Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses a detailed overview of the DC MG system. With the increased
development in power converter technology and the usage of DG sources, distributed
energy resources (DERs) for electricity power generation create challenges in terms of
consistent and controlled operation. Most of the DERs are dynamically varying in
nature, hence the behaviour is uncontrolled and unpredictable in nature. Thereby,
the MG has become an effective method of combining various DGs and the ESSs.
Before proceeding to more advanced topics, this Chapter presents the fundamental
principles behind the MG system. The first part of this Chapter deals with the
basics of MG. Next, an importance of the DC MG system, the different types of DC
MG networks, different components used in the research and classification of control
methods are presented. This Chapter also provides an insight into main
contributions of the authors. Finally, a brief discussion about the thesis outline is
introduced which will be discussed in detail in the later Chapters of this work.

1.1 Background and motivation

In the industrial revolution, countries around the world have gradually established an
energy saving techniques and it is one of the most desirable goals to achieve improved
energy efficiencies with the technologies of Industry [1]. With the rapid development of
the world economy, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas have been consumed at
an alarming rate and have caused severe environmental problems such as acid rain, fog
and global warming [2]. With the depletion of fossil energy, the overall energy supply

1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

and demand relationship has been exhausted. The ”2014 World Energy Outlook”
pointed out that: the global energy demand will increase by 37% between 2012 and
2040 and global coal demand will grow by 15% [3]. At the same time, economic
development in developing countries is accompanied by a great deal of energy waste.
Therefore, renewable energy has received great attention from people.
Accelerating the change of energy structure and developing renewable energy are
particularly important for the sustainable development of economy and the
improvement of environment [1]. As a clean, efficient secondary energy source,
electric energy plays an irreplaceable role in the country’s economic development,
social operation and people’s lives. At the same time as social progress and economic
prosperity, the electric power industry has also experienced rapid development.
Traditional energy consumption methods and power supply models have brought
huge driving forces and economic benefits to social development, but have also
caused serious environmental pollution problems [4]. In order to prevent drastic
climate change from causing harm to humans, more emphasis is given to the
incorporation of alternative energy sources in power system in recent years. The
reduced fossil energy consumption is a key to achieve the sustainable economic
development and it is the future direction of the growth of power industry [5], [6].
Based on the above factors, the development of DG has become a necessary way
to solve the above problems. DG can effectively use new energy sources such as
wind power generation (WPG) and photovoltaic power generation (PVPG) to ease
the energy crisis and be environmentally friendly during operation [7]. Distributed
power generation and large power grids can complement each other with improving
the reliability of power supply. DG can supply power to local loads nearby, which can
greatly reduce investment in transmission and distribution equipment [8].

1.1.1 Distributed generation sources

Day by day the demand for the energy consumption has been increasing. Present
power systems focus on DGs which include DERs such as PVPG, WPG and ESUs
such as battery and ultracapacitor (UC). DGs reduce pollution, provide a high rate
of energy utilization, flexible installation, and reduce power transmission losses.
According to customer’s point of view, energy cost can be reduced by increasing the

2
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

usage of sustainable energy resources. Usually, the DG set has a capacity of several
kilowatts to several tons of megawatts. It is directly connected to the low voltage or
medium voltage distribution network where the load is located through a modular
and decentralized method.
Different DG units can be combined and operated in parallel to maintain the
continuous power supply to the loads. The DGs like PVPG and WPG produce
intermittent power. The incorporation of the storage devices like the battery, UC can
eliminate these disadvantages. The batteries are generally considered because of
their high energy density. The use of battery energy storage (BES) system is not
sufficient when rapid demand variations occur in the system. Due to high power
density, UC can deliver or absorb the immediate burst of power and hence it is used
to handle instant spikes in load demand. The combination of the BES system and
UC is called the hybrid energy storage system (HESs). These can manage short-term
and long-term power mismatches in DG systems. A MG is a revolutionary method of
operating and managing hybrid generation systems with storage devices to deliver
loads in stand-alone or grid-tied mode. The control of the system is critical and
complicated when different DGs are combined and each DG has different
characteristics. The suitable choice of power electronic converters and proper control
methods are essential to operate DGs according to the load requirement.
DG technology has the following advantages over conventional large-scale power
generation technologies [9], [10]:

1. The distributed generation technology uses green clean and renewable energy
to generate electricity. It is not affected by the shortage of traditional energy
sources. It realizes the diversification of energy utilization, which saves energy
and increases energy efficiency.

2. Flexible position, decentralized, well adapted to the distribution of decentralized

resources and power demand, improve the use of RESs.

3. The construction period is short, the area is small, the investment is reduced, and
the electrical and physical distance between the electricity load and the power
generation equipment is shortened, thereby reducing the huge cost required for
the network loss and the upgrading of the transmission and distribution network.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

4. Distributed generation is an effective support and powerful supplement for

large power grids. The mutual backup for large power grids also improves the
reliability of power supply.

