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STATISTICS
Statistics is the process of identifying, collecting,
organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.
PARAMETER
A descriptive measure of a population is called parameter.
SAMPLE
The small part of population is called sample.
STATISTIC
Any numerical value which we calculated from sample is
called statistic.
POPULATION
Any set of people or objects with something is common is
known as population
SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of drawing a number of individual
cases from a larger population.
SAMPLING UNITS
It is the minimum unit of observation that process the
properties being studied.
SAMPLING FRAME
A complete list of the sampling units is called sampling
frame.
SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
Sampling distribution is a probability distribution of a
statistic obtained through a large number of samples drawn
from a specific population.
ESTIMATION
Estimation is a process of using a sample statistic to
estimate the corresponding unknown population parameter.
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ESTIMATOR
A statistic that is used for estimating a parameter is called
an estimator.
ESTIMATE
A estimate is a value of estimator obtained from an
observed sample.
VARIABLE
Variable is a quantity which changes with change in
different intervals of time.
CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
Continuous variable is a variable that has an infinite
number of possible values. It is opposite of a discrete variable.
DISCRETE VARIABLE
Discrete variable is a variable that can only take on a
certain number of values.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
It is the variable that are changing.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
It is the variable that depends on other variable. We are
measure this variable.
ATTRIBUTE
A characteristic or quality of a thing is called attribute.
ASSOCIATION, INDEPENDENCE, COEFFICENT OF ATTRIBUTE
PAGE NO.332 ON BOOK
DATA
The information we gather with experiments and surveys
is collectively called data.
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PRIMARY DATA
Primary data refers to the data from primary sources. It is
also called original data.

SECONDARY DATA
The facts and figure that have already been collected are
called secondary data.
CLASSIFICATION
Classification is a data mining task of predicting the value
of a categorical variable. (target / class)
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
1. Descriptive classification
The classification is said to be descriptive classification
when it is according to attributes.
2. Numerical classification
The type of classification is based on the data where
quantitative measurement of the data is possible.
One way classification
When classification is done according only one variable
it is called one way classification
Two way classification
When classification is done according to two variable it
is called two way classification.
Class limit
The class limit refers to the highest and the lowest value
that can be included in the class.
Magnitude of Class intervals
The difference between the upper limit and lower limit
of class interval is known as magnitude of class interval.
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Mid value
The average of upper limit and lower limit is called as
mid value.

Class frequency
The number of items falling within a class interval is
called as class frequency.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
When data are grouped according to magnitude, the
resulting series is called a frequency distribution.
SERIES OF INDIVIDUAL OBSERVATION
When in a series items arranged singly according to
magnitude or size, the resulting series is called S.I.O
DISCRETE SERIES
When the items are exactly measurable and their record
shows definite breaks between one variable and the other
succeeding it
TABULATION
By tabulation we mean a systematic presentation of the
data classified under suitable heads and subheads and placed in
rows and columns.
TYPES OF TABULATION
1. Simple and complex table
2. One way or single tables
3. Two ways or double tables
4. Higher order or manifold tables
FORMATION OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
1. Range
2. Number of classes
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3. Class magnitude or class interval

4. Specification of a class
5. Distribution of given values in classes
6. Summation of frequency column
RANGE
Range is the difference between minimum and maximum
numbers.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION/R.C.F
The relative frequency of a class is a frequency of the class
divided by the total frequency of all classes and expressed as
percentage.
TWO WAY OR BIVARIATE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
When a frequency distribution is constructed by two
variables at a time it is called two way or bivariate F.D.
RELATIVE CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY DIRTRIBUTION
In cumulative distribution, relative cumulative frequencies
are used instead of cumulative frequencies the resulting
distribution is called relative cumulative frequency distribution.
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION/DIAGRAM
Presentation of statistical data by geometrical figures
Is called diagram/diagrammatic representation
TYPES OF DIAGRAM
1. ONE DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS
In this diagram only one dimension i.e. length is taken in to
account while constructing such diagrams.
2. TWO DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS
In this diagram two dimension i.e. length and breadth is
taken in to account while constructing such diagrams.
They are also called area diagrams.
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3. THREE DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS

