7

Problems associated with Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004

Objectives:

*To know what are the water problems in the Philippines

*To know what are the solutions provided by Philippine clean water act of 2004 to
address these problems

What are the water related problems in the Philippines?

Water pollution is a major problem in the Philippines. According to Water

Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA), 32 percent of the Philippines’ land mass —
approximately 96,000 square kilometers — is used for agriculture. Increased population,
urbanization, agriculture and industrialization have all reduced the quality of water in the
Philippines.

According to WEPA, water pollution’s effects cost the Philippines approximately $1.3
billion annually. The government continues to try to clean up the problem, implementing
fines to polluters as well as environmental taxes, but many problems have not been
addressed. According to government monitoring data, up to 58 percent of the groundwater
tested was contaminated with coliform, and approximately one third of illnesses monitored
during a five-year period were caused by water-borne sources. In addition to this, during
the dry season, many areas experience water shortages.

The water pollution in the Philippines is mostly wastewater from the following sources:
1.  Industrial: The metal varies according to industry — lead, mercury, chromium,
cadmium and cyanide.
2.  Agricultural: Organic — decayed plants, dead animals, livestock manure, soil runoff;
and non-organic — pesticides and fertilizers.
3.  Domestic sewage: Contains pathogens that threaten human health and life.
4.  Other sources: Oil, mine or chemical spills and illegal dumping in or near water.

Why need for clean water act?

 Low sewerage coverage

 Degradation of water quality from domestic waste
 Spread of water borne diseases
 Decline in fish production

With these very reason the “Philippine clean water act of 2004” or RA 9275 is created

Low sewage coverage:

As of 2000 only 4% of the population in Manila has access to sewage. Outside

metro manila, access to sewage is almost non-existent.

By 2012, The Manila Third Sewerage Project (MTSP) helped to meet the water,

sanitation and urbanization challenges identified in the government’s Medium-Term
Philippine Development Plan of 2004-2010, in particular, the worsening water quality of
Metro Manila resulting from rapid population growth, urbanization and industrialization.

Degradation of water quality from domestic waste:

Indiscriminate disposal of waste water is one of the reason for degradation of

water quality.

Slums and shanty towns sprouted along the bodies of water, results to influx of
untreated sewage and household waste. Factories and other industrial hubs were erected
to meet labor demands, but went largely unregulated, releasing toxic chemicals into
rivers.

Spread of water borne diseases

In 1996-2000, 31% of illnesses were from waterborne diseases; gastroenteritis,

diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery and hepatitis

Decline in fish production

Fish kill is a result of increase in BOD levels, sedimentation and silt pollution.
According to Phil Waves report, 2015, 80% of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) loading
in Laguna lake is from domestic source.

What are the solutions provided by Philippine clean water act of 2004 to address
these problems?

SEC. 5. Water Quality Management Area. - The Department, in coordination with

National Water Resources Board (NWRB), shall designate certain areas as water quality
management areas using appropriate physiographic units.

SEC. 6. Management of Non-attainment Areas. The Department shall designate

water bodies, or portions thereof, where specific pollutants from either natural or man-
made source have already exceeded water quality guidelines as non-attainment areas for
the exceeded pollutants.

SEC. 7. National Sewerage and Septage Management Program. Establishing septic

and sewage structure.

SEC. 8. Domestic Sewage Collection, Treatment and Disposal. – requires residential,

commercial and industrial establishments to connect to a sewage line provided by
concessionaires.
 SEC. 14. Discharge Permits. – The Department shall require owners or operators of
facilities that discharge regulated effluents pursuant to this Act to secure a permit to
discharge.

SEC. 16. Clean-Up Operations.

SEC. 27. Prohibited Acts. - The following acts are hereby prohibited:

 Discharging directly or indirectly into water bodies causing water pollution

 Discharging without valid discharge permit
 Dumping or transporting into water bodies with sewage sludge or solid
waste
 Disposing of infectious medical waste

Penalties and Enforcement

 Fine of not less than Php 10,000 to Php 200,000 per day of violation
 Issuance of an order for closure, suspension or cessation of operations of
violators.