Therefore, the DG system cannot only comprehensively use energy, save costs, solve
the problem of long-distance transmission while using electricity in remote areas and
also improves the flexibility and reliability of power supply.

1.1.2 Basic concepts and significance of microgrid

MG is one of the most important forms of DG [11] and it is also the most effective form
of integration into large power grids. MG refers to a small-scale power generation and
distribution system composed of distributed power supplies, loads, protection devices,
monitoring systems and energy management systems (EMSs). It can realize relatively
independent autonomous systems for self-control, protection, management and can be
integrated with large-scale power grids and can also be run in isolation [12].The MG
will become an important part of the smart grid (SG). According to the definition of
the above MG, its main advantages are as follows [13], [14]:

1. Improve power supply system reliability: MGs can increase the reliability of local
power supply, reduce power consumption and ensure power quality. Furthermore,
it is concluded that the flexible parallel operation mode of MG can play a demand
side management role in the large power grid, which greatly improves the safety
and stability of the large power grid [15].

2. Flexible mode of operation: MGs have two modes of operation i.e.grid connection
and standalone [16]. When the MG is connected to the grid [17], the MG needs
to generate electricity according to the instructions of the large power grid, power
dispatching of the MG and the load of the MG can accept the power supply of MG
or large power grid. The MG has two different operating modes: grid-tied [18]
and off-grid (island). In the grid-connected operating state, the MG is connected
to the low voltage/medium voltage distribution network in parallel to achieve
grid-connected operation. The two are supported by each other to achieve two-
way flow of energy. When an external power distribution network fails or enters a
planned island, the MG can be switched to an off-grid operation mode, continue

4
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

to supply power for important loads in the network using ESDs and improve
the reliability of power supply for important loads [19]. The operation of a
standalone DC MG system is discussed in Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6.

3. Improve energy efficiency: By analysing the electricity demand of the load, the
MG can rationally optimize the allocation of resources, increase resource
utilization, reduce resource wastes and reduce environmental pollution. At the
same time, DG based on renewable energy is closer to the load, reducing
transmission distance and reducing line losses and maintenance costs [20].

4. Promote the development of the electric power industry.

The MG integrates distributed power sources of various forms and locations into the
physical network and traditional one way power transmission mode has been changed
with the use of MG. The MG, as an independent entity in the power market,
participates in the marketization operation to provide uniform energy scheduling
[21]. The widespread use of MGs can reduce electricity prices and maximizes the
economic benefits [22]. As the effective use of distributed power supply and the
effective supplement of large power grid, micro-power network not only gives the
benefits of distributed power supply for users and power grids, but also solves the
disadvantage of distributed power supply and improves the potential value of
distributed power supply [23]. The MG is classified according to the network
structure, functional characteristics and can be divided into AC MGs and DC MGs.

1.2 Importance of DC MG system

Electrification is still needed by over half of the world [24]. Many of the places are miles
away from the grid and are in a region where the grid cannot reach. Because of this the
development of these sectors is significantly affected. By using DC off grid networks
according to the needs of these locations, this issue can be solved. The major benefit
of having an off-grid DC system is that it can be directly powered by renewable energy
sources. It is a significant opportunity to start the use of clean energy technology in
places where it is not feasible to penetrate the grid.
Like other common appliances, lights, mobile phone chargers, etc. consume DC.

5
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

It would be easy to integrate renewable energy technology such as solar PV, wind
turbines and fuel cells into DC usage. The storage batteries used in these types of
devices often need DC for charging. For remote areas where the grid connectivity is
impossible to access, the off grid DC micro grid would also be ideal.
In recent days, the DC MG and mini grid systems are gaining more popularity. In
order to bring a transition in the electrification of homes, research is being done by
developing countries in this field. Due to its benefits, the DC mini grid is seen as a
feasible choice for the new AC electrification network.
DC electrification is not only taken into account in rural areas, but also in urban
houses. As the electrical load was DC in the old days, DC electrification is not a novel
concept as it was in operation before AC came. The use of AC electrification was
affected by the introduction of sophisticated equipment such as air conditioning, AC
engines and long-range power transmission[25].
The systems that run on DC are increasingly growing and are being invented. Most
of the electronic devices we use today such as smartphones, printers, televisions, etc.,
need DC to operate via the adaptors provided for these appliances. These devices
draw AC and transform it to low voltage DC. It is possible to prevent this conversion
if the electrification is DC. Most of the appliances in our everyday lives consume
DC, for example light bulbs that have been in use for a long time. Due to technical
developments we now have LED lamps, which operate by converting AC to DC with
a sufficient working voltage [26], [27]. The power loss associated with this is the major
problem in the conversion of AC to DC. Due to these drawbacks, the DC electricity
network and mini grid are seen as a feasible alternative to AC grid and electrification
in emerging regions [28].
The Lawrence Berkely National Laboratory study shows that a reduction in DC
MG conversion losses for use in DC MG data centres could result in energy savings of
up to 28%. The DC MG is thought to be safer for the human body because it does not
produce involuntary contractions and the electromagnetic fields are reduced [28]. DC
MGs have only active strength since both voltage and current are in phase and there
are no losses due to the power factor. There is also no reactive or harmonic power in
the DC MG that increases the device’s power quality and efficiency compared to the
AC MG [29].

