallfarmholdingsandthe
farmers lackexperienceinactingcollectively forprojectoperation.Experience
inChina (Taiwan)indicates thatittakes severalyearsbeforewaterusers'organi-
zations acquire enoughexperience tobecomereally effective inoperatingand
maintaining aproject.
Someof thesmallersinglepurposeprojectsareoperated bywaterusers.Organi-

zationsvary frominformal,loosely-organized, smallco-operatives tolargerlegal
entitieshaving powers foroperation,feecollection,andmanagement ofaproject.
Somewater-useroperated projectsareprivately-owned,butmostareunderthe
supervisionofagovernment agency.
Project operation and maintenance organization in China ('Taiwan)
Oneof thelargestandmost successfulwateruser'sorganizations inChina (Tai-

wan)istheChai-Nan IrrigationAssociation,whichwasestablished in 1920.Fol-
lowingaperiod ofreorganization and growthitevolved into itspresentorgani-
zationin 1956.TheAssociationisnotastaticorganizationbutcontinuesto
improve itsfacilities andwater supply.Itcurrently servesanareaof 148,500
426
Management
hectares,providing irrigation,drainage,floodprevention,landimprovement,and
soilconservation.Itisaself-governing corporatebody organized by thewater
usersand supervised by theGovernment.Ithasatotalof300,000membersfrom
amongwhom fifty-five areelected toformarepresentative assembly.Achairman
iselectedbytherepresentatives toprovidegeneralmanagement fortheAssocia-
tion.Heappoints ageneralmanagerandchief engineeraswellasother staffto
handleadministrativeand technicalaffairs.TheAssociationcurrentlyemploys
about 1,500persons.
Theheadofficeoftheorganizationprovides technicalandadministrative support

inthefieldsofengineering,operation,management,finance,secretarial,account-
ing,budgeting,andpersonnel.Themajorsubdivisions oftheorganizationarethe
management offices forwater sourcesandforirrigation.Theservicesprovided
by theseofficesaresimilar toservicesprovided by thehead officebuttoa
lesserdegreeandofamore specialized nature.Thewater sources offices include
supervisionofdams,maincanals,andwatershed areas.Theirrigationoffices
include supervision andmanagementof irrigationwater from themaincanalsdown
toindividual farms.Variousworking stationsunder themanagement officesare
responsible foroperating andmaintaining thesystem.The irrigationworking
groupsareresponsible forthedistributionofirrigationwater tosmallareas
of50to 150hectares.Thegroupsareformedby thewaterusersoftheareaand
operateunderamutualagreement signedbyeachmember.Eachgroupelectsa
chiefwhorepresents itandisunderthesupervisionoftheworking station.The
groupchiefhas thefollowing responsibility
(i) tocarryonrotational irrigationandpromotegroupplanting

(ii) tooperate andmanage thecommunity seedbed
(iii) toorganizegroupmembers tocarryouttheirrigationplan
(iv) toregulateanddistribute irrigationwaters
(v) tooperateandmaintain thecanaland selected structures
(vi) toprevent orhelp settleirrigationdisputes
(vii) tohelp collect irrigationfees
(viii)tohelpcarry outirrigationpolicyandenforce irrigationregulations
(ix) toexecuteworkassignedby theAssociation
(x) toexecuteotherworksforlandandirrigationimprovement
TheAssociation ishighlyorganized rightdowntoindividual farmplotsand

representsanorganizationthathasproved successful intheintensivefarming
of thesmallplotscommon inAsiaand theFarEast.Ithas takenmanyyearsto
427
reach itspresent statusbutdoes showonepossibleway forbetterandmoreeffi-
cientmanagement,operation,andmaintenance ofwaterresourcesprojects.Much
ofitssuccess isduetotheactiveco-operationofthefarmersand theirparti-
cipation inproject operations.This typeoforganizationhasproven soeffective
inreaching ahigh leveloffarmproduction thatitisbelieved thatsimilar
organizationsmayeventually beformed inothercountries.
ANNEXII
POLDERDISTRICT "RIJKVANNIJMEGENENMAASENWAAL"INTHENETHERLANDS
(SITUATION 1965)
Thisdistrictwasestablished in 1957after thereorganizationandmergerof

smallerdistricts intheregionwestofNijmegen (ProvinceofGelderland,The
Netherlands).
Anumberoflawsgovernthelocaladministration ofwatercontrol inTheNether-

lands.Onthebasisofoneofthese laws,theProvincialGovernment ofGelderland
enacted a"GeneralPolderRegulation"whichdefines rulesforalldistricts
within theprovinceandcoversprinciples oforganization,assessment ofcharges,
by-laws,procedureofappeal,and soon.Eachdistrict isconstituted bya
"SpecificRegulation"(alsoenacted bytheProvincialGovernment),whichdefines
theterritoryandotherspecificdetailsoftheorganization.
TheSpecificRegulationforthePolderDistrict "RijkvanNijmegenenMaasen
Waal"wasenacted in 1957.Thedistrict coversanareaof27,000habetweenthe
Meuseand theWaal,themainbranchoftheRhine.Mostofitislow-lyingclay
soil,intensively used aspasture land.Dikesprotect theselowlandsfrombeing
floodedby therivers.Asystemofditches,drainagecanals,andpumpingsta-
tions serves theremovalofexcesswater.
Thedistricthasthefollowing functions
Flood control. The total lengthofdistrictdikes is85km (onwhichare

70kmofpublic roads).
Water control. The total lengthofcanalscomprising themaindrainagesystem

is660km;inaddition thereareabout 1,000kmofditchesinprivatelands.
Thereare twolargeand twosmallerpumping stations.Insummerfourwaterinlet
structures inthedikescansupplywater tothesystemofcanalsandditchesto
maintain thewaterlevelatanappropriateheight (supplyofdrinkingwaterto
cattle,supplyofwater-stillonarestricted scale-tohorticultural sprink-
ling systems).
428
Management
Quality control for theopenwaterswithinthedistrict.Althoughofonly

minor importanceatpresent,thiswillprobably becomeoneofthemajor tasksof
thedistrict.
TheBoardhasaChairman,the"Dijkgraaf",andeighteenmembers.Routinematters
aredecidedby the"Dijkgraaf"and sixmembersoftheBoard,assistedbythe
Secretaryof theBoard.There isaGeneralAssembly inwhich thedistrict'smore
thanfourthousand landownersexercise therightovermore thaneightthousand
votes.Theownership ofthreehectares entitlesaperson toonevote,afterwhich
asliding scale isapplied: 1to3ha:onevote;3to6ha:twovotes;6to 12ha:
threevotes,and soon,themaximumbeing 15votes.Sub-districtshavebeenformed
tofacilitate theelectionofBoardmembers fromtheGeneralAssembly.
The levyofcharges tocoverannual expenditure isbased ontwoassessments
a) The assessment of costs for flood control. Acertainannual chargeis

leviedperhaofagricultural land,and inadditionchargesareleviedonbuilt-up
properties.
b) The assessment of costs for water management. Mostof theexpenditurefor

watermanagement coversdrainageandpumping.The land isdivided intofiveca-
tegories,varying fromacategory comprising landsbenefiting fully fromthe
water control,toacategory oflandswhich,due totheir location inseepagezones
near thedikes,benefitonlypartially.Theproportionofcharges forCategories
I,II,III,IV,andV is 16 : 1 2 : 9 : 8 : 6 .
Oneoftheby-laws enactedby theBoard (by-lawsmustreceive theapprovalofthe

Provincial Government)contains regulations oncompulsoryhelpbypersons inthe
district intimesofhighriver floodsand seriousdanger tothedikes.
Anotherby-lawcontainsprovisions fortheconstructionofbridgesover,and
culverts in,ditchesandcanals.Theseprovisions safeguard thefreeflowof
water eventhroughditches inprivatelands.
Thedistrict employsastaffof7initsadministrative-financialdepartmentand
34initstechnicaldepartment.Inadditionabout 25peoplearehired temporarily.
429
LITERATURE
DEVELOPMENT ofnew irrigable anddrainedareas.Proceduresandpolicies (Question

26). Seventh Congress on IrrigationandDrainage,MexicoCity,1969.
FRAMJI,K.K.,MAHAJAN,I.K.1969.IrrigationandDrainage intheWorld.Aglobal
review.ICID.
HELLINGA,F. 1960.Local administrationofwater control inanumberofEuropean

countries.PublicationNo.8.ILRI/FAO.
IRRIGATION,Drainageand Salinity.AnInternational SourceBook.FAO/UNESCO,1973.
METHODS and economics ofoperationandmaintenance ofdrainage systems inagri-

culturalareas (Question 25).SeventhCongressonIrrigationandDrainage,
MexicoCity,1969.
PROCEEDINGS oftheeighth sessionoftheregionalconference onwaterresources

development inAsiaand theFarEast.WaterResources SeriesNo.38,
ECAFE/UN,1968.
WATER legislation inAsiaand theFarEast.WaterResources SeriesNo.35,

ECAFE/UN,1968.
430
38. E C O N O M I C E V A L U A T I O N O F W A T E R M A N A G E M E N T
PROJECTS
F. P. JANSEN
Professor
Department of Agricultural Economics of
the Tropics and Subtropics
Lecturers in the CourseonLand Drainage
J. M. van Staveren (1963-1968)

P. Mulder (1969)
F. P. Jansen (1970-1973)
PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Abriefdiscussionoftheprinciples involvedintheeconomic evaluationofwater

managementprojects,illustratedbytwoexamples.
CONTENTS
38.2 COSTS 433
38.3 BENEFITS 436
38.4 COMPARISONOFDEVELOPMENTSWITHANDWITHOUTTHEPROJECT 437
38.5 DISCOUNTEDCASHFLOWS.DECISIONCRITERIA 437
38.6 TIMESPANOFPROJECTIONS 439
38.7 PRICESANDPRICERELATIONSHIPS 439
Anirrigation project i,, ±nailand 440
Alternative developments in an irrigation programme in

East Africa 445
LITERATURE 451
Economic évaluation
38.1 INTRODUCTION
Economics isthescienceofchoice.Itsbasicaimistoindicatehowtoobtain
thehighestbenefits fromagivensetofscarceresources;inotherwords toin-
dicatetheoptimalchoicebetweenalternativepatternsofresourceuse.
Projectplanning (projectevaluation,projectappraisal)isonlypartofthein-
tricateandcomplexprocessofgovernmentdecision-makingwhichisdesignated
asnationalplanning.Withinaneconomy therearemany interdependencieswhich
preclude thepossibility ofevaluating separateactivities inisolation.Theideal
solution tothisproblemwouldbetheconstructionofsome "giant-model"which
would encompass thewholeeconomyand,atthesametime,beasdetailed asto
indicate allpossibleactivities andprojects,however small,and theirinter-
relations.Forobviouspractical reasons this"comprehensive-cum-detailed"
approach isnotfeasible.Inactualpractice,therefore,moreapproximativemethods
arefollowed:planning isdone instages,macro-plansbeingall-embracingbut
ratherbroadlybased,sectorplansandregionalplansbeing lessgeneralbutmore
detailed,whilstplanning for thesmallestunitsofactivity,theprojects,is
based onthemostdetailed dataandestimates available,without,however,the
benefit ofabroadoutlookonthelargereconomic framework.
Itshouldbestressed thatthevarious levelsofplanningareinterconnected and

shouldreinforceoneanother.Macro-economic planshavetobebased onthemore
detailed information supplied bysectorandprojectplans;ifnot,theywillbe
oflittleoperational significance.Theotherwayround,projects canonlybe
properly evaluated ifsufficient information issupplied by the"higher"levels
ofplanning.Economicevaluationofprojectscallsforacomparisonofbenefits
andcosts.Butwhich itemsshouldberegarded asbenefitsandcostsandhowthey
shouldbevalued dependsatleastpartlyontheoutcomeoftheplanningprocess
inother strataoftheeconomy.Thispointwillbefurtherelaborated insub-
sequentparagraphs.
38.2 COSTS
Thecostsofaproject canconveniently beclassed underthefollowingheads:
- initial investments,e.g. indams,canals,controlworks,ditches,pipes,

pumps,land levelling,landclearing,farmroads,reallocationofexisting
structures,etc.
-replacement investments,required inthefuturewhencapitalgoodscometo

theendoftheir technicaloreconomic lifetimeandhave tobereplaced
433
- lossofexistingproperty (e.g.through inundationbyastorage lake)
- recurrent costsofmaintenance oftheworks
-recurrent costsofoperationandmanagement ofthescheme
- allother associated costs;if,for instance,thebenefits ofanirrigation
ordrainage scheme aremeasured intheformof increased agriculturalproduction,
thecostsassociatedwith thisincrease inproduction,suchasoutlays forferti-
lizers,pesticides,implements,mustbecharged against theproject.
Instead ofbasing calculations onthecostsofinvestments andre-investments,it