These diagrams are based on three dimensions i.e. length,
breadth and thickness. These are also called volume
diagrams as the volume is taken into account.
4. PIE DIAGRAMS
Circular and angular diagrams e.g circles whose area are
made proportional to given magnitudes and which may be
divided into sectors.
5. PICTOGRAMS
Pictogram represent the figures in the shape of picture.
6. CARTOGRAMS
Use of maps in the representation of data is called
cartograms.
GRAPHS/GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION
Presentation of statistical data by geometrical curves is
called graphic representation.
TYPES OF GRAPHS
1. HISTORIGRAM/GRAPHS OF TIME SERIES
It is a curve which shows the changes in value of one or
more variables from one period of time to the next.
2. GRAPH OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
It is a curve that are used for graphic representation
Frequency distribution may be discrete or continuous
FREQUENCY GRAPHS FOR DISCRETE SERIES
When the frequency distribution is given in discrete series
the simple method of graphic representation is the line or bar.
The size is taken on the horizontal line and the frequency on
the vertical line.
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TYPES OF GRAPHS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

1. HISTOGRAM/CONTINUOUS SERIES OF F.G
A histogram is a graph that shows data in intervals. It has
adjacent bars over the intervals.

2. FREQUENCY POLYGON
In frequency polygon the mid values of the class intervals
of given data is plotted against the corresponding
frequencies and the points so obtained are joined by
straight lines.
3. FREQUENCY CURVE
If the frequency polygon is smoothed the resulting curves
called a frequency curve.
4. CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY POLYGON OR OGIVE
It is a curve that represents cumulative frequency.
CENTRAL VALUE/AVERAGE
A single value with in the range of the data used to
represent values in the series. It is also called central value.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD AVERAGE
ON BOOK PAGE NO.49
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY/LOCATION OR TYPES OF
AVERAGES
1. AIRTHMETIC MEAN
It is the most common type of averages. It is a value
obtained by dividing sum of all values by their numbers.
PROPERTIES OF A.M
PAGE NO.59 ON BOOK
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2. MEDIAN
Median is the middle item of the series. Median divides
the series in two equal halves.
3. MODE
The most repeated or common value in the data is called
mode.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE

PAGE NO.76 ON BOOK
4. GEOMETRIC MEAN
The geometric mean of a set of n values is the nth root of
the product of the values in the set.
5. HARMONIC MEAN
The harmonic mean of n values is the reciprocal of
arithmetic mean of reciprocal of the values.
SUMMATION NOTATION
PAGE NO.49 ON BOOK
QUARTILES
In this distribution the values which divide the distribution
into four equal parts
DECILES
The values which divide the data into ten equal parts are
called deciles.
PERCENTILES
The values in an arranged distribution which divide the
distribution into hundred equal parts are called percentiles.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF AVERAGES
PAGE NO.84 ON BOOK
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DISPERSION
The extent to which values of a variable differ from a fixed
values such as the mean
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE MEASURE OF DISPERSION
PAGE NO.102 ON BOOK
MEASURE OF DISPERSION
1. RANGE

2. SEMI INTERQUARTILE/QUARTILE DEVIATION

Half of the difference between upper and lower quartiles
is called semi interquartile/quartile deviation.
3. MEAN DEVIATION/AVERAGE DEVIATION
The n values of absolute deviation of the values from their
mean, median or mode is called mean/average deviation.
4. STANDARD DEVIATION
The standard deviation is the positive square root of the
arithmetic mean of the square deviations measured from
the mean.
VARIANCE
The arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviation, taken
from the mean of the distribution is called variance.
PROPERTIES OF VARIANCE & S.D
PAGE NO.123 ON BOOK
SKEWNESS
Skewness is the word used for lack of symmetry. If a
distribution is not symmetrical it is called asymmetrical or
skewed distribution. The value of mean, median and mode are
unequal. (page no.126)
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ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF MEASURE OF DISPERSION