6
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

There are no guidelines for DC MGs [30] and many voltages such as 480V, 326V,
230V, 120V and 48V have been used. Higher voltage levels have the advantage that
they have lower power losses and lower voltage losses. Higher voltages have the
advantage that they are higher and that they can operate without grounding. AC
and DC can be replaced by the same [28] cables while using 350, 326, 230 and 120V
cables. The voltage level of 350V is considered to be adequate from a technical and
economic point of view and has the capacity to operate with the existing systems
and wires. The applicants built to operate on 230/240V AC, are capable of operating
on 350V DC, but studies need to be performed on the long-term functionality [31].
As a consequence, we can see that DC distribution results in reduced losses,
increased security, reduced electromagnetic fields and improved power quality [25].
One of the disadvantages is that conventional short-circuit safety equipment cannot
be used for DC MGs. This is because the current is not greater than zero [32].
However, AC breakers can be used in low voltage DC devices by adjusting the rating
with right correction factors [28]. Electronic circuit breakers have been shown to be
superior to mechanical circuit breakers, but do not provide maximum insulation
when the electronic circuit breaker is activated. In addition, due to lack of inertia in
the MG, the large-scale deployment of DC MGs based on solar generation could lead
to grid instability. Arcing problems have also occurred as electrical home appliances
with DC systems are plugged and unplugged. This has been resolved by connecting
the shunt diode/condenser branch to the plug socket [25].

1.2.1 Power transmission of DC system

DC Power is transmitted through underground cables or overhead lines consisting

of [33] conductors, insulators and supporting systems. Aluminium is also used as a
conductor because it has a low strength, low cost, a high weight to strength ratio and
is readily available. The DC cable resistance can be calculated using (1.1). aluminium
is typically filled with steel to make it stronger. Aluminium conductor steel-reinforced
is manufactured in strands to make it easier to produce. Overhead transmission lines
are not protected by an insulator to aid heat dissipation. Usually, AC transmission
insulator discs are used for the isolation of cable packages. The higher the voltage
level used, the more insulation material required. The supporting devices are used to

7
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

suspend high cables at a safe distance from the public and can be made of wood or
metal.
ρl
RDC = (1.1)
A
Where ρ the conductor resistivity is at a given temperature, l is the conductor’s length
and A is the conductor’s cross-section.

1.2.2 Power quality in DC power distribution system

Power quality is a measure of the power source’s efficiency and stability with respect
to voltage, frequency and waveform. The reason is why DC systems have higher power
efficiency than AC systems is that the frequency is zero for DC systems, so it is much
easier to do so. The MG must be able to deliver the power without damaging them,
which is a major concern for an increase in digital equipment. The term ”power
quality” is used, but the measurement is just the quality of the voltage. DC power can
be calculated by using (1.2). DC systems do not have a phase angle between voltage
and current, so there is no reactive power to increase power efficiency. Even, since the
DC waveform frequency is zero, there is no harmonic distortion. Voltage stability is
the primary objective of DC systems, and electrical converters and batteries can be
used to maintain DC voltage stability. The basic structure of a DC MG system is
explained in the following section.

V2
P =VI = = I 2R (1.2)
R

1.3 Basic structure of a DC MG system

DC MG [34] has the characteristic that the distributed power supply, the ESU and
the system load are all coupled to the DC bus. The DC network is connected via the
electronic inverter system to the external AC grid as shown in Figure 1.1. DC power
grids can provide power to AC and DC loads with different voltage levels through
power electronic converters and load fluctuations can be regulated by the ESUs in
DC side. Considering the characteristics of distributed power supply and the demand
of users for different levels of power quality, two or more DC MG can form dual or
multiple circuit power supply mode [35]. A DC feeder connected to a distributed

8
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

power source with relatively obvious intermittent characteristics for supplying power
to common types of loads.
A DC feed line connects distributed power sources and ESUs with relatively
smooth running characteristics to provide power to higher-demand types of loads.
Compared with the AC MG, the DC MG has only one level of voltage conversion
equipment between each distributed power source and the DC bus, which reduces the
construction cost of the entire system and makes it easier to implement the control.
At the same time, since there is no need to consider the synchronization problem
between distributed power sources, it is more advantageous to suppress the
circulation loses between different distributed power sources. The detailed modelling
of DC MG system is discussed in Chapter 3.