ispossible tobase themonannualdepreciationallowances,representing theequi-
valent capital costs,butmeasured asannual capital consumption.Sincedeprecia-
tionisanaccounting device (therealoutlaysoccur atthemoment ofinvesting
andre-investing,not intheyearsbetween)generalpreference isgiven tothe
firstmethod. Inanycaseoneshould avoid themistake ofcountingbothinvest-
ments anddepreciation,because thiswould lead todoublecounting.
Debt service (interest onandamortizationof loans incurred onbehalfofthe

project)arenot tobereckoned ascosts inaneconomic sense.Economically speak-
ing,aproject isnotmoreorless "sound"whether itisfinancedby thebody
undertaking theprojectorthrough loans fromoutside.Interestpayments arenot
toberegarded asaneconomiccost,butasaparticularwayofdistributing the
benefits oftheproject:othershavesupplied thecapitalwhichmade theproject
possible,sonowthey taketheir shareoftheproject'sbenefits.Inthesame
vein,amortizationofaloanisaformofsavingoutof thenetbenefits.
Foranumberofexpenditures connectedwithaproject itmaybemoredifficultto

ascertainwhetherornot theyare tobecounted ascosts totheproject.An
irrigationschemeonhithertovirgin lands,followedbysettlement,will callfor-
sometimeshuge-outlays forhousing,schools,publicbuildings,and soon,in
theareaconcerned.Oneshould realize,then,thatagrowingpopulationwill
require such servicesanyhow,withorwithout theproject,sothat there isno
reason forcharging suchoutlays totheproject.Amoredubious casearises,
however,when thequalityof theservicesenvisaged for theprojectexceeds
country-widenorms andaverages.Thereisalsothepossibility thatthemigra-
tionofsettlerswillcauseunderutilization ofexisting facilities intheareas
oforigin,inwhich case thenewfacilities intheareaofsettlementhavetobe
counted,partlyorwholly,asadditionalcosts.
Having enumerated thevariouscost itemsandhavingestimated therequiredquanti-

tiesofeach,oneisstillconfrontedwith theproblemofpricing.Domarket
434
Economie: eâluatron
pricesofmeans ofproductionreasonably reflect therealeconomiccosts?Espe-

cially indeveloping countries,where themarketmechanism doesnot function
smoothly,theanswer should oftenbenegative.Fromaprivatepointofviewthe
costofanitemissimplywhatonehas topay forit;fromapublicorsocial
pointofview,themarketpriceperseisirrelevant;therealcost tosocietyof
ameansofproduction iswhat itwouldhavecontributed toproduction ifitwere
notemployedhere.Ifthereiswidespread unemployment orunderemployment ina
country oraregion,theuseoflabour inaprojectmay implyvery small lossesof
productionelsewhere;sotherealeconomiccostsoflabourarelow,oftenfarbelow
themarketwages.Therealpriceofcapital isdetermined bywhat thiscapitalmight
haveadded toproduction inalternativeuses;and thismay,undercertaincircum-
stances,bemuchmore thanindicated byprevailing interestrates,whichare,
more often thannot,theoutcomeofallkindsof institutional arrangements.In
many countries theofficialexchangerateovervalues thelocalcurrency interms
offoreignexchange;thismeans that imported costitemsare,inreality,much
morecostly thanindicated by theirnominalprice.
Assoonasthere isreasontoreject thesystemofmarketpricesasareliable

indicationofrealeconomicvalues,one isconfrontedwith theimportantand
difficultproblemofestimating theso-called 'real', 'shadow',or 'accounting'
prices.Thepoint cannotbe treatedhereinmoredetail,but three thingsshould
beclear.
Firstly,thatproject evaluation ismore thanthemechanical application ofsome
simplecalculatingrules.
Secondly,thatacorrect evaluationrequires alotofinformation fromoutsidethe

project:therealvalueofforeignexchange,tociteoneexample,isnotdeter-
minedby thisparticularproject,butby thesituationofthenational economyas
awhole.
Thirdly,thataneconomicevaluation shouldbesharply distinguished fromafi-

nancialevaluation. Inafinancial analysisonehas todealexclusivelywith
marketprices.Wageshave tobepaid according totheprevailing rates,irrespec-
tiveoftheeconomist's judgement that therealvalueoflabour ismuchlowerthan
themarketwages.Sotheproblemcanarise thataprojectwhich iseconomically
sound cannotbefinanced,or,theotherwayround,thateasy financecanbe
found foraprojectwhich isinessence ofloweconomicvalue.Theproblemof
financingbelongs totherealmoffeasibility:justasonehas toprove thetech-
nical feasibility ofascheme,oneshould demonstrate itsfinancial feasibility
beforeembarking onaneconomicevaluation.
435
38.3 BENEFITS
Thebenefitsofaproject consist inthefirstplaceof thegoodsandservices,
theproduction ofwhich isdue totheproject,or,whatcomes tothesame,the
damageprevented. Inwatermanagement projects suchbenefitsareusually:enlarged
agricultural production,powerproduction,betternavigation facilities,watersup-
plyfordomestic orindustrialuses. Thepricingproblem isthesameaswiththe
costitems.Ifagricultural exportsaresubsidized,therealvalueoftheproducts
totheeconomy islessthanindicated by theprices sellers receive-unlessthe
exchange rateisovervalued;thereverseholds forexportswhicharetaxed.Ifthe
products aredestined forthedomesticmarket,therelevantquestion iswhatwould
be thealternative costsofobtaining thesameoutput.What isthepriceofimported
products?Whatare thecostsofincreasingproductionelsewhere inthecountry?
Iftheproduct concerned cannotbetraded internationally,nocomparisonwiththe
worldmarket ispossible.Electricity issuchacase.Ratesperkwhareoftenpo-
liticalprices,with littlerelation tocost.Inevaluating ahydro-powerproject
thepriceofenergyproduced should thereforebemeasured,notagainstprevailing
rates,butagainst thecostsofthebestalternativemethods ofproducing thesame
amountofenergy (e.g.inthermal stations).Anotherpoint isthat theincrease
innational incomeorproductionneednotbe theexclusiveaimofdevelopment.
Incomedistribution-bothasbetweengroupsandbetweenregions-employment,
national cohesion,independence fromtheoutsideworldwithregard tothesupply
ofcapitalorcertainbasic commodities (e.g.food),improved conditions ofhous-
ing,food supply,and soon:theseareallexamples ofdevelopment aimscommonly
encountered.Thecontributions ofaproject tosuchaimsmustbemeasured,which
means attaching tothemavalue,aprice.Ideally,suchvaluation-ratios (howmuch
national income isthegovernmentwilling tosacrifice fora specifiednumberof
additional jobs?)shouldbeestablished atthemacro-economic levelandsubse-
quentlypassed onasoutside information totheprojectplanner.Inactualprac-
tice,however,theinformation supplied totheprojectplanner is,moreoftenthan
not,very scanty.Insuchcases theprojectplanner cannot formulate -atthis
levelofanalysis-thefinaljudgmentontheproject.Itwillbehis taskto
studyallelementswhichmayhaveabearing onpossibleaimsofnationalpolicy
and toindicate thecontributionsof theproject tosuchaims.Onthebasisof
this information theplannersat"higher"levels,orthepoliticians,willbein
abetterposition tocompare thevariousprojectspresented tothemand tomake
a finalpriority ranking. Inpractical terms thismeans thatonly inexceptional
casesmayprojectplanners confine themselves toworking out somesimplekeyfi-
gures like thebenefit/cost ratioortherateofreturn.They shouldbeawareof
otheraspects,andembody suchaspects intheir studiesandreports.
436
Economise evaluation
38.4 COMPARISON OFDEVELOPMENTSWITHANDWITHOUTTHEPROJECT
Economic evaluation isconcernedwiththe increments inbenefits andcostscaused

by theproject.Thismeans thatthedevelopmentwithout theprojectmustbeesti-
mated onthesamefooting asthedevelopmentwiththeproject.Acomparisonwith
thesituationprior totheexecutionof theprojectwillnotdo:thesituation
may improve-ordeteriorate -intheabsenceof theproject,and suchdevelopments
shouldbe takenintoaccount.If,for instance,improvedwatermanagementgoes
hand inhandwith the introductionofnewplantvarieties,betteruseofferti-
lizer,and soon,thusleading togradually increasingyields,oneshouldinvesti-
gatewhetherornot suchsecondary improvementsmighthavetakenplacealsoin
theabsenceof theproject.The importantpoint istoascribeneither toomuch
nor toolittle totheproject.Asomewhat similarquestionrelates tothechoice
betweenvariousalternativemodalities -inscope,design,and timephasing -of
aproject.Atagivendamsitedamsofvariousheightsmaybeconstructed;thearea
irrigatedmaybesmallerorlarger;thereleasepatternofareservoirmaybe
gearedprincipally totheneedsofpowerproductionortotherequirementsfor
irrigation;technical specificationsoftheworksmayvary;theconstructionof
thecanal systemmaybedone inashort timeormoreevenlydistributed overa
longerperiod;and soon.All suchalternatives shouldbecompared inorderto
find theoptimalvariant.
38.5 DISCOUNTEDCASHFLOWS.DECISIONCRITERIA
Costsandbenefitswillnotmaterializeatonepoint intime,butwillbedistri-
buted overlongperiods;theirvalueswillbedifferent fromyear toyear.Costs
willbeheavy intheperiod ofconstruction (initial investments),andofless
importance inlateryears (operationandmaintenance).Benefitsmaybelowatthe
outset,increasing gradually astimepasses.Nowthevalueofasumofmoneychanges
with thepointoftime itmaterializes.Future incomehaslessvalue thanpresent
income,ontheonehandbecause inagrowingeconomy themarginalvalueofmoney
fallswithgrowing income,ontheotherhandbecausepresent incomecanbein-
vested toyield anadditionalbenefitafterwards.Sothere isneed forsomede-
vice tobringbenefitsand costsoccurringatdifferentpoints oftimeontoa
commonbase;otherwisenocomparisonsarepossible.Thisdevice iscalled dis-
counting. Thediscount rate represents theannual fall inthevalueofaunitof
money .Ifthediscount rate is 10%,110unitsofmoneynextyearareequivalent
not taking inflation intoaccount
437
toonly 100unitsnow; 100isthencalled the 'presentvalue'ofthe 110next
year. Ingeneral,ifthediscountrate isi,and thebenefits inyear tareb
thenthepresentvalueof thesebenefitsamountsto
(1)
Totaldiscountedbenefitsovernyearsofaproject's lifearethen
n b
B= T. ^—- (2)
1 (1+i)
Inthesameway totaldiscounted costsamountto
n c
C= Z , (3)
1 (1+i)
Wenowhaveone figuremeasuring allbenefitsofaproject,andequallyonefigure

forallcosts.What isthecriterionofchoiceinwhich thesemeasurescanbe
used?Sincethediscountratemeasures themarginal return toinvestment inthe
economyunder study,anyprojectwhich showsasurplusofbenefitsovercosts,
whendiscounted atthisrate,willbebetter thanthemarginal activitiesof
society,andhence shouldbeundertaken.Sotheprimary criterion is:undertake
allprojectswithB-C "%• 0,rejectallprojectswithB-C<0.Analternativefor-
mulationreads:B/C ~i- 1,respectively B/C< 1.B/Ciscalled thebenefit-cost
ratio.
TheB/Cratio,asacriterion forchoice,breaksdown,however,assoonasnot
allprojectswithB/C>1canbeundertaken,eitherbecause someprojectsare
mutually exclusive (variousalternativedamsatonedamsite,various agricultural
development projects inthesamearea,and soon)orbecause there issomefurther
outside limit (e.g.aconstraint onthegovernment's budget).TheB/Cratioonly
discloses thataproject isaboveorbelow thered line,butdoesnotshowhow
attractiveacertainproject isincomparisonwithothers.ThevalueoftheB/C
ratiodependsnotonlyontherateofreturnoftheproject,butalsoonthetime
profileofbenefits andcosts.SoahigherB/Cratiodoesnotnecessarilymean
ahighereconomic return.Hencethecorrectrule is:choose thoseprojectswhich
givethehighestnetreturn (B-C)perunitofthelimiting factor;largestB-C
obtainableatthegivendamsite,thelargestB-Cperunitofthebudget.
438
Economic evaluation
Asomewhat similar concept isthatofthe internal rate of return. Insteadof
discounting benefits andcostsatanexternally givendiscountrate,onedetermines
therateofreturnwhich isimplicit intheproject itself.Ifristheunknown
rateofreturn,onefindsrfromtheequation
b C
t t
E- =I S—- (4)
(1+ r ) C
(1+ r)z
whereristherateatwhichdiscountedbenefits equaldiscounted costs.insimple

termsonemay saythat if,forexample,theinternalrateofreturnis0.17,the
projectwillearnanet 17percentover itstotalcosts.Therateofreturnhas
theadvantageofshowingmoreclearly thantheB/Cratio howattractiveaproject
isascomparedwiththemarginalusesofcapital intheeconomy.Butforpriority
ranking inthefaceofother limiting factors itsuffersfromthesameshort-
comingsastheB/Cratio.
38.6 TIMESPANOFPROJECTIONS
Manyprojectshavealongusefullifetime.Thiscallsforprojectionsofbenefits
andcostsoverextended periods.Since,however,theprocessofdiscounting leads
toincreasingly lowerweights formoredistant figures (1/(1+i) issmalleras
tislarger),itisnotnecessary tostretch theprojectionsbeyond certain
limits.Inactual studiesperiodsofseveraldecades aremostcommon.
38.7 PRICESANDPRICERELATIONSHIPS
Afinalword shouldbesaidonthefuturepricestobeused inthecalculations.