PAGE NO.130 ON BOOK
CORRELATION
Correlation measure the relationship or interdependence
or association between two variables. Correlation may be
positive or negative.
POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, ZERO, PERFECT, LINEAR, NONLINEAR
CORRELATION
PAGE NO.146 ON BOOK
SCATTER DIAGRAM
When two related variables are plotted on a graph in the
form of points or dots, the graph is called scatter diagram.
COEFFICENT OF CORRELATION
It is a measure of degree of interdependence between two
variables. The coefficient of correlation is denoted by r. it is
varies between -1 and +1.
PROPERTIES OF CORRELATION
PAGE NO.149 ON BOOK
REGRESSION
The dependence of one variable on other variable is called
regression.
REGRESSION COEFFICENT
Regression coefficient is the rate of change in the expected
value of the dependent variable for a given observed variable.
REGRESSION LINES AND EQUATIONS
PAGE NO.155 ON BOOK
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INDEX NUMBER
Index numbers are used to measure the change in some
quantity which we can not observe directly.
TYPES OF INDEX NUMBERS
1. PRICE INDEX NUMBERS
Price index numbers are constructed to measure the
relative changes in price of a commodity or a group of
commodities.
2. QUANTITY INDEX NUMBERS
Quantity index numbers are constructed to measure the
relative change in quantity of commodities imported,
exported or produced.
3. AGGREGATIVE INDEX NUMBERS
Aggregative index numbers use price and quantity
simultaneously. They are constructed to measure the
change in cost of living.
COUNTING
The counting procedures for finding the number of
possible arrangement of the objects in a set
FACTORIAL
The product of the positive integers is called factorial.
PERMUTATION
The number of arrangement which can be made by taking
some or all number of objects
COMBINATION
A combination is a subset or an arrangement of all or part
of objects of a single set without regarding the order of objects.
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PROBABILITY
Probability is the ratio of the number of favourable cases
to the total number of equally likely cases.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
A discrete variable function whose integral over any
intervals is the probability that the variate specified by it will lie
within that interval.
RANDOM VARIABLE
A random variable is a variable whose value is determined
by change.
DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLE
A random variable which can assume finite or countably
infinite values is called discrete random variable.
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
A function of continuous random variable whose can
assume all possible values within a given intervals.
PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
PAGE NO.266 ON BOOK
STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES
A proposed explanation made on the basis of limited
evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
1. NULL HYPOTHESES
Null hypotheses is a hypotheses which is formulated and
tested for possible rejection or nullification.
2. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
Any hypotheses which is differ from the null hypotheses is
called alternative hypotheses.
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TYPE I ERROR AND II ERROR

PAGE NO 308 ON BOOK
CHI SQUARE
Assessing the goodness of fit between observed values
and those expected theorectically.
TIME SERIES
A series of values of a quantity obtained at successive
times, often with equal intervals between them.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF TIME SERIES
1. SECULAR TREND(T) OR LONG TERM CHANGES
2. SEASONAL VARIATIONS (S)
3. CYCLICAL VARIATION (C)
4. IRREGULAR OR RANDOM VARIATION (I)
MATH
EQUATION
A statement that the values of two mathematical
expressions are equal
LINEAR EQUATION IN ONE VARIABLE
If an equation contains one variable the equation is called
linear equation in one variable.
LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO VARIABLES
If an equation contains two variables the equation is called
linear equation in two variables.
LINEAR EQUATION IN THREE VARIABLES
If an equation contains three variables the equation is
called linear equation in three variables.
INCONSISTENT EQUATION
If two linear equations in two unknown have no common
solution they are inconsistent equation.
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LINEAR EQUATION
An equation between two variables that gives a straight
line when plotted on a graph
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION
Equations involving two or more unknowns that are to
have same values in each equation
QUADRATIC EQUATION
A quadratic equation in one variable is an equation in
which the greatest exponent/index of the variable in two.
FACTOR
A number expression by which another is exactly divisible.
QUADRATIC FORMULA
When the quadratic equation solve with formula then it is
called quadratic equation.
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MATRIX
A rectangular array of quantities in rows and column is
called matrix.
TYPES OF MATRIX
1. ROW MATRIX
2. COLUMN MATRIX
3. SQUARE MATRIX
4. ZERO/NULL MATRIX
5. UNIT/IDENTITY MATRIX
6. TRANSPOSE MATRIX
7. SYMMETRIC MATRIX
PAGE NO.66
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SEQUENCE
A sequence is an arrangement of number format according
to some define rule.
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
PAGE NO .104 ON BOOK
PERCENT
Percent means hundredths the symbol for percent is %.
PERCENTAGE
Percentage is the fraction expressed with 100 as its
denominator.
DISCOUNT
Discount is a deduction from their price of goods by the
seller to the purchaser. Two type of discount:
1. Cash discount
2. Trade discount
SIMPLE INTERSET
Interest is a charge for the use of money. In a situation
involving there is a borrower and a lender.
COMPOUND INTEREST
Compound interest is the additional of interest to the
principal sum of a loan or deposit.
DEPRECIATION
Most physical property, such as building machinery and
equipment, decreases in value with time. This loss in value is
called depreciation.
ANNUITY
An annuity is a fixed of money that is paid or received at
regular intervals made at equal intervals of time is called
annuity.
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ORDINARY ANNUITY
If the payments are made at the end of the time intervals
it is called ordinary annuity.
ANNUITY DUE
If the payments are made at beginning of each interval it is
called annuity due.
AMOUNT OF AN ANNUITY
The sum of payments plus all interest earned is called
future value of annuity or amount of annuity.