Figure 1.1: Structure of DC MG

1.4 Types of DC MG system architecture

The power system networks are influenced by several factors such as robustness,
economic rate of the system, controllability, resiliency and reliability of the system,
also utilization of resources, obtainability of the power sources and finally the
flexibility to consumers. Different elementary factors must be examined in order to

9
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

design the system, i.e. type of landscape, availability of power at various locations,
maximum consumption of renewable resources and scalability in the future [36].
Different architectures are available for DC MGs, few are discussed in the following
section.

1.4.1 Radial DC MG structure

Radial structure [37],[38] is the most commonly used structure and is shown in
Figure 1.2. The design of a radial grid is dependent on one main line (or several
parallel lines) to which power consumption and production are connected. This is
the easiest and the most technically feasible setup, particularly in rural areas. The
detailed analysis of this structure is provided in Chapter 3. The radial network

Figure 1.2: Single-bus DCMG Structure

system has a fairly simple circuit protection scheme for [39] synchronisation and
design. The rating criterion for the device component can be specified very easily
with the radial network. Another benefit of radial networking is the simple
deployment of voltage compensation approaches such as reactive power
compensators. The initial network costs are nominal and can be very useful in
circumstances of low voltage generation.
The introduction of new load or generation would necessitate the installation of
new cables or other components, even if the cables and components initially installed
were oversized. This will also contribute to the added costs. In the case of radial
networks, customers are relying on a single feeder and distributor. Any failure in the

10
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

system will cause disruption of the power supply to all customers connected to the
distributor.

1.4.2 Ring bus DC MG structure

Ring configuration as in Figure 1.3, involves lines forming a geometric circle or ring
form and thus allowing two alternate power flow routes to a certain point on the
network. This provides greater stability in voltage and lower power loss, but still
needs more improved scheme of protection. The ring network is considered to be the

Figure 1.3: Typical ring-bus DCMG Structure

most hierarchical because it forms a closed loop by linking nodes together. As a result,
multiple security zones inside the ring network can be introduced. Compared to the
radial structure, this network system is more effective and reliable. When one feeder
is in failure or is repaired, another feeder attached to it will always power the ring
distributor [40].
The main drawback of this arrangement is that the network depends heavily on
cables linking other elements to the network. With respect to complexity, the method
of loop feeder is just a little more complicated than the radial system. The capability
and expenditures of the loop system have a substantial degradation.

11
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.4.3 Multi terminal DC MG structure

The schematic of mesh configuration for a MG system shown in Figure 1.4. Further
improved stability in mesh configuration by providing multiple alternate links to all
network nodes. It offers more flexibility, but it also challenges for service and security
of the MG [37],[38]. This system is successful for short distance transmission and
incorporates the existing network system very well.
In other words, a radial to meshed network structure can be quickly upgraded.
The mesh architecture power transmission provides stability and control of a
fluctuating electricity generation [41]. The advantage of the meshed networks is that
their voltage profile is relatively balanced and high accuracy is accomplished by
redundancy. Compared to ring and radial configurations, the mesh grid has the most

Figure 1.4: Schematic of multi terminal DC MG Structure

complicated layout as it requires several alternate connection between the nodes.

This greatly challenges the operation and security of the distributed network [41].

1.5 Components of a DC MG system and different

DG technologies
The DC MG as presented above is a collection of physical network, DG systems,
storage devices, loads and connections to other networks (AC or DC). The system is
operated by effective control methods to function and to get an information about the
distribution of energy flows.

12
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5.1 Distributed energy generation units

Different DG technologies have distinct features and emission levels. Wind and solar
energy systems produce no harmful emissions. DG is currently being used by some
consumers to meet the partial or complete load demand. Many users employ the DG
to lower the utility’s demand costs, while others use it to reduce harmful emissions.
Solar PV arrays, wind turbines, fuel cells, geothermal energy, microturbines, wave
energy, biomass energy, etc. are just a few familiar distributed energy sources. This
section presents an overview of a few popular DG technologies.