Itisgood,andgenerally accepted,practice tobasethecalculations ona
constant levelofprices,hencenottotakeaccountofpossible,orevenlikely,
inflation.Thereasonisthathigherpricesduetoinflationwouldoverstate
futurebenefitsand costs,sincethepurchasingpowerofthemoneywillhave
falleninthesameproportionaspriceshaverisen.Soforacorrectcomparison
ofbenefits andcostsatdifferentpoints intime,itisbetter tobasecalcula-
tionsonanunchanged pricelevel.Thecaseisdifferent,however, forchanges
inrelativeprices.Ifoneexpectsthatthepriceofaparticularcommoditywill
increase ordecreaseincomparisonwithallotherprices, suchapricechange
shouldbefullyreflected inthecalculations.
Theprinciplesdiscussed aboveare illustratedbythefollowing twoexamples.
439
Exojrrple 1
AN IRRIGATION-DRAINAGE PROJECT INTHAILAND
Project area
Theproject area, astudyofwhichwasundertaken in 1968,comprises660,000ha

inthenorthernpartoftheCentralPlaininThailand.Thepopulationofthearea
is 1.6million,ofwhich 1.2millionaredirectly dependent onagriculture.
TheareaformspartofThailand's largerice-growing area.Traditionally onlyone

cropwaspossible,during thewet season.Owing toheavy floods,largepartsare
only suitable forrather low-yielding floatingrice.Recently,however,storage
upstreamhasopened thepossibility ofasecond cropduring thedryseason(not
necessarily rice). Theproject aimsatmeasures foraccommodating thedryseason
irrigationwaterby improvements intheexisting irrigation system,forreducing
flood damageby large-scaledrainageworks,and foradditional improvementsin
land levelling,intheroad system,and soon.
Benefits
Inorder toassesstheoptimal croppingpattern,yields,inputs,andpricesof
various cropswerecomparedwith theirclaimsonthescarceresources (landin
thewet season,water inthedry season).Pricesappeared tobereasonably in
linewithworldmarketprices;thepriceofsugar,however,had tobeadjusted
downward inviewofheavyprotectionandartificiallyhighprices inThailand;
thereversewas trueforrice,whichwasheavily taxed atexport,sothatfarmers
received only some60%oftherealeconomic valueofthepaddy.
Taking intoaccount theoptimal cropsfromthepointsofviewofscarceresource

use,prospective farmers'reactions,anddemand factors,thecalculations assume
thatinthewet seasonbroadcasted ricewillbegradually replaced by transplanted
rice,and that inthedryseasonamixtureofrice,groundnuts,soybeans,fruit,
andvegetableswillbegrown.Cropping intensities inthedry seasonwilleven-
tually reachnearly 50%(water limit). Inthe 'without theproject'casethe
introductionofmore transplantedricewillbeexcluded,and intensities inthe
dry seasonwillnot surpass some25%,duetoinefficiencies intheirrigation
system.
440
Economic evaluation
After the deduction of associated farm costs, the following picture of net bene-
fits emerges (see Table1 ) .
Table 1.
Net Production Values from Crops in the Project Area,x min t

(1 baht = US $ 0.05)
Withproposed Withoutproposed
v
Year
measures measures
1967 1658 1658

1970 1782 1782
1975 2168 2000
1980 2688 2156
1985 3320 2346
1990 3684 2469
1995 3948 2550
2000 4179 2609
Figures for intervening years are derived by linear interpolation;

it is assumed that the first differences in benefits will be arrived
at in 1972.
Costs
Costs for the 'with-' and the 'without-the-project' case are summarized in Tables
2 and 3.
441
Table 2.
Costs of Proposed Measures, 'with' Case,x t mln
I nves tm än t s Currentcosts
Ma m Main Pr ïpa- Minor irri- Minorir- 4ain

irriga- drain- ration gationand rigation drain-
Year Total
tion age drainage anddrainage
costs
system system system,farm agesystem, system
roads,level- roads
ling
1971 20 75 24 90 24.21 69.86

1972 20 75 456 50 24 90 24.21 526.36
1973 20 75 456 50 24 90 24.21 526.36
1974 20 75 456 50 24 90 24.21 526.36
1975 20 75 456 50 24 90 122.89 625.04
1976 456 50 122.89 2.21 581.60
1977 122.89 4.42 6.60 143.91
1978 122.89 6.64 6.60 146.13
1979 122.89 8.85 6.60 148.34
1980 122.89 11.06 6.60 150.55
1981 112.51 13.28 6.60 142.39
1982 112.51 15.49 6.60 144.60
1983 112.51 17.70 6.60 146.81
1984 112.51 19.92 6.60 149.03
1985 112.51 22.13 6.60 151.24
1986 112.51 24.34 6.60 153.45
1987 112.51 26.56 6.60 155.67
1988 112.51 28.77 6.60 157.88
1989 112.51 30.98 6.60 160.09
1990 33.20 6.60 49.80
1991 33.20 6.60 49.80
1992 33.20 6.60 49.80
1993 33.20 6.60 49.80
1994 33.20 6.60 49.80
1995 33.20 6.60 49.80
1996 33.20 6.60 49.80
1997 33.20 6.60 49.80
1998 33.20 6.60 49.80
1999 33.20 6.60 49.80
2000 33.20 6.60 49.80
Total 103.75 2282.50 124.50 1846.75
Resi-
dual 26.98 1983.70 124.50 1846.75 3981.93
value
442
Economie evaluation
Table 3.
Costs in ' w i t h o u t ' Case, x t mln
In ves tme nt s
Year Total
Ma:in Detailed
irrig;ation Levelling irrigation costs
sysltem system
1971 20..75 13 .83 10,.38 44 .96

1972 20 .75 13 .83 10,.38 44 .96
1973 20..75 13 .83 10,,38 44,.96
1974 20 .75 13 .83 10..38 44,.96
1975 20,.75 13..83 10..38 44..96
1976 13 ,83 10.,38 24,,21
1977 13 .83 10.,38 24,.21
1978 13,,83 10. 38 24.,21
1979 13..83 10. 38 24,.21
1980 13..83 10.,38 24,.21
1981 13..83 13,.83
1982 13.,83 13..83
1983 13,,83 13,.83
1984 13,.83 13,,83
1985 13,.83 13,.83
1986 13.,83 13.,83
1987 13,,83 13,.83
1988 13,,83 13,.83
1989 13,.83 13,.83
1990 13.,83 13.,83
1991 13.,83 13.,83
1992 13.,83 13..83
1993 13.,83 13,.83
1994 13.,83 13..83
1995 13.,83 13. 83
1996 13.,83 13..83
1997 13.,83 13..83
1998 13. 83 13. 83
1999 13. 83 13. 83
2000 13..83 13. 83
103.75 415.0 103.75
Residual
value 26.98 415.0 103.75 545.73
443
Rate of return
Onthebasisofthese figures,theinternalrateofreturnoftheproposedmeasures
comes to 19percent.This isafavourable figure.Estimates ofcostsandbenefits
havebeenmadeontheconservative side.So,withallpossible errorsofprojection
admitted, theconclusion seemsjustified that theproposed measureswill leadto
relativelyhighbenefits.
Further considerations
The studyshows thatwithout theproject thepercapita income intheprojectarea
isbound tostagnateduring thenext 20yearsduetopopulationgrowth.Itis
alsocalculated thattheproposed expenditureswillbespread oversome20years,
butwithaheavy concentration intheperiod 1972-1976,duringwhich theymay
amount tosome20-25percentoftotalpublic investment outlays for irrigation
forthewholeofThailand.
Limitations of the study

Theproject areaispart ofamuch largerriverbasin;anoptimalallocationof
waterresourcesbetween thevariouspartsofthebasinwasbeyond thescopeof
thestudy.
Anothermajor limitation isthatonlyoneparticularmodeofsolving theflooding

problem (largecanals tothesea)hasbeenconsidered,whilst itisclearthat
otherpossibilities (abandoning some lowerareas forsurpluswaterdisposal,more
damsupstream forwaterregulation)exist.
444
Economie evaluation
Example 2
ALTERNATIVE;DEVELOPMENTS IN AN IRRIGATION PROGRAMMEINEASTAFRICA
Thepurposeofthisexampleistobringtotheforesomeoftheproblemsconnected
withtheeconomic choicebetweenanumberoftechnically feasiblealternatives.
Theexampleisborrowed,inasimplifiedversion,fromareconnaissance studywhich
wasundertakeninanareainEastAfricawiththeaimofassessing,onaprelimi-
narybasis,theirrigationpotentialoftheareaconcerned.Thereconnaissance
studywastobefollowedbymoredetailed feasibility studiesofthemostpromising
projects.
Forreasonsofsoilsuitabilityandtopography,irrigationonlyprovedpossible
inthehigherreachesofthecatchment area,where ten,rather small,streamshave
notyetentered intothemainstem.Nofeasible storage sitesareavailable.So
theproblemwastodeviseanirrigation systemonthebasisofnatural flowsof
tenstreams,eachwitharelativelymodest,andrather irregular,discharge.
Thesimplest systemwouldbetoirrigate fromeachriversuitableareasinthe

immediatevicinityofeachriver.Limitstopossibledevelopmentswould thenbe
imposed eitherbyavailable landofsuitable characteristics,orbytheavailabi-
lityofwaterincriticalperiodsoftheyear (i.e.whentheratiobetweendis-
chargeandcropwaterrequirements ismostunfavourable).If,withacertain
river,wateristhelimiting factor,thoseprojectsarechosenwhichwould lead
tothehighestnetbenefitsperunitoftimelywater;iftheareaconstraintdo-
minates,onemaximizeswithrespecttoarea,i.e.onelooksforthehighestnet
benefitsperacre.Thissystem,whichwewillcallSystemA,istechnically simple
andnotvery expensive.Buttheareathatcanbedeveloped inthiswayremains
rathersmall.
Since seasonaldischargedistributionsarenotthesameforeachriver,and, more-

over,suitable areasarenotproportionaltoavailablewater,additionalpossibi-
litiesmight derivefrominterconnecting someoftherivers,transferringwater
fromoneriverwhereandwhenitwasinsurplus,toadditional areasinother
partsofthesystem.
Afterascrutinyofanumberofalternatives (thedetailsofwhichareomitted
here)thenext logical stepappearedtobeapartial integrationofthearea,
interconnectingsixrivers intoonesub-system,twootherrivers intoasecond
sub-system,andleavingthetworemaining riversontheirown.Wewill callthis
solution SystemB.Itimpliesaconsiderable increaseover SystemAasregards
areaswhich,fromatechnicalpointofview,canbedeveloped.
445
The fullestpossible integrationisreachedwhen thetworiverswhichremaineduu
connected under SystemBareconnectedwith thecombinationofthefirstsix
rivers.Wewillcall thissystem,comprising twosub-systems -onewitheight
rivers,theotherwith two-SystemC.Itleadstoanothergaininirrigablearea.
Theareafiguresareasfollows:
SystemA 69,710acres
SystemB 84,115acres
SystemC 97,880acres
Theareas tobedeveloped havebeengrouped into 18projects.Someprojectsare

interrelated.For instance,under SystemA,Project 11isanextensionofProject
10,and canonlybeconstructed after implementationofProject 10.Insuchcases
thesecond project (11)isevaluated asanadditiontothefirst (10),sothat
onlyincremental costsandincrementalbenefitsofthesecondprojectaretaken
intoconsideration intheeconomiccalculation.Thepositionmaychangeundera
different system.Under SystemB,forexample,Project 11willdrawitswater
fromadifferent source,andhencecanbeimplemented without reference toProject
10.
Intheeconomic evaluation,attentionhasfirst tobegiven tothequestion

whether allprojectswhichare technically eligible for irrigationundera
certainsystemcanbejustified fromaneconomicpointofview.Inthisstage,
the three systems arestripped of theiruneconomicelements.Thenext stepis
tocompare the three systems:aretheincreases inbenefits,due totheincreases
inarea,sufficiently large tocover theadditional costs?Forthepurposesof
theseexercises ithasbeenassumed thatallprojectswould havethesamestarting
date,andallcostsandbenefitshavebeendiscounted toacommonbaseyear,atan
annual rateof8percent.
Table4shows theinternal ratesofreturn forSystemA.UnderSystemA,Projects

6,7,13,14,and 15cannotbeimplemented for lackofwater.Allotherprojects
appear tobeeconomically justified,with theexceptionofProject 18,whichhas
arateofreturnnothigher than 1.5%.Dropping thisproject,onereducesthe
feasible areafrom69,700acres to56,025.Theaveragerateofreturnonthe
economic partofSystemAcomes tosome 10to 11percent.
446
Economic evaluation
Table4.
Internal Rates ofReturn forSystemA
Areain 8% discount (sh. min)

Project Int:ernal rate
acres
benefits costs B-C of return(%)
1 1,735 5.6 4.3 1.3 10.5
2 2,000 5.8 4.5 1.3 10.3
3 205 0.6 0.5 0.1 10.6
4 475 1.4 1.3 0.1 8.5
5 4,950 17.2 9.9 7.3 13.0
6 -
7 -
8 6,350 23.0 15.5 7.5 11.1
9 1,990 6.2 4.6 1.6 10.2
10 4,345 17.6 9.4 8.2 13.5
11 5.300 1 17.5 12.0 5.5 10.8
12 1,375 4.4 3.4 1.0 9.7
13 -
14 -
15 -
16 6,010 22.6 13.1 9.5 12.6
17 21,290 67.0 60.8 6.2 9.3
18 13.685 2 29.1 59.1 -30.0 1.5
Total
systemA 69,710 218.0 198.4 19.6
SystemA,
economic
part 56,025 188.9 139.3 49.6
extension of project 10
447
For System B the figures are shown in Table 5. The first 10 projects appear to be
virtually the same as under System A. Project 11 has become an independent project,
with a somewhat larger acreage. Project 12 has also been enlarged; Projects 13,
14, and 15make their first appearance. Project 16 ismuch larger than previously,
but Project 17,now an extension of 16, is reduced in area, as is Project 18.
As before, Project 18proves to be unfeasible, though its rate of return is rather
close to 8%. Dropping this project, one finds a total area of 72,280 acres, some
30 per cent more than with System A. Net discounted benefits (B-C) increase from
sh.50 mln under System A to sh.76 mln under B. The average rate of return on the
economic part of System Bwill be slightly higher than with System A.
Table 5.
Internal Rates of Return for System B
Areain 8%discount (sh. mln)

Project Internal rate
acres
benefits costs B-C ofreturn(%)
1 1,735 5.7 4.0 1.7 11.8

2 2,000 5.8 4.3 1.5 11.4
3 205 0.6 0.5 0.1 10.6
4 475 1.4 1.3 0.1 8.5
5 4,950 17.2 9.9 7.3 13.0
6 -
7 -
8 6,350 23.0 15.5 7.5 11.1
9 1,990 6.2 4.6 1.6 10.2
10 4,345 17.6 9.4 8.2 13.5
11 6,155 17.7 12.2 5.5 11.3
12 2,765 8.7 5.9 2.8 11.5
13 1,040 2.8 2.5 0.3 8.8
14 1,205 3.5 3.1 0.4 9.0
15 3,690 10.8 7.5 3.3 11.0
16 22,445 69.5 41.7 27.8 12.4
17 12.9301 29.9 21.8 8.1 11.5
18 11.8352 23.1 24.2 -1.1 7.5
Total
systemB 84,115 243.5 168.4 75.1
SystemB,
economic
part 72,280 220.4 144.2 76.2
1
2
448
Economic evaluation
SystemC,finally,wouldproduce theresults showninTable6.UnderSystemC
thereisenoughwater toenlarge theareaofanumberofprojectsand tointroduce
Projects 6and 7,previously leftout.Projects 17and 18arecombined,andagain
proposed as.anextensionofProject 16.TherateofreturnonProject 9is,margi-
nally,toolow (7.7%).Leavingoutthisproject,one isleftwithanareaof
91,220acres,aconsiderable increaseoverSystemB;butadditional costssurpass
additionalbenefits,sothatnetdiscountedbenefits (B-C)areslightly lower
thanunder SystemB.
Table6.
I n t e r n a l Rates of Return for System C
Area in 8% discount (sh. mln)

Project Internal rate
acres
benefits costs B-C of return(%)
1 1,735 5.7 4.0 1.7 11.8

2 2,000 5.8 4.3 1.5 11.4
3 205 0.6 0.5 0.1 10.6
4 475 1.4 1.3 0.1 8.5

5 4,950 17.2 9.9 7.3 13.0
6 6,280 21.3 18.3 3.0 9.3
7 725 2.2 2.0 0.2 8.8
8 10,720 31.4 28.6 2.8 8.8
9 6,640 22.9 23.7 -0.8 7.7
10 7,630 27.3 15.7 11.6 14.5
11 6,155 17.7 12.2 5.5 11.3
12 2,765 8.7 5.9 2.8 11.5
13 1,040 2.8 2.5 0.3 8.8
14 1,205 3.5 3.1 0.4 9.0
15 3,690 10.8 7.5 3.3 11.0
16 22,445 69.5 41.7 27.8 12.4
17 - 18 19.220 1 45.1 40.6 4.5 9.0
Total
system C 97,880 293.9 221.8 72.1
System C,
economic
part 91,220 271.0 198.1 72.9
449
Table 7 summarizes the figures for the three systems.
Table 7.
Comparison of Systems A, B, and C
Area in acres Net discounted benefits

System „.••,, • -,, at 87.at8
(B-C)(B-C)
technically economically x sh.mln.
feasible feasible
A 69,710 56,025 49,6

B 84,115 72,280 76,2
C 97,880 91,220 72,9
The conclusion would be that System B should receive preference. The difference
innet benefits with System C, however, is small,which means that a slight change
in assumptions might make Cmore attractive. So one should give the matter
careful attention before taking a decision which would rob the area of an addi-
tional 20,000 acres of irrigated land.
450
Economic evaluation
LITERATURE
EKSTEIN,0. 1958.WaterResourceDevelopment.TheEconomicsofProjectEvaluation.
Harvard Univ.Press,Cambridge,Mass.300pp.
KING,J.A. 1967.EconomicDevelopmentProjectsand theirAppraisal.Baltimore.
MAASS,A.,HUFSCHMIDT,M.M.,DORFMAN,R.etal. 1966.Designofwaterresource
systems,newtechniques forrelating economicobjectives,engineeringana-
lysisandgovernmental planning.HarvardUniv.Press,Cambridge,Mass.620pp.
PREST,A.R.,TURVEY,R. 1965.CostBenefitAnalysis.ASurvey.TheEconomicJ.
75:683-735.
SUBCOMMITTEEONEVALUATION STANDARDS. 1958.Inter-Agency CommitteeonWater

Resources:ProposedPractices forEconomicAnalysisofRiverBasinProjects.
WashingtonD.C.
UNITEDNATIONS. 1958.ManualonEconomicDevelopmentProjects.NewYork.242pp.
451
PRINCIPAL SYMBOLSUSEDINVOLUMEIV
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION DIMENSION
A area,cross-sectionalarea L'
geometry factor,constant dimensionless
channelwidthatwater surface,widthofarea
drained byapipeline L
bottomwidthofchannel,widthofweircrest L
constant,coefficient dimensionless
Chézy'scoefficient lA"1
runoffcoefficient,claycontent inweight
percentage dimensionless
CN curvenumber
c constant,coefficient dimensionless
thicknessoflayer
dropnumber dimensionless
totaldepthofditch,depthofdrainabove
imperviousbaselayer
equivalent thickness inHooghoudt'sformula,
graindiameter,insidediameter ofpipedrain,
thicknessoffilterlayer
évapotranspiration LT"1
elevation L
baseofnatural logarithm (0.2718...)
F frequency dimensionless
Fr Froudenumber dimensionless
f correctionfactor dimensionless
accelerationduetogravity LT"2
energyhead,difference inelevation,saturated
thicknessoflayer
organicmattercontent inweightpercentage dimensionless
H specific energyhead L
o
AH head loss L
h head,availablehead L
meanrainfall intensityoveraperiod equalto

thetimeofconcentration •1
LT
hydraulicgradient dimensionless
K hydraulic conductivity LT"'
452
Symbole
KD transmissivityofwaterbearing layer L T-]

2
L drainspacing,length
numberofgridpointsonaline dimensionless
2 -3
power Watt,ML T
number,Manning's coefficient
dimensionless
numberofrevelutionsperminute
specificspeed L 3/4T-3/2
precipitation,unadjusted peakrunoff LT"1

porevolumeratio (porosity) dimensionless
pressure intensity MIT'T"2
coefficient,side-sloperatio dimensionless
discharge
runoff LT
dischargeperunitarea,specificdischarge LT
dischargeperunitlengthorwidth L2T-]
hydraulicradius
effectiverainfall -1
LT
Re Reynoldsnumber dimensionless
S subsidence L
waterstorage LT'1
slope dimensionless
periodoftime T
time T
wettedperimeter
volume
flowvelocity LT"1
watercontent inweightpercentage dimensionless
freeboard L
radialresistance L"'T
Cartesiancoordinate dimensionless
length L
Cartesiancoordinate dimensionless
waterdepth L
453
Symbol Description Dimension
geometrichead,availablehead,heightofwater
tableabove imperviousbase layer L
angle degree
constant dimensionless
angle degree
constant dimensionless
A massdensityratio,small incrementof dimensionless
6 thicknessoflaminarlayer L
e coefficient ofsubsidence dimensionless
n efficiency dimensionless
x resistancefactor dimensionless
v effectiveporosity dimensionless
v kinematicviscosity L2T-'
ç losscoefficient dimensionless
p massdensity ML
-2
T tractiveforce
MT
To tractive forceperunitperimeter
MIT1 T"2
angleofinternalrepose
degree
454
Subject index
S U B J E C T INDEX
Acid sulphatesoils Bankprotection

drainageof 32, 3;32.3.5 heightrecommended 29.6.2
improvementof 32.3.3
predicting Bankscythes 31.2.1
formationof 32.3.4 Bankvegetation
reclamationof 32.3.5
controlof 31.2
Acidificationofsoils 32.3.2 precuttingbanks 31.4.1
Administrationofwater Bedding system
control organization 37.6 surfacedrainage
levels 37.3 practice 28.4.1
Benchtypeterraces 28.5
Agencies forwater
control 37.6 Bends
inAsia 37 (AnnexI) energy lossesin 29.8.3
inTheNetherlands 37 (AnnexII) Benefits
Agriculturalwatercontrol increments in 38.4
works ofwater control
managementof 37 projects 38.3
pricerelationships 38.7
Algae 30.2
Berms
Amitrole 30.4 conditionsfor
Antecedentmoisture constructing 29.6.2
conditionclasses 28.7.3 Blind inlets 27.5.3
Aquaticweeds Blind junctions 27.5.3
chemicalcontrolin
channels 30 Boningrods 27.6.3
controlof 31 31.5.2 Brittleness ofpipes 27.5.1
growth-place factorso 30.2
Brushes
Archimedeanscrew 29.9.2
forpipecleaning 27.7.4
Atrazin 30.4 Burning
Availablemoisture 29.4.2 controlofweeds 30.6
Axial-flowpump 29.9.2
inpumpingstation 29.9.8
specific speedof 29.9.4
Calcareoussoils
oxidationof 32.3.2
Baffled aprons 29.7.5 Canalbed
Bank forcesactingon 29.6.4
groundwater flowthrough 29.6.5 Canalcapacity
relation tominimum
Bankcuttingknife 31.4.1
radiusofcurvature 29.6.6
Bankmower 31.2.2
Bank mowing see also Mowing
Bankmowing Canals see also Channels, Grassed
selectingright
water courses. Grass-lined
canals
equipment 31.5.1
455
Canals Collectordrains
conveyance 29.,4. 1 hydraulicsof 29.4
cross-sectionof 29..4. 1 freeboardin 29.6
excavationof 29,.5 27.4
Collectorpipes
flowin 29..3
maintenanceof 29,.3 Collectors see also drain pipes,
permissiblevelocityin 29,.6. 3 Pipe drains
shapeofcross-section 29,,6. 2 Collectors
stabilityof 29,.6
types 27.1
Cat clay soils see Acid Combustionengine
sulphate soils
forpump 29.9.
Centrifugalpump 29.9.2 Compositepipedrainage
manometric suctionhead 29.9.5
specific speedof 29.9.4 system 27.1;27.4.
Chainscythe 31.3.1 Concretepipes 27.5.
Channeltransitions 29.8 Contactherbicides 30.4
Channels see also Canals, Mole Conveyance canals see Canals
drainage, Open channels Conveyance drains see Canals
Channels Cookmethod 28.7.
chemicalcontrolof
weedsin 30 Coppersulphate 30.4
oftheerosioncontrol Corrugated plasticpipes
terraces 28 .5.,2 advantages 27.5.
reshaping 31 .4. 1 resistancefactor 27.4.
Check structures usebydeepdrainage 27.6.
flowvelocity control 29 .7.,1 Costs
discounted cashflows 38.5
Chézyequation 29,.3
increments in 38.4;38.5
Chinesegrasscarp 30,.6 ofwatercontrol
projects 38.2
Chutes .7.,3
29.7.3
29, pricerelationships 38.7
Claydeposits Covermaterials
removing fromdrains 27.7.4 27.6,,4
applicationof
Claypipes 27.5.1 topipedrains 27.5,.2
layingbymachine 27.6.4
Crackformation
Clayprofile insediments 32.1 .4; 32.1, .5
horizonsin 33.1
Criticaldepth
Claytiles 27.5.1 offlow 29.3
Cleanpipes Crops
resistancefactor 27.4.3 designdischargefor 29.4.2
selectionofsurface
Cleaners
drainagemethods 28.3
31.4.4
forditches
Cross-slopeditchsystem 28.5,
27.7.4
Cleaningdrainpipes
Crowning
27.7.3
Cloggingofdrainpipes insurfacedrainage 28.4
Cohesivematerials Cultivars
permissible flow ofrice 35.2
velocitiesfor 29.6.6
Culverts
Collector drains see also Ditches discharge equationfor 29.2
456
Subject index
Curvar-ure see Radius of Dischargeobservations