1.5.1.1 Photovoltaic power generation system

In general, solar PV cells consist of semiconductors such as silicon and germanium. A

silicon PV cell is constructed from a thin wafer composed of silicon doped phosphorus
(n-type) and boron (p-type). Near the contact of the two layers, an electrical field is
generated, which is called a p-n junction. Sunlight comprises of small energy packets
called photons. The photons are transferred and passed through the solar cell when
the sunlight falls on the PV cell [42].
When a sufficient number of photons are introduced to the negative layer of the
PV cell, the electrons are released from the negative layer. These free electrons drift
towards the positive layer creating a potential difference. The electrons flow through
the circuit generating DC power when the two layers are connected through an external
load. Single solar cell generally produces 1-2 watts. The PV cells are connected in
a series-parallel combination in order to obtain the necessary power output from the
PV system. Several serial and parallel PV modules are combined to form a solar PV
array.
Solar cell conversion efficiency is around 17%. The power output of the solar cells
would be even lower under decreased irradiance and shading conditions. Maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) controllers are used for extracting maximum possible
power. These are realized using power electronic converters as shown in Figure 1.5.
There are several MPPT control techniques such as Perturb and observe (PO)
technique, Incremental conductance (IC) technique, fuzzy logic-based technique, etc.
Researchers have put significant effort into minimizing the cost and increasing the
efficiency of the solar PV cells. Efficient solar tracking systems are also developed to

13
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

ensure that the maximum amount of sunlight falls on the PV arrays. The complete
modelling of PVPG system is provided in Chapter 3.

Figure 1.5: DC bus tied PV system with MPPT [43]

1.5.1.2 Wind power generation system

Wind turbines produces electric power [44] by using generators such as permanent
magnet synchronous generator (PMSG), squirrel cage induction generator and double
fed induction generators (DFIG). Wind energy systems have higher installation cost,

Figure 1.6: PMSG based WECS [45]

but their maintenance cost is less. Wind energy conversion systems employing PMSG
and DFIG are presented in Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7. At present, most WPG system
employ the PMSG or DFIG. Recently PMSG gained more prominence because of
its advantages. The construction of PMSG is more straightforward and it does not
require a gear system. The gearbox-free wind systems provide many benefits such as
improved overall performance, reliability, low weight and minimum maintenance. Since
permanent magnets are employed, external magnetization is not required in PMSG.

14
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.7: DFIG based WECS [45]

This feature is essential specifically in isolated WECS and in remote areas where
accessing the grid is not easy for supplying the reactive power for magnetization of
the induction generators. The losses are minimal because of the low resistance. Due
to the laminated stator core and the absence of the armature reaction, the iron losses
are small. The size of the nacelle in PMSG based WECS is small. The details on the
required mathematical module of WPG system is explained in Chapter 3.

1.5.2 Energy management of DC MG system and storage

devices

There is an intermittent and irregular output of power sources described in the previous
section that includes the use of a storage unit. Commonly used storage systems are
batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels, etc. Storage devices can be used for a variety of
purposes such as power smoothing, balancing the demand and supply and improving
the power quality, etc. The battery and UC are the main ESDs, i.e. the battery for
energy flow control and the UC for power flow control. The battery storage system
makes it possible for a long period of time to have high energy densities, while over a
short period of time, the UC-based storage system provides high power density. The
batteries are also used to control the flow of power between the MG networks. In
general, most batteries are unable to respond to sudden increases in the demand, so
UC is required in a very short period to respond for high power requirements. UC
actually has a very high density of power and a quick discharge. Since PVPG and
WPG are not available in abundance and vary in nature. It is important to store or
deliver power mismatches between generation and demand through ESDs [46], [47].

15
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The features that decide the ESS are the storage capacity, rating, rate of change of
charging and discharging.
The selection of a particular type of system that is suitable to a given need and
must be made in accordance with those referred to above. Some of the advantages
of each energy storage system will be briefly mentioned but not further explored in
detail. The comprehensive modelling of the ESUs is discussed in Chapter 3.

1.5.2.1 Battery energy storage unit

The battery consists of electrochemical cells with external link to supply or consume
power from electrical devices that are attached to it. There are two terminals for
the battery, the cathode and the anode. The electrolytes pass inside as ions while the
battery is connected to an external circuit, allowing chemical reactions to be performed
at the separate terminals and thereby providing the external circuit with electricity.
Batteries are categorised as primary and secondary. Primary batteries irreversibly
transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the system’s supply is exhausted,
electricity will be added to the primary battery [44].

1. Lead acid battery: The most widely used batteries today are lead acid
batteries. The lead acid battery is used in systems such as uninterrupted
energy sources, emergency lighting in buildings and on-board computer,
vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICE) and central locking system.
These batteries have six 2.1 nominal volt cells, operates with 12V in their
terminals and can have an extended lifetime if properly treated. The main
advantages are tolerant to being overcharged and it is able to deliver incredibly
high currents. However, there are still some disadvantages such as bulky,
efficiency is limited and not suitable for quick charging [48].