curvature analysisof 33.4
Curvenumbermethod 28.7.3 Discounting
decisioncriteriafor
Cuts aproject 38.5
methods forcomputing
inlandgradingdesign 28.3.3 Dissipator see Energy dissipator
Cutterbar 31.2.2 Ditchcleaner 31.4.4
torcontrolofaquatic Ditchdrains 27 .2
weeds 31.3.2 .2.2
construction 27
Cuttingofaquaticweeds design 27 .2.1
fromlaunches 31.3.2 location 27 .2.1
withhand tools 31.3.1 maintenance 27 .2.3
spacings 27 .2.1
Cypress creekformula 28.8.1
Ditchers
scoop-type 31 .4.3
suction-type 31 .4.5
withrotarytools 31. .4.4
Dalapon 30.4
Ditches see also Canals, Channels,
Darcy-Weisbachequation 27.4.3 Collector drains
Deepdischarge 33.2
rateof 33.4.1 Pitches
relationtohydraulic alignmentsof 29. 2.2
head 33.4.1;33.4.2 cross-slope system 28. 5.1
mechanicalmaintenanceof31
Deepwaterrice 35.1 parallel system 4.4
Degreeofhumosity 32.2.4 Ditchingbucket 4.3
Desig;ndischarge Diversionditch 6.3
formaindrainagesystem 29.4.2 Double transplanting ofrice 1
Dessicationofweeds 30.4 Drainbridges 5.3
Deteriorationofmolechannels27.3.1 Draindepth
Dichlobenil 30.4 horizontal flowabove 33.4.1
Diggr.ng Drainpipesystem
hydraulicdesign 27.4.3
byhand 27.6.3
Drainpipes
Digging fork 31.4.2 cleaningmethods 27 .7,.4
Digginghoe 31.4.1 cloggingof 27,.7,.3
equations foruniform
Diquat 30.4 flow 27..4,.3
Discharge junctionsbetween 27,.5,.3
of interuptordrains 34.2.3 materialsfor 27,.5,.1
Dischargecapacity pre-envelopingof 27,.5 .2
determination 29.4.2 Drainsystem
ofcanal 29.3; 29.4.1 parallel 28 .4 .2
ofmaindrainage random 28,.4,.3
system 29.4.2
Dischargecomputations Drainage see also Pipe drainage,
forflatareas 28,8 Surface drainage, Trenchless
forslopingareas 28.7 drainage
Dischargedata Drainage
method ofanalyzing 33.4.1 ofacid sulphate soils 32 .3.5
457
(Drainage) Emerged soils 32.1.2
offlatareas 28.4 Emergentweeds 30.2
ofpeatsoils 32.2
chemical controlof 30.3
Drainage canals see Canals
Energydissipator 29.7.2;29.7.3
Drainage channels see Canals, Open
Energy lossesincanals
channeIs
insuddencontraction 29.8.2
Drainage ditches see Ditches Entranceflow 27.7.2
Drainage inlets see Inlets Entrancevelocity
Drainage machines see also Excavators inchutes 29.7.5
Drainagemachines 27.6.4;27.6.5 Entryresistance 27.7.3
Drainageofheavyclaysoils Erosioncontrol terrace 28.5.2
depthof 33.3 Evacuationofwater
Drainageoflowland rice 35.5 pointsof 29.2.3
Drainage projects see also Excavationofditches 27.2.2
Water control organization
Excavators
Drainageprojects fordeepdrainage 27.6.6
economicevaluationof 38 technicaldata 27.6.4
management 37
Drainagetools
forinstallationbyhand 27.6.3
Drains see Ditch drains,
Farm drains see Ditch drains,
Interceptor drains, Mole drainage, Mole drains, Pipe drains
Pipe drains
Field drainage system 27.1
Dredging
byhand 31.4.2 Fielddrains
scoop 31.4.2 types 27.1
Drivingpower Field laterals see Laterals
forpumps 29.9.6 Fills
Dropnumber 29.7.2 methodsforcomputingin
landgradingdesign 28,. 3 . ,3
Drop structures
flowvelocitycontrol 29.7.1 Filterconstructionincanals
inclined 29.7.3 permeabilityof 29,.6..7
straight 29.7.2
Financing
Dry-land rice 35.1 ofwatercontrolworks 37 .7
Dummequationforunsteady flow33.5 Fish
controlofweeds 30,.6
Economic evaluation see also
Flailmower 31 .2, .2
Benefits, Costs, Discounting,
Project planning Flatareas
designdischarge
Economicevaluation
computationsfor 28.8
ofwatercontrolprojects 38 designing drainagesystem 2 9 . 2 . ,2
Effectivestress hydraulic gradient 2 9 . 4 . ,4
insediments 32.1.4 protection fromflooding 2 8 . 6 . ,3
surfacedrainageof 28.4
Elbows
waterdisposalin 2 8 . 6 . ,1
energylossesin 29.8.3
458
Subject index
Floatingrice 35,1 Gridironsystem

ofpipedrainage 27.4.4
Floatingwaterplants 30.2
chemicalcontrolof 30.3 Groundwaterflow
inlayeredprofile 33.3
Flood control through thebank 29.6.5
inTheNetherlands 37 (AnnexII)
Hand tools
Flowequations forremoving silt 31.4.2
fordrainpipes 27.4.3 mowingwith 31.2.1;31.3.1
Flow fromthetrenchboundary 27.7.2 Harrowing aquaticweeds 31.3.3
workingrates 31.3.4
Flov.geometry
29.7.2 Head losses
ofstraightdrop inpumping system 29.9.3
27.7.2
Flow intothepipedrain intransitions 29.8.2
29.9.2
Flowpumps Heavyclaysoils
27.7.2 drainageof 33
Flowresistance
''low velocity see also Maximum Herbicides
permissible Velocity, Minimum permis- equipment 30.5
sible Velocity, Subcritical flow influencing factorsbyuse30.4
Flowvelocity useof 30.3
control 29.7 Herringbone system
incanals 29.3;29.4.1 ofpipedrainage 27.4.4
inchannelsoferosion useinslopinglands 34.3
terraces 28.5.2
inopenchannels 29.6.3 Hillsidedrain
cross-section 29.6.2
Flushingmethods
ofpipecleaning 27.7.4 Hoe 27.6.3
fordredging 31.4.2
Freeboard
inditches 29.6.2 Horizontal flow
inalayeredprofile 33.3;33.4.1
Frequency factor
determinationof 28.7.2 Hydraulic conductivity
abovedraindepth 33.4.1
Frictionlosses improving 33.7
incanals 29.7.3
intransitions 29.8.4 Hydraulicdesign
ofdrainpipesystem 27.4.3
Freudenumber 29.3;29.7.2;29.7.3
Full-flowingpipes Hydraulic drop see also Drop structures
resistancefactor 27.4.3
Hydraulicdrop
inwatersurface 29.3
Hydraulic gradient 27.4.3
Grading ofthecanals 29.4.3
forsurfacedrainage 28.3.2
Hydraulichead
Grassedwatercourses forradialflow 33.4.1
n-valuesfor 29.3 relationtotherateof
classificationofgrasses 29.3 deepdischarge 33.4.1;33.4.2
Grass-lined canals Hydraulic jump 29.3;29.7.2; 29.7.3
permissiblevelocities 29.6.6 Hydrograph
Gridsystem estimationofpeak
forland levelling 28.3.3 runoff rate 28.7.3
forreconnaissance surveys36.3.4 Hydrologiesoilgroups 28.7.3
459
Inclined drops 29.7.3 Machines see Drainage machines
Initial soilformation 32.1.3 Maindrainagesystem 27.1
designcriteria 29.4
Inlets 27.5.3;29.7.4 functionof 29.1
Inspectionchamberjunctions 27.5.3 hydraulicsof 29.3
installing 29.5
Interceptionditch 28.6.3 kindsof 29.2
Interceptordrains 34.2.1 Manatee 30.6
depthof 34.2.3
inslopingland 34.3 Mangumterrace 28.5.2
Investments Manning'sequation 27.4.3; 28.5.2;
inwatercontrolprojects 38.2 29.3; 29.4.1
Irondeposits Manning's factor 29.3
removingfromdrains 27.7.4 Manometrichead
Irrigationrequirements inpumping system 29.9.3
inricefields 35.3.1
Manometric suctionhead 29.9.5
Jettingnozzle 27.7.4
Marginalweeds 30.2
Juctionbox 27.5.3
Marshrice 35.1
Kennedyequation 29.6.6
Maximumpermissiblevelocity 29.6.6
Kutter'svalue 29.3
Method ofleastsquares
forlandgrading 28.3.3
Mineralsoils
predictionofsubsidence 32.1.4
Landdrainage
management of 37 Minimumpermissiblevelocity
incanals 29.6.3
Land forming see also Crowning
Grading, Smoothing Mixed-flowpump 29.9.2
specific speedof 29.9.4
Landforming
forsurfacedrainage 28 .3 Moledrainage 27.3; 33.6.2
Laterals Moleploughs 27.3.2
types 27,.1 Moss see Aquatic weeds
Launches 31,.2.,3 31.2.2
Mowers
hoeing 31 .3..2 propulsionof 31.2.3
mowingfrom 31,.3.,2 workingrate 31.2.5
workingrates 31,.3.,4
Mowing
Layered soil
withhand tools 31 .2.1; 31.3.1
analyzingdischarge 31.2.2
withmachines
datafrom 33,.4.,1
Mowingbucket 31.2.4
Legalframework
excavatorwith 31.2.4
ofthedrainageprojects 37,.5 31.2.5
workingrate
Liningofmoledrains 27.3.2
Lowlandrice 35.1
drainageof 35.5
ecologyof 35.2 Netpositivesuctionhead 29.9.5
specialfeatures 35.4
Neutralization
ofacid sulphatesoils 32.3.3
460
Subject index
Nichols terrace 28.5.1 Pipelaying