2. Li-ion batteries: Li-ion batteries are the most relevant platform for the
development and future of EVs due to the scope and success already provided
in the electronics industry, telecommunications applications and mobile
devices. To produce a current flow, lithium ions migrate from the anode to the
cathode. The cathode of these batteries is a metal oxide plated with lithium
and the anode comprises a layer structure of graphite carbon. Lithium salts

16
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

immersed in organic carbonates are the electrolytes. As the battery charges,

the lithium atoms in the cathode become ions and pass through the electrolyte
to the carbon anode, where they are combined with additional electrons and
placed as lithium atoms within carbon layers. After discharge, this mechanism
is reversed. The battery cell can be run at a higher current than most
batteries, but some complications must be solved. Internal heating and failure
can result in internal resistance. For this function, the battery control system
must be used at least for overvoltage, under voltage, over-temperature and
over-current protection and to ensure stable operation. Main advantages are it
gives high energy density, weight is smaller and have high cost [49].

1.5.2.2 Ultracapacitors

Ultracapacitors vary in two major ways from ordinary capacitors. The UC plates have
a greater active area and the separation between the plates is minimal compared to
the traditional plate. The plates of the supercapacitors are made of titanium, which
is coated with a titanium porous material such as activated carbon in the form of
powder, which raises the active area and thus allows to store more electrical charges.
There is no dielectric in UC. Instead, the plates are immersed in an electrolyte and
separated by a thin insulator made of either plastic or paper. When the UC plates
are paid, two opposite charges are incurred. The UC is also often referred to as the
electrical dual-layer capacitor. Due to their high power density, the UCs are able to
work within a limited period of time. They are widely used for the smoothing of power
generated by wind and PV systems. UCs are also used in electrical vehicles for [50]
regenerative braking. The main qualities are quite high charging and discharge speeds,
small weight and low toxicity and low energy density.

1.5.3 Controllable loads

Power system loads are the cumulative electrical power used by all users linked to the
distribution network of the system [51]. The essence of the load depends on the load
factor, the demand factor, the diversity factor and the utilisation factor of the device.

17
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5.3.1 AC and DC loads

The use of electronic equipment in modern power systems continues to grow annually.
Unfortunately power conversions using these systems lead to power losses. Recently,
new medium voltage DC (MVDC) systems have been introduced as a solution to
reduce the leakage of electricity from electronic power converters.
DC loads only requires a DC/DC converter, are very effective in the DC delivery
system due to the reduction in power transfer phases and direct access to the DC
supply. However it is impossible to substitute any of the AC loads present in the
traditional AC grid with DC loads if the MVDC delivery system is implemented. The
DC distribution system can then be worked with two load types and allows the inverter
to supply the AC loads with the DC power. A research on the efficiency of the power
grid is required to implement a new MVDC delivery system according to the type of
loads.
Simple load is defined as the electricity usage of the devices to be served at any
time. For example, lighting, materials, computers and network equipment are included
[52]. Similarly, daily loads are classified as power consumption of equipment e.g. air
conditioning and cooling at home, that are still in service for a long time. These
loads place heavy stresses on the whole grid, which require early care because of the
increased power demand.

1.5.3.2 Plug in electric vehicles

More analysis is required to incorporate EV as a load within the SG using PVPG and
WPG penetration. Because of growing global environmental issues [53], the vehicle
to home (V2H) solutions equipped with RESs as in Figure 1.8 are the most valuable
electrification schemes. As alternative DERs, along with RESs in MGs, a number of
EVs around the world are currently being used. Conventional ICEs are the key causes
for air pollution and global warming. EVs can be used to solve these problems. It is
also possible to conserve non-renewable assets for next generation by using EVs with
alternative energy sources. The EVs linked to the SG can be used as a catalyst to
minimise emissions as well as the main transport networks. The key features of these
are

ˆ Electric motors are more powerful than ICEs. They show a performance of 90%

18
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.8: Reconfigured home to EV technology

in the region, while ICEs show a performance of 40% in the region.

ˆ Better robustness: Electric motors are efficient, need less maintenance and run
quietly and smoothly.

ˆ Energetic safety: The average increase in energy demand from 2007 to 2030 is 1.5
trillion, according to the International Energy Agency, while the oil supply for the
same period is 1 percent. In cumulative terms, energy demand will rise by around
40% and oil supply by just 25%. EVs are independent of oil fluctuations and
depletion since electricity is a ’home source’ and can be generated independently
of oil.

ˆ Environmental issues: It is clean and they have no carbon emissions. Even if

fossil energy provides the power to charger, it is easier to regulate electricity
sources in generators than in EV consumers.

The limitations are based on high cost, battery life, recharging of batteries, autonomy.
The application of EV in the field of renewable sources is discussed in Chapter 3.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5.4 Power electronic converters

The power electronic converters plays a significant role in achieving improved output
power efficiency. Using the maximum power point monitoring algorithms converters
help to obtain the maximum energy from clean energy sources. They also help to load
and unload the system using controller. The power converters employed here include
boost converters, diode rectification unit, bidirectional DC-DC converters (BDC) to
attain the desired levels of DC voltage, and converters for DC to AC conversion.
Boost converters are used to couple different voltage points between DC bus and
the terminal output of PV. Boost converter tracks the maximum power point of PV
by controlling the terminal voltage of PV panel using P-V characteristic curve. The
3-phase uncontrolled rectifier is used to convert variable-frequency output voltage from
the PMSG system to DC supply. The converter used for the battery is a BDC and it
used to charge and discharge the power in an enhanced mode to extend the battery
life. These converters target to generate maximum output power from PV, wind
and without interruption. The system supplies power to AC load using DC to AC
converters.
This work develops a novel control topology of BDC for battery units to coordinate
the energy and voltage of various ESDs at the point of common coupling (PCC).

1.5.5 Control and communication of DGs

In order to integrate the connectivity between all components in a MG system,

advanced power electronic converters and control units are required. The efficient
energy management of offgrid MG system can be accomplished by the use of
advanced control strategies of power sources and ESDs. The integration of renewable
energy sources into the MG requires regulation to ensure voltage stability and
maintain a balanced power flow between power sources, storages and loads.
The micro source based DGs and ESDs are normally operated by power converters.
By organising and regulating these power electronic interfaces via proper control and
communication, MG offers considerable flexibility to meet device requirements in terms
of performance, security, reliability and power quality, etc. The key functions of the
MG control system are as follows: [54]

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

ˆ Voltage control of grid connected and offgrid modes of operation.

ˆ Proper load sharing and cooperation with DGs.

ˆ Resynchronization of MG with the main grid.

ˆ Regulation of the power exchange between the MG and the main grid.

ˆ Optimizing the operating costs of MG.

ˆ Proper handling of transients and restoring the optimal conditions when

transitioning between grid mode and offgrid mode.

1.6 Hierarchical control classification of microgrid

system
According with [55] hierarchical control framework of a MG systems can be broadly
divided into three layers: primary, secondary and tertiary control levels.The
conceptual framework of the hierarchical control is based on the time delay of
different control criteria. MGs operate with many control loops [55], [56], [57].
Figure 1.9 shows a hierarchical control architecture composed of primary, secondary
and tertiary controllers. The local power sharing control and current/voltage
regulations are handled by primary control. The voltage compensation and power

Figure 1.9: Hierarchical control schemes of MG

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

sharing improvement was handled by secondary control loop. The secondary loop is
placed on the top of primary. As the highest degree of hierarchical architecture,
tertiary regulation performs economic dispatch of power management, energy
management, device optimization. Depending on the communication method, upper
level or secondary control levels can be categorized into three-coordinated control
strategies namely decentralized, centralized and distributed.

1.6.1 Decentralized control

Decentralized structure is shown in Figure 1.10 and this method does not require a
central controller and any digital control signals from various units of the system [55].
Decentralized controller defined in which it mainly performs the regulation of voltage
by considering the local control (LC) measurements of each DG units.

Figure 1.10: Decentralised control scheme

1.6.2 Centralized control

A central controller exists in a centralized fashion, which collects all the information
and transmits to local units of a MG system [56]. Centralized controller as shown in
Figure 1.11, which collects all the information using digital communication links from
the essential components of a MG. Centralized controller offers advantages in terms of
observability and controllability of the system. Along with these advantages, it suffers
from a single point of failure. If any one of the link is failed, this results the failure of
whole system. This will reduce the flexibility and expandability of the system.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.11: Centralized control scheme

1.6.3 Distributed control

Distributed control scheme as depicted in Figure 1.12 uses consensus theory approaches
for power management and voltage restoration of MG system [57].

Figure 1.12: Distributed control scheme

Consensus in a power network is characterised as a collective information between

each unit. Each unit is recognised as an agent or subsystem in the sense of consensus
management and the group of agents is a MAS. One single result is achieved when
consensus is reached, and it is obeyed by every individual or every group of agent.
Therefore, consensus management forces any agent or subsystem to exit with a single
output in a distributed control system. The use of consensus theory has allowed global
synchronisation to be accomplished by distributed secondary control for DERs and MG
applications. This control scheme provides stability, realiabilty for the entire network

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

as compared to decentralized and centralized schemes.