byhand 27.6.3
Non-uniformflow bymachine 27.6.4
equations fordrainpipes 27.4.3
Pipelines
marking alignments 27.6.2
ofincreasingpipe
diameter 27.4.3
Openchannels
29.6.3 Pipeoutlet 27.5.3
movementofgrainsin
27.1 Pipetongs 27.6.3
Opendrains
27.5.3 Planemethod
Openinlets 28.3.3
forlandgrading
27.5.3
Outlets Plantroots
cloggingofdrainsby 27.7.3
Plasticpipes 27.5.1
Parallel fielddrainsystem layingbymachine 27.6.4
insurfacedrainage 28..4,,2 37 (AnnexII)
Polderdistricts
'arallelopenditchsystem 28,.4,,4
Polders 29.2.4
'araqua: 30,,4 hydraulic gradient in 29.4.4
standarddischarge for 29.4.2
'asture
bedding systemfor 28,.4,,1 Porevolume
selectionofsurface ofpeatsoils 32.2.3
drainagemethods 28,.3 ofsediments 32.1.4
Peakrunoffrate Potentialmaximumretention 28.7.3
calculationfor Potentiometriecurves
determining 28. 7.3
forpipelines 27.4.3
estimationof 28. 7.2
Precuttingbanks
Peatsoils
spadefor 31.4.1
drainageof 32. 2
occurrenceof 32. 2.1 Pre-enveloping
predictingsubsidence 32. 2.3 ofdrainpipes 27.5.2
Permissiblevelocities Profilemethod
offlew 29.6.3;29.6.6 forijlandgrading 28.3.3
Pipedrainage Project planning see also
designof 27.4 Drainage projects
materials for 27.5 Projectplanning 38.1
trenchless 27.6.5
comparisonofdevelopments 38.4
Pipedrainagesystem
checking 27.7.2 Protectionofcanals 29.6.7;29.7
maintenance 27.7
Publicdistricts
methodsofconstruction 27.6.1
administrationof 37.6
Pipe drains see also Drain pipes, Puddlingofrice
Sloping pipe drains waterrequirementduring 35.3.2
Pipedrains Pumpingstations 29.9
covermaterialsto 27.5.2 locationof 29.9.8
diameter 27.4.3
Pumps 29.9
gradient 27.4.3
capacity 29.9.7
types 27.1
operatingrange of 29.9.4
powertodrive 29.9.6
461
(Pumps) Riceculture
selectionof 29.9.4 types of 35.
suctionhead 29.9.5 Ricevarieties
types 29.9.2
yieldsof 35..5.2
Pushknife 31.4.1 Ripening
p.v.c.pipes 27.5.1 ofthesoil 32..1.3
Rowlength
forlandgrading 28 .3.2
Runoff
Radialresistance 34.2.3 methodsofestimation 29 .2.1
determinationof 33.4.1 timedistributionof 28 .7.3
Radial-flowpump 29.9.2 Runoffcoefficient
determinationof 28 .7.1
Radiusofcurvature
Runoff curvenumbers 28 .7.3
ofcanalalignment 29.6.6
forhydrologiesoil-cover
Rainfalldistributioncurves 28.7.3 complexes 28 .7.3
Rainfallexcess Runoff-producing characteristics
calculationof 28.8.1 ofdrainagebasins 28 .7.2
Rainfallfactor
determination of 28.7.2
Rainfall intensity
determinationof 28.7.1 Scoopditchers 31..4.3
Randomdrainsystem Scour
used insurfacedrainage 28,4.3 protection incanals 29. 6.7
Randompipesystem 27.4.4 Scrapingmethods
Rationalmethod ofpipecleaning 27.,7.4
fordesigndischarge
computationsin Scythes 31.,2.1
sloping lands 28.7.] Selectiveherbicides 30.,4
Regulating structures 29.2.5 Semi-floatingrice 35.,1
Reclamation Shallowdischarge 33.,2
33.,5
ofacid sulphate soils 32.3.5 through thetoplayer
Reshaping channel 31.4.1 Side slope see Slope
27.6.3
Residualherbicides 30.3 Sightingtargets
Resistance factor 27.4.3 Sievecurves
offilter layersin
Retentionreservoirs 29.2.5 canals 29. 6.7
Revetments see Filter construction Siltremoval 31.4; 31. 5.3
Reynoldsnumber 27.4.3;29.3 Silting-up
Ricefields ofdrainpipes 27.7.3
drainageof 35.5 Simplifiedhydrologieprocedure
waterregime 35.3 estimationofdesign
Ricecrop dischargeby 28.8.2
doubletransplanting of 35.1 Singularpipedrainage system 27.1
waterrequirement 35.3.1
462
Subject index
Slope 29,.5 Stillingbasins 29.7.2; 29.7.3

forcesactingon 29..6,.4 Storagecapacity
groundwateroutflowat 29,.6,.5 ofthesoil 29.4.2
stabilityof 29,.6,.4
suitable forearthen Storage reservoirs 29.2.5
canals 29.,6,,2 Stormdistributioncurves 28.7.3
Slopinglands
Stormrainfall
designdischarge 28.7.3
amountsfrom
computationsfor 28,.7
estimating directrunoff 28.7.3
designingdrainagesystem 29..2..]
drainageof 34 Straightdropstructures 29.7.2
hydraulic gradientin 29 .4,.4
Stream see also Grassed water courses
surfacedrainagesystems
for 28 .5 Streams
waterdisposalin 28,.6..2 dischargein 29,.2,.5
Slopingpipedrains Strickler'sequation 29..3
hydraulic gradient 27,.4..3 Submerged ricesoils
Slotted gratingdissipator 29.,7.,2 chemicalconditions 35..3..3
physicalconditions 35,.3..4
Smoothpipes
resistancefactor 27..4.,3 Submergedweeds 30,.2
technical information 27..5.,1 chemicalcontrolof 30,.3
Smoothing Subsidence
surfacedrainagepractice 28.,3. 1 afterreclamation 32..1..4
predictionof 32.1.4; 32, .2..3
Soilpincer 27.,6..3
Subcritieal depth see Critical depth
Soil sterilant 30..3
Subcriticalflow
Soils
cut-fillratiosfor conduitswith 29.8
28.3.2
Suction see Manometric suction head
Spade
forreshapingchannel 31 4.1 Suction drains see Ditch drains,
Mole drainage, Pipe drains
Specificenergyhead 29.3;29 7.3
Suctiondredger 31.4.5
Specific speed ofpumps 29, 9.4
Sulphurcontent
Spoil spreader 31. 4.3
insediments 32.3.2
Spraying equipment
forherbicides 30.5 Supercritical depth see Critical depth
Staffing Surfacedetention 29.4.2
ofwatercontrol Surface drainage see also Drainage
organization 37.6
Surfacedrainage 28
Standard erosioncontrol inheavyclaysoils 33.6.3
terrace 28.5.2.2 land forming for 28.3
needfor 28.2
Standingwave 29.3
ofrice fields 35.5.5
Statichead selectionofmethods 28.3
inpumping system 29.9.3 systems forflatareas 28.4
systems forsloping areas 28.5
Steadyflow
inchannels 29.3 Systemicherbicides 30.3
Step typeterraces 28.5
463
Terraces 28.5 Watercontrolworks
benefitsof 38.3
Tiledrainage costsof 38.2
inheavyclay soils 33.6.1 discounting 38.5
financing 37.7
Tiledrains 27.5.1
management 37
Timeofconcentration
Waterhyacinth 30.2
determination of 28.7.1
Watermanagement
Tools see Drainage tools assessmentofcosts
Totalweedkiller 30.4 for 37 (AnnexII)
Waterplants 30.2
Tractive force 29.3
chemicalcontrolof 30.3
distribution inchannels 29.6.4
limiting 29.6.4 Waterrequirement ofrice 35.3.1
Tractive forceratio 29.6.4 during tillage 35.3.2
Tractor Wateruserorganizations 37 (AnnexI)
ditcher 31.4.3
withcombinationofharrow31.3.3 Waterways
withcombinationofmower 31.2.3 inslopingareas 28.6.2
Trenchexcavator 27.6.4 Weedcontrol
biological 30.6
Trenchlesspipedrainage 27.6.5 bychemicals 30.3
Triangularhydrograph 28.7.3 Weeds see Aquatic weeds
Turbulentflow Weirs
incanals 29.3 flowvelocity control 29.7.1
Width-depthratio
ofcanals 29.6.2
Undular jump 29.3 Wind-drivenpumps 29.9.6
Uniformflow Windmill 29.9.6
equations fordrainpipes 27.4.3
Upland rice 35.1
Vanes
flowregulating 29.8.3
Velocity see Flow velocity
Watercontrolareas
sizeof 37.4
Watercontroldistricts 37.6
Watercontrolorganization
administrativelevels 37.3
functions 37.2
legalbasis 37.5
staffing 37.6
typesof 37 (AnnexI)
464
Author index
A U T H O R INDEX
AlberdaTh. 347(IV) BoekelP. 132(III)

d'Alembert 192(I) BoltonE.F. 109(I)
AlimM.M. 133(III) BoschH.' 212(II)
AllenJ.B. 129(III) BoumaD. 134(III)
AmorochoJ. 310(II) BoumansJ.H. 13,14(II)
AnanianA.K. 225(II) Bourdon 244(III)
AncajasR.R. 355,357(IV) BoussinesqJ. 309,324,330(II);
207 (III);336 (IV)
AndersonD.V. 264,270(II)
AndersonJ.L. 134(III) BouwerH. 147 (II);285,286,287 (III)
BowenI.S. 59,60,61,354(III)
BaarsC 59,77,79(III) BowersS.A. 148(I)
BahraniB. 71 (III) BraudH.J.jr. 129(III)
BakkerH.de 123(III) BreemenN.van 348,354,357(IV)
BalekJ. 271 (II) BrinkN. 18(IV)
BalkC.D.M. 366,374(IV) BrownK.W. 63(III)
BaronW.M.M. 96(I) BruceR.R. 144(I)
BavelC.H.M.van 65,67 (III) BrunL.J. 67 (III)
BaverL.D. 356,359 (IV) BuckinghamE. 131 (I)
BearF.E. 53(I) BuntingB.T. 37(I)
BearJ. 179 (I);230(II) BuringhP. 119(III)
BeckerA. 277,278,280(II) BushCh.D. 13(IV)
BeersW.F.J.van 23,24,29,30,
134(II);91,92,116,129, CalvertD.V. 58,60(IV)
143, 270,271,349 (III); Carlslaw,H.S. 32(II)
292, 304,400,402,405,406,
407(IV) CauchyA.L. 192,193(I)
Bellani 70(III) CavelaarsJ.C. 30,56,58(IV)
BendegomL.van 164,175(IV) ChapmanA.L. 350(IV)
BernsteinL 110(I) ChapmanT.G. 337(IV)
Bertram 113(I) ChapmanV.J. 51 (I)
BertrandA.R. 128(III) ChézyA.257,359 (II);139(IV)
BesselF.W. 173,176,234,360(II); ChinL.T.353(IV)
322, 352(III)
ChowV.T. 309 (II);41 (III);91,92,
BevilleB.C. 58,60,61 (IV) 103, 146 (IV)
BlackT.A. 67,68(III) ClarkF. 307(II)
BlaisdellF.W. 186,187(IV) ColebrookC F . 139(IV)
BlaneyH.F. 64,65,77,85,87, ColenbranderH.J. 37(III)
92,93,351 (III)
CookH.L.91,96,98,99(IV)
BlashyzB. 17(IV)
CooperH.H. 315,317 (III)
465
Coote 71,73,79(IV) ErnstL.F. 19,21,23,25,234,
235, 236,237 (II);186,205,
CossensG.G. 129 (III)
209, 261,262,273,274,341,
CowanI.R. 55 (III); 145(IV) 349 (III); 303 (IV)
CriddleW.D. 64,65,77,85,87, EulerL. 192(I)
92,93,351 (III)
FaulknerM.D. 357(IV)
FeichtingerF. 10,11 (IV)
DaganG. 17,18(II)
FerrariT.J. 116(I)
DaltonF.N. 60(III)
FirthD.H. 100(I)
DarcyH. 63, 164,165,166,167,
169, 174,183,186,189,204,205 FitzpatrickE.A. 65(III)
(I); 167,175,204 (II);184,187,
FlamantA.A. 139(IV)
206, 257,264,292 (III);16,
332 (IV) Follet-SmithR.R. 105(I)
DattaS.K.de 357,362,363(IV) ForchheimerP. 176,177,181,183,
186, 187,192,203 (I); 31,169,
DaubenmireR.F. 96,98(I)
309 (II);331,335 (IV)
DavidsonJ.M. 145(I)
FordH.W. 58,60,61 (IV)
DavisS.N. 309 (III)
FormicaG. 192,193(IV)
DawdyD.R. 271 (II)
FortierS. 168(IV)
DelauneR.D. 353,354,355,357,
FoussJ.L. 13(IV)
358 (IV)
FrazerD.A.S. 44 (III)
DenmeadO.T. 71,73 (III)
FritschenL.T. 63(III)
DielemanP.J. 66 (II);134,135(III)
FroudeW. 136,179,185(IV)
DiseterE.G. 117(I)
FujiokaY. 368,369 (IV)
DonnanW.W. 4 (II);128 (III);
13,331 (IV) FukudaH. 318,350,352,353,368,
369 (IV)
DoogeJ.C.I. 261,262,266,268,
277, 304,307 (II) FullerD.C. 126(IV)
Duiran L . D . 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 8 , 5 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 6 ,
160 ( I I ) ; 320 ( I V ) GanguilletE. 139(IV)
DupuitA.J. 176,177,178,180, GardnerW.R. 149 (I);68 (III)
183, 186,187,192,203 (I); 31,
GaucklerPh.G. 139(IV)
169, 203,309 (II);331,335 (IV)
GerebC. 330,331 (IV)
DwightH.B. 216 (II)
GhildyahB.P. 356 (IV)
EdeA.N. 13(IV) GleeG.J.de 176 (II);321,323,325
EdelmanJ.H. 203,242,311,312, (III)
313 (II) GlopperR.J.de 270,274,275,276 (IV)
EdmundD.B. 114(I) GloverR.E. 31,33,54,155,156,
313 (II);331 (IV)
EmdeF. 172,204 (II)
GlueckaufD. 93 (II)
EmersonW.W. 131 (III)
GoorG.A.W.vande 343,349,350,351,
Engelund F. 56(IV)
352, 353,356,357,360,361,365,
369 (IV)
466
Author index
Gouy 5](I) HoleF.D. 134(III)