1.7 Contributions of the research work

Nowadays, the scale of power grids continues to increase as the demand for electricity
continues to increase. Countries around the world are gradually becoming aware of the
depletion of fossil fuels. The renewable energy and distributed electricity generation
will be the mainstream direction of future energies and the development of global
power grid will be the focus of long term power grid developments. Hence MG is
the mainstream method to make use of multiple renewable energy sources to generate
electricity. As discuseed in [58] & [59], the MG system having heterogenity features
when multiple DGs are coupled to the network. If multiple DGs are coupled into DC
bus, the dynamics of different components would be different since the environment is
dynamically varying in nature. Hence the system becomes complex and heterogeneous.
In this work, the distributed voltage control of DC MG is coordinated using
heterogeneous consensus control algorithm with the leader-follower framework. The
leader-follower network coordinates the power flow between battery units. Initially to
control the voltage of MG, the secondary voltage control should set one of the
battery units as a leader and the others as follower. Hence we used a theoretical rule
to choose the optimal leader in the leader-follower network of the battery units. The
used metric is based on the cost index ‘J’ analysis using battery Ah ratings of the
DC MG. Using this metric, one can rank all battery units and choose one with the
smallest value influence as the leader node. Once the battery leader is selected,
specifically we address the problem of follower agents where it is subjected to
stochastic disturbances.
Therefore, this work proposes a disturbance observer based heterogeneous
consensus control for the battery unit. The proposed approach makes use of a
disturbance observer to estimate the voltage during the disturbance. In a leader
follower mechanism the estimated voltage is then used to optimally modify the
voltage of the battery insertion. The works in [60] and [61] suggest similar
leader-follower methodology, incorporating the goal of energy management in droop
characteristics and used a distributed controller to drift the voltage. The control

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

schemes in [60]-[62], do not consider the impact of continuous disturbances on the

MG operation, as opposed to the proposed approach. Thus, the bus voltage is
regulated by the DC-DC converter using a reconfigured control system, and the
battery voltage is returned to its marginal reference value under the disruption
compared to [60], [63], [64]. Furthermore, the analysis of system response and the
charging/discharging characteristics of ESDs, the established heterogeneous
consensus controller is utilized with considering second order dynamics of battery
units.

1.8 Organization of the thesis

Chapter 1 introduces the development of new energy and current problems of
distributed generation, then readers introduced to the basic concepts and structure
of MG system. The significance of DC MG over AC system is discussed. The DG
technologies like PVPG, WPG and also various energy storage systems employed in
DC MGs are also briefly explained. Later this Chapter brings out the main problems
and common control strategies in the current research of MG. Then, the advantages
of MAS based consensus control among the present control method of MG are
analyzed.
In Chapter 2 a detailed review of the literature on the research topic is
presented. The significant works addressing the autonomous control operation of the
DC MGs employing energy sources such as PVPG, WPG are reviewed. The different
MG configuration available in the existing literature is discussed. Also the important
work focusing on autonomous control operation of DC system employed with energy
sources are deduced. The research papers which highlight the role of battery
controllers such as inner loop, primary layer and secondary controllers etc. in DC
MGs are also examined. Then the relevant research works focuses on consensus
theory based distributed control is presented. Finally, the literature on MAS based
distributed control schemes are presented. This is followed by the research gaps
identified and the research objectives.
Chapter 3 explains the detailed modelling of a distributed sources involving PV,
wind turbine and ESUs. The details of MPPT controllers used for PV and Wind

25
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

turbine are given. Then based on the established DG models, the plug-in electric
vehicle (PEV) charging station is designed. A new controller is established for PEV
for maximum charging and to manage the power flow of the system, a simple inner
loop control layer of the battery is developed. The preliminary simulations necessary
for the thorough investigation of the DC MG are presented.
In Chapter 4, the concept of unpredictability and intermittence of power
generation and different load demands are considered and analysed in six node ring
bus1 MG system. Firstly, the reason why the voltage cannot be achieved smooth
regulation using the traditional primary droop controller is analysed. Aiming at this
problem, this chapter achieves the goal of voltage regulation with less oscillations
and power decoupling by adding compensation voltage control loop. The traditional
droop control and the improved voltage control strategy are simulated and compared,
the correctness and validity of the adopted improved strategy are validated.
Chapter 5 presents a new disturbance observer based distributed secondary
control method for six bus DC MG. The distributed secondary control scheme
utilizes first order heterogeneous consensus protocol with the help of leader follower
communication network to solve the problem of uneven power distribution and
deviation of output voltage in the parallel converter system. There is an single
integrator to generate the power and voltage order. Later the disturbance observer is
designed to stabilize the DC bus voltage when the constant disturbance acting on the
system in the form of sudden load variation and communication link failure. The
estimated voltage is then used in a leader follower controller to optimally modify the
battery insertion voltage.
Chapter 6 addresses the performance of second order heterogeneous consensus
control of four bus DC MG network having battery units and HESs. The energy
management of the battery units are controlled through second order heterogeneous
consensus control scheme. The role of UC system was regulated by the virtual
capacitance control scheme. Dynamics response of the battery and UC are observed
and simulation case studies are carried out.
The Chapter 7 provides the overall conclusions of the thesis and scope for future
work are given.

1
Six bus and four bus systems (IEEE Standards) are considered in this work.

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