GrableA.R. Ill (I) HoljewilkenH. 13(IV)
GrayB.S. 119(I) HommaF. 17(IV)
GreenF.H.W. 181 (II) HoogerkampM. 107,108,113,
114 (I);139(II)
GrootJ.M. 320(IV)
HooghoudtS.B. 100 (I);5,6,8,11,
GrassL.J. 60(IV) 17, 155,332 (II);260 (III);
GuitjensJ.C. 338(IV) 401 (IV)
GumbelE.J. 47,48,49,50, HoornJ.W.van 100,106,115,116(I);
51, 353,354 (III); 126(IV) 136, 138,145,146 (II);209 (III);
325 (IV)
GuyonG. 320(IV)
HornM.E. 134, 135,136 (III)
HaayerB.M. 60(IV) HoukI.E. 188(IV)
HadasA. 149,150(I) HounamC.E. 63,65,68,75 (III)
HaganR.M. 115,118(I) HovelandC.S. 115(I)
HagenG.H.L. 166 (I);139(IV) HudsonA.W. 114 (I);10,11,12,
14(IV)
HaiseH.R. 64,77,84,87,
128(III) HuismanL. 302,306 (III)
HalkiasN.A. 65 (III) HumbertR.P. 115(I)
HamiltonC.L. 98(IV)
IsozakiH. 368(IV)
Hankel 176 (II);352 (III)
IsraelsenO.W. 153,155(II)
HanksR.J. 148 (I);65 (III)
HansenV.E. 153(II) JacobC.E. 177 (II);314,315,317,
HantushM.S. 176,177,178,230 319, 321,324,325 (III)
(II); 306,321,324,325(III) JaegerJ.C. 32(II)
HarrisC.I. 102,107,116,117(I) JagerA.W.de 147,148,314(II);
HarrisR.F. 356 (IV) 60(IV)
HartH.E. 63(III) JacqV.A. 367(IV)
HartW.E. 310(II) JahnkeE. 172,204 (II)
HartleyH.D. 40(III) JensenM.E. 64,77,84,87 (III)
HazenA. 126(IV) JepsonH.G. 98(IV)
HeadG.C. 99(I) JohnsonA.I. 208,209,210(III)
HeeseK. 13(IV) JohnsonE.E. 302,309,311 (III)
HeesenH.G.van 125(III) JuuselaT.13(IV)
Hele-ShawH.S. 338(IV)
KallisteniusT. 134(III)
HellingaF. 315 (II);320(IV)
KellerJ. 121 (II)
HendersonF.M. 142,180(IV)
KemperW.D. 131 (III)
HershfieldD.M. 32(III)
KennedyR.G. 168(IV)
HillelD. 149,150(I)
KidderE.H. 144(II)
HjulströmF. 161 (IV)
467
KijneJ.W. 67(III) MaaslandM. 37,39,41,43,
KinoriB.Z. 331 (IV) 53 (II)
McGeorgeW.T. 103(I)
KirkhamD. 14,15, 16, 17(II);
280(III) McllroyI.C. 63(III)
KirpichZ.P. 255 (II);93(IV) McKayG.A. 37(III)
KluteA. 144(I) McKenzieR.E. 114,115(I)
KochE.J. 131 (III) ManningR. 17,18,19,23,87,
139,140,142,144,145,
KoenigsF.F.R.349,356 (IV)
147(IV)
KoopmanR.W.R. 59,82(III)
MarshallT.J. 141 (II); 257,
Kopecky 264,266,267 (III) 259 (III)
KorvenH.C. 70(III) MaruyamaF. 302(II)
KovdaV.A. 141 (II) MatherJ.K. 73(III)
KraijenhoffvandeLeurD.A. MatsubayashiM. 369 (IV)
37,39,41,43,53,54,145,
MatsuoH. 348(IV)
310,311,312,313,315,330,
331,332 (II);342(III) MazureJ.P. 198,200(II)
KrusemanG.P. 178(II); MichaelsonB.A. 225(II)
306,313 (III)
MillsW.C. 112(IV)
KungP. 352(IV)
MinderhoudJ.W. 138(II)
KuntzeH. 60,325(IV)
MinessyF.A. 105,118(I)
KutterW.R. 139(IV)
MitsuiS. 353(IV)
MockusV. 101,105,106(IV)
Langelier 81 (II)
MolenW.H.vander63(III)
LaurensonE.M. 309(II)
MooreW.L. 179(IV)
LabyeY. 7(II)
MoroneyM.J.265 (II)
LaneE.W. 162,166,171 (IV)
MulvaneyT.J. 304(II)
LambeT.W. 45,61 (I)
MuskatM. 178,181,216,218,234,
LaplaceP.S. 175,191,192,193,203,
235,236 (II)
206,207,212(I)
LeliavskyS. 170(IV)
NashJ.E. 303,304,306,307 (II)
LimG. 359 (IV)
NealJ.H. 144(II)
LinsleyR.K.251,253,274,276,
NewtonI. 138(IV)
277,281,290(II)
NicholsonH.H. 100(I)
LinssenL.P.M. 289 (III)
NikonovN.N. 281 (IV)
ListR.J. 75(III)
NilssonS. 18(IV)
LohmannS.W. 164(III)
NoreroA.L. 73,74(III)
LuthinJ.N. 280 (III);335,336,
337,338(IV)
LyshedeJ.M. 299 (II) 0'DonnellT.271 (II)
LytleW.F. 144(II) OelkeE.A. 363 (IV)
468
Author index
O'KellyJ.J. 260,307 (II) RosenbergN.J. 63(III)

RosenbluethA. 268(II)
PapadakisJ. 37(I) RotheJ.6 (II);337(IV)
PatrickW.H. 353,354,355,357,358, RouseH. 137,197(IV)
362(IV)
RussellE.J. 53(I)
PearsonE.S. 40 (III)
PearsonK. 303(II) SalaminP. 137(II)
Peltier 242 (III)
SalterP.J. 143,144(III)
PeltonW.L. 63(III)
SanchezP.A. 357 (IV)
PenmanH.L. 118 (I);59,60,61,62, ScheeleJ.R.H. 49(IV)
63,64,65,75,77,78,79,84,85,
87 (III) SchellingJ. 123(III)
PetersenG.W. 143(III) SchilfgaardeJ.van117 (I);147(II)
PetersonD.F. 185,225,238,239 (II) SchmidP. 335,336,337,338(IV)
Piche 70(III) SchulzeF.E. 281 (II)
PidgeonJ.D. 143(III) SchwabG.O. 117(I)
PiperA.M. 174(III) ScobeyF.C. 140,168(IV)
PoiseuilleJ.L. 166 (I);257 (III) SeddonA.G. 256 (II)
PonnamperumaF.N. 353,354,355, SegebergH. 285 (IV)
362 (IV) SegerenW.A. 147 (II);17(IV)
PorchetM.292(III) ShalhevetJ. 107(I)
PrasadR. 358 (IV)
ShawR.H. 71,73 (III);
PruittW.O. 63,70,76 (III)
ShermanL.K. 266,285 (II)
PuttaswamygowdaB.S. 361 (IV) SiebenW.H. 112 (I);137,147(II)
SimmonsW.P. 195(IV)
RamserC E . 93 (IV)
SinghK.P. 307(II)
RaoK.V.P.369 (IV)
SlayterR.0. 63(III)
ReichB.M. 33(III)
SlukaV.P. 281 (IV)
Reynolds0. 16,133,142(IV)
SmilesD.E. 281 (III)
RhoadesE.D. 114(I)
SnedecorG.W. 41 (III)
RichardsL.A. 80,81,87(I);
69 (II);173,174(III) Stanford 271 (II)
RickardD.S. 129(III) SteggewentzJ.H.212(II)
RidderN.A.de 178,197,213, StephensJ.C. 112(IV)
215 (II);134,135,189,192,
SternW.R. 65(III)
193,205,263,306,313(III)
SteurG.C.L. 119(III)
RiemannB. 192,193(I)
StewartW.D.P. 354(IV)
RijtemaP.E. 63 (III)
StricklerA. 140(IV)
RobinsonL.A. 105(I)
SturgisM.B. 354(IV)
RogersW.S. 99(I)
SugawaraM. 302 (II)
469
TalsmaT. 141 (II) WindG.P. 103 (I);141 (II)
TannerC.B. 63 (III) WingerR.J. 160(II)
TaylorS.A. 71 (III) WitK.E. 189,192,193,263,
264,265,267 (III)
TerraG.J.A. 119(I)
WoldringhJ.J. 107,108,113,
TheisC.V. 172,173,233,361(II);
114 (I);139 (II)
314,317,353 (III)
WoodingR.A. 337(IV)
TheobaldG.H. 10,12,40 (IV)
WoudtD.van 't 113,115,118(I)
ThiessenA.H.271 (II);33,35,210 (III)
WuM.M.H. 362 (IV)
ThomasR.G. 306 (III)
ThornthwaiteC.W. 64,65,73,77,86,
YamadaN. 357,359,361 (IV)
87,94,109,111 (III)
YoshidaT. 355,357 (IV)
ToksözS.15,16,17(II)
YoungsE.G. 281 (III)
Treude0. 17(IV)
TrolldenierG. 362 (IV)
ZangarC.N.283,284 (III)
TurcL. 64,77,83,84,87(III)
ZeeuwJ.W.de 38,52,315,316,
323,348,353 (II);320(IV)
VerruijtA. 200(II)
ZijlstraG.350,351,352,
ViersmanW.337 (II) 353(IV)
VinkA.P.A. 119(III) Zinnnermann J . D . 134 ( I I I )
VisserJ. 147(II) ZochR.T. 307 (II)
VisserW.C. 118(I) ZuidemaF.C. 17(IV)
VriesJ.J.de 205 (III) ZwermanP.J. 107 (I);71,73,79(IV)
WalkerP. 144(II)
WebsterH.L. 115(I)
WedernikowV.V.216 (II)
WeerddeJ.49(IV)
Weisbach 16(IV)
WesselingJ. 100 (I);15,16,
148 (II);79 (III); 17,19,
22(IV)
WhiteG.F. 97 (I);139(IV)
WiestR.J.M.de 309 (III)
WijkW.R.van 100(I)
WilcoxJ.C. 70(III)
WilleyC R . 108(I)
WilliamsJ.B. 131,143,144(III)
WilliamsonR.E. 101,108(I)
WilsonT.V. 65 (III)
470
Errata
ERRATATOVOL.1 (INTRODUCTORY SUBJECTS)
Chapter 1
Pag.9, 10lines frombottom,foramount,readamounts

Pag.14,3linesbelowfigure insertcommaafterrainfall
Chapter 2
Pag.42,bottom line,forderatives,readderivatives
Pag.43,Fig.2 (B)(Primaryphysical soilproperties.DeletebracketbeforePrimary
Pag.52, 11lines fromtop,forpuddling,readpuddled
Pag.55,4linesfrombottom,inserttobetweenshrinks and 7.7cm
Pag.60, 19lines fromtop:Thephenomenaofsoilconsistence andfriability,read:
Thephenomenaofsoilconsistencearefriability,...
Chapter 3
Pag.78,7linesfromtop,forreclamability,readreclaimability
12linesfromtop,forsodicsoils,read sodicsoil
Pag.83,5lines frombottom,forThislayers,readThinlayers
Pag.84,4lines from top,forcomprise,read comprises
12lines fromtop,insertdependsbetweenrequired andon
10lines frombottom,deleteofbetweenporesizeanddistribution
6 lines frombottom,forRoreadTo
Pag.85, 19linesfromtop,fornogreadnot
11lines frombottom,insert tobetweenonlyandthe
8 linesfrombottom,deletebebetweenmay andsafely
Pag.86, 12linesfromtop,forpsreading,read spreading

14lines fromtop,insertthebetween thanandrequired
Chapter 4
Pag.98, 11lines fromtop,substitute full-stop forreclamationmark
Pag.99,2linesfromtop,forwel,readwell
Pag.104,6lines frombottom,insertcommaafter illustrate
Pag.105,5lines fromtop,deletecommaaftercycle
Chapter 5
Pag.135,5lines frombottom,for in,readis
Pag.136, 12linesfrombottom,forsats,readsalts
Pag.144,9lines fromtop,forshows,readshown
Pag.157,5linesfromtop,forformulated,readdeveloped
15lines fromtop,forfriction,readphenomenon
471
Pag.158,3linesbelowTable ],foraccelerationofgravity,read acceleration
duetogravity
Pag.159,8linesfrom top,insert termbetweenenergyand inEq.5
Pag.161,3linesbelowFig.3,forheight,readelevation
Pag.163,5linesfrom top,forparallel tothetangentof,read tangentialto
Pag.170,2linesfromtop,insertabetweenasandfunction
Pag.171,8and 9lines fromtop,deleteand insert: ...thathavedifferent
hydraulic conductivities, K,K_,andK ,anddifferentthick-
nesses,D.,D ,andD_
pag.174, 15linesfromtop,deleteofsymmetry
Pag.188,4lines fromtop,deletealongand insert tangentialto
Pag.189,3linesfrombottom,fortangent,read tangential
Pag.198,3linesfromtop,deletememberand insertsideoftheequation
ERRATATOVOL.II (THEORIESOFFIELDDRAINAGEANDWATERSHEDRUNOFF)
Chapter 8
Pag.11,Figure4:hasbeenprintedupsidedown
CaptiontoFig.4:deletecaseof
!2thline:insertcommabetweennomographs andexamples
Pag.13,Figure6:caption:ift< 100,read:if^ > 100
Pag.14,Figure7: caption:if^>100, read: ~ <100
Pag.20,29th line: j(y + h), read:y+-Jn.
Pag.27,bottom line:SinceD =0.8m theconditionD < -rLisfulfilled.

o o 4
Read:SinceD =0.8m theconditions D <7-L (radialflow)
o o 4
andDi+D2<7-L (horizontal flow)arefulfilled.
Pag.28, 12thand 19thlines:1.125m= ... and1.25m= ... :deletem.

2 2
26thline: h=| ^ , read: h=||_
Pag.29,Figure 14: Theuserofthisnomograph isreferred toChapter26in

Volume IIIwhere inFigure 15thesamenomograph isdepicted
withmoreexplanation.
Pag.30,Add tocaptionofFigure 15:Family ofcurvesfordifferentvalues
ofu (uïïr
= ).
472
Errata
Pag.32,Equation33:under thesigmasign:n= 1,-3,5, read:1,3,5.
TT2KD , TT2KD
Equation 34: a = —-— , read: a= —
yL
ML2
Pag.34,9thline: ...isonlyrequired in... : deletetheword"only".
Pag.35,3rd line: m=0.05, read: y=0.05

R. °° •>
*, „ • 8 l _ -n a t
P a g \ 3 6 , Equation 4 5 : q =— a L e
TT2 n=l,3,5
8 „ v -nzat
read: q =— aR. L e
2 x
•n n=l,3,5
Pag.40,Table3,8thcolumng ,19thline: 0.990, read:0.890.
R R
Pag.41,bottomline: h=hi=—jci, read: h=hi=— jci
Pag.43,8thline,3rdcolumn:c/t,read:c
15thline,insertcommaafteronly
Chapter 9
Pag.68,3rd linefrombottom:forquantités,read:quantities
Pag.69,penultimate line: w ^w.,read:w ~2w,
° e fc e fc
Pag.83, 10thline:for0T,read:TO
Chapter 10
Pag.107,6thand 7thlines:...e , (beingtheratiobetween thequantity reaching

thefieldsand theévapotranspirationofthecrop),...
read:e ,(beingtheratiobetween theévapotranspiration
of thecropand thequantity reaching thefields),...
Pag.122, 11thlinefrombottom: EC , read: EC

° s e
Equation
n 18: EC £ =2EC , read:ECr =2EC
fc s fc e
8thlinefrombottom: EC , readEC
s e
473
Pag.123,Replace Figure IIbyFigurebelow
0/
- very sensitive crops .

7 1, sensitive crops «3/
ECs»4 / O-/
/ // /// *,V
// /
/ / / /
-
/
/ / /
/ / /// ~
/ / y op
/
/
- ECS=8 v9^
'' / /
/ / y/ // ^ CO?5
y -r - ^ ^ ^ * ^
- C^ \oj5C
c^^^^^---^' ~~-^sz- ^ EC5=1S —
•—vo
tolerant crops
.-^ë^-- = = t = - = = = =
'\
EC millimhos/cm
good injurious harmful unsuitable

quality irrigation water
Pae.123,
0 7thand 11thlinesfrombottom: EC-valuessandvalueofEC, s
read:EC-values,andvalueofEC
e e
Pag.124, 10thline,fornonatall,read:noneatall
Chapter 11
Pag.138,8thline,insertsummerbetweenwhereasandwatertables
Pag.140,Figure3:values alongabcissa: 10,20,30,40,50,and60

read:1.0,2.0,3.0,4.0,5.0,and 6.0
Pag.157,bottom line,forrisec,read:rise
Pag. 162, Table 6, Heading, 3rd column: Rj\i read: Rjy

(mm) (m)
(3) (3)
5thlinefrombottom,inserti_tbetween56mandappears
Chapter 12
Pag.173,HeadingofTableI,2ndline:Besselfunctionof thefirstkind
read:Besselfunctionofthesecondkind
Pag.176,1stlinebelowEquation 14:whereK isamodified Bessel function

(Hankelfunction)ofthefirstkind ...
read: . . . ofthesecondkind ...
474
Evrata
Pag.184,6thand9thlines:abracket shouldbeplacedbetween2.3and
225KD
log—- nandonebehind thelasttermonthe9thline
rS
Chapter 13
Pag.195,1stline:Substituting thisformintoEq.7yields a=+Iv^CDc
read: ...yieldsa=+1//KDc
Pag.200,Eq.24: Q=2irßr [-Cili(r/X)-C2Ki(r/X)]
read: Q = 2irßr [ j - C i I i ( r A ) + C2Ki (r/X)j
P a g . 2 0 2 , Equation 32: behind equal s i g n , 2lTßr, read: 2irßR

KT) v 1 4 1
Pag.208,
6 middleofpage:& — =— =^xjr-j-=20
U 2v/- u 2 0.1
, \ IKD x 1 4 vx 1 „
read:\ —- = = T j^—r- = 020
\iy 2 / F u 2 0.1
Pag.219,Example 8,1stand 2nd lines:Assumeaditchwith topwidthB=3m,

bottomwidthb= 1m,waterdepthy = 1m,andh =4mabove...
o o
read:Assumeaditchwith topwidthB=3m,bottomwidthb=1m,
waterdepth 1m,and animpervious layer4mbelowthebottomofthe
ditch (hencey = 1+4=5 m ) .
o
Pag.220, 1stline:B/u=3/3.82=0.76m,read:B/u=3/3.82=0.76
5th line:h3/y =4.8/5 =0.96m,read:hi/y =4.8/5 =0.96
6thline:(B/u>0.9)f = 1.08,read: (B/u<0.9)f = 1.08
Chapter 14
Pag.228,Equation 1: =0, read: + =0

6x2 6y2 ox2 ôy2
Pag.229,8thline:Equation 1islinear ..., read:Equation 2islinear.
Pag.231,Equation 7:denominator ln(2.25KD/Lyr)

w
read:ln(2.25KDt/LUr)
475
Q„
P a g . 2 4 1 , Equation 22: h - h In ( r / r ) - 1/2
w 2TTKD
Q„
read: h In ( r / r ) - 1/2
w 2TTKD
Chapter 15
Pag.250, 1stline:soils,runoffmaynotoccur atall,...

.read:soils,overland flowmaynotoccuratall,...
Pag.256,4th line:v=wave celerity, read: v =wavecelerity

w
Pag.26], 1stlineofSection3.2:Thevertical inthediagramofFig.14represents
theavailablephysical formationon...
read:Thevertical inthediagramofFig.14represents theavailable
physical informationon...
TT ,2Ah TT i, Ah
Equation 3:0;=^ ^ read:Q-f^ „*£
Pag.262,Equations 6and 7andFig.15:q,dq,and q(t), read:Q,dO,Q(t)
Pag.278,7thlinefrombottom:Here thesamegreatdepthofrainissupposedto
falloveraperiodofdurationT,
r
read:T„insteadofT
R r
Pag.279,Figure23,bottomleft-handcorner:
> 150hrs (T) read:>150hrs (T)

r K
rainfallduration rainfallduration
Chapter 16
Pag.236, 10lines frombottom:forflattering,read:flattening
-V7
?f
476

Drainage Principles and Applications-Wageningen University and Research 333101

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DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

0000 0021 6198

Wageningen, June 1974 F. E. Schulze

Volume I INTRODUCTORY SUBJECTS

Volume II THEORIESOFFIELDDRAINAGEANDWATERSHED RUNOFF

10 Effects ofirrigation on drainage J. NUGTEREN

16 Hydrograph analysis'for areas with mainly J. W. DE ZEEUW

Volume IV DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

2 27 SUBSURFACE FIELD DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

68 28 SURFACE FIELD DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

224 30 CHEMICAL CONTROL OFAQUATIC WEEDS

262 32 DRAINAGE OFNEWLY RECLAIMED MARINE CLAYEY SEDIMENTS, PEATSOILS,

298 33 DRAINAGE OFHEAVY CLAY SOILS

328 34 DRAINAGE OFSLOPING LANDS

342 35 DRAINAGE OFRICE FIELDS

384 36 PROCEDURES IN DRAINAGE SURVEYS

432 38 ECONOMICEVALUATION OFWATER MANAGEMENTPROJECTS

452 Principle symbols used in Volume IV

Lecturers in the Course onLand Drainage

Thevariousaspects ofinstalling afield drainage systemarediscussed,including

27.6 CONSTRUCTIONOFAPIPEDRAINAGE SYSTEM 41

Afield drainage system isasystem thatreceivesexcesswaterdirectfromthe

Inasubsurfacedrainage systemonecandistinguish threecategoriesofdrains:

The fielddrainage systemmayconsistofoneorallofthefollowing typesof

- open drains: ditches

- mole drains: unlinedunderground channels

- pipe drains: clay,concrete,orplasticpipes,placed atsomedepth

Comparedwithcovereddrains,ditcheshave their specificadvantagesanddis-

- lossofland,especially ifsideslopescannotbemade steepdueto

- ifthegroundwater tablecanbeadequately controlledwithrelativelywide

- iftheprocessofripeningnewlyreclaimed alluvial soils istobe

- ifonlyashallowgroundwater tableisdesired,e.g. ingrasslandand

Ifditches aretobeused aslateraldrains,spacinganddeptharedeterminedas

Forcollector ditches,thespacing isgovernedbysuchfactorsasthesizeofthe

Ifthedesiredwaterlevel,therequireddischarge capacity,and thetypeof

-depth (y):0.40m to0.50mbelowthepipedrainoutfalls,resulting ina

Fig.2. Cross-section throughaditch.

The locationofditchdrains isinfluenced bymany factors,abasiconebeing

Thecentrelineoftheproposed ditchisindicatedbypegs (CinFig.3),with

groundsurface high rç-Q, wide

average level groundsurface P 2 -0 2average

groundsurface low P3-CLJ narrow

CROSS SECTIONS PLAN

Fig.3. Marking alignmentsofopendrains.

Theexcavated soilshouldpreferablyberemoved fromthesite,andcan,forin-

Unlessproperlymaintained,ditcheswillrapidly lose theireffectivenessowingto

-weed control,tobecarried outafewtimeseachyear (Chaps.30and31).

-removalofsoilandmud;sometimes thepropercross-sectionof theditch

slit left by bladeof

- soilproperties (whichwilldecidetheir stability)

Systematic informationaboutmoledrainage isstill limited,mostpracticesbeing

Soils shouldhaveacertain "plasticity"toallowthemolechannels tobeshaped

Itisdifficult togiveprecise informationonthenecessary soilproperties.

The soilshouldbefairlyhomogeneous throughout thearea tobedrained.If

Moledrainagecanalsooftenbeappliedwith success incertainpeatsoils

According toFEICHTINGER (1965), thissoilimprovementmayevenbethemain

Moledrains shouldhaveacontinuous slopeinthedirectionof theoutlet;there

Eachmolechannelmaydischargedirect intoanopenditch.Sinceunlined channels

Very often,pipedrainsareused ascollectors for thewatercarriedby themole

Anothermethod istoinstallasystemoflateralsand collectors,bothconsistin

- Spacing: Toensurefissuring ofthesoil throughout thearea,spacings

- Depth: Thechannelsshouldbesufficientlydeep tobeprotected fromthe

- Gradient: Apropergradient isrequired toavoid prolonged saturationand