Problems happened associated with Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004

Photo from slideshare.com by RehneGibbLarena

Photo from slideshare.com by RehneGibbLarena
8
DAMS (TYPES, PURPOSES, AND APPLICATION)
Objectives:

To know the definition of dams

To be able to know the purposes of dams

To identify the different types of dams

Abstract

Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are
built to provide water for human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use
in industrial processes. They are used to increase the amount of water available for generating
hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by large storms or heavy
snowmelt, or to increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve navigation and allow
barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also provide a lake for recreational activities
such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Many dams are built for more than one purpose; for
example, water in a single reservoir can be used for fishing, to generate hydroelectric power,
and to support an irrigation system. Water-control structures of this type are often designated
multipurpose dams. There are also many types of it, depending to the design, classification,
and materials that is used in building one.
Purposes of Dams
 Irrigation
 Hydropower Generation
 Flood Prevention
 Water Supply
 Inland Navigation
 Recreation
 Mine Tailing
 Other Purposes

Irrigation

The primary and main purpose of constructing a dam is to store water and use it for
irrigation.

The World Commission of Dam estimate around 30-40% of irrigated land relies on
dams. It is estimated that 60% of the food production that comes to the market is dependent on
dam water for their irrigation.

Hydropower Generation
 Hydropower generated by the dams is the most plentiful and most efficient renewable
energy resource, contributing to 24% of all renewable electric energy produced all over the
world.

It’s also one of the most efficient source of energy for it does not contribute or
worsening the global warming dilemma.

Flood Prevention

The dams are used to effectively regulate the level of water flowing in the river by
temporarily storing the flood volume and releasing it later.

It also helps store water upstream in order to not overwhelm the downstream.

Water Supply
 Dams play an important role in the water supply for domestic and industrial use. Dams
store the water and supply it during the shortage of times.

So it means that if the water is abundant at the time, the dams store it in for usage in
times of shortage.

Inland Navigation

The advantages of inland navigation, however, when compared with highway and rail
are the large load-carrying capacity of each barge, the ability to handle cargo with large-
dimensions and fuel savings.

Recreation
 Dams provide prime recreational facilities such as boating, skiing, camping, picnic
areas, and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams. 

Mine Tailing

A mine tailing dam is usually constructed by earth-filled embankment for the purpose
of storing byproducts of mining operations.

So it stores the byproducts of mining operation which are really harmful when released
immediately. It is stored in a dam in order to be treated and to be safely released in other
bodies of water.

Other Purposes
 The storage of water in the dams facilitates the infiltration of water into the ground thus
recharging the underground water resources.

Dams help in development of the overall socio-economic of the people in the region.

Types of Dams
 Diversion Dam
 Buttress Dam
 Embankment Dam
 Cofferdam
 Storage Dam
 Detention Dam
 Gravity Dam

Diversion Dam

A diversion dam is used to divert water. They provide pressure to push water into
ditches, canals, or other areas used for conveyance.

Buttress Dam
 Buttress dams can take many forms, but they all consist of a sloping deck supported by
intervals of buttresses.

Some advantages of buttress dams over conventional gravity dams: They can be constructed on
foundations having smaller bearing capacity then required for gravity dams. Since they have
thinner slabs, possibility of development of vertical cracks is less.

Embankment Dam

An embankment dam is a large, artificial dam that is constructed with natural excavated
materials or industrial waste materials.
 Embankment dams are usually safer against deformations and settlements. Body
volume of embankment dams is relatively greater than the other types of dams. Normally
cheaper than the other types where there is enough fill material in the close vicinity.

Cofferdam

It is a temporary, portable dam used for a variety of projects including bridge repair,
shoreline restoration, pipeline installation, and many other construction projects.

Storage Dam

These dams are not mean to divert or keep water out, but to keep water in.

Detention Dam
 Are specifically constructed for flood control by retarding flow downstream, helping
reduce flash floods (to some extent).

Gravity Dam
A gravity dam is a massive, man-made concrete dam designed to hold large volumes of water.

Gravity dams are satisfactorily adopted for narrow valleys having stiff geological
formations. Their own weight resists the forces exerted upon them. They must have sufficient
weight against overturning tendency about the toe. The base width of gravity dams must be
large enough to prevent sliding. These types of dams are susceptible to settlement, overturning,
sliding and severe earthquake shocks.

Application

During times of excess water flow, dams store water in the reservoir; then they release
water during times of low flow, when natural flows are inadequate to meet water demand.

9
ABSTRACT:

This report contains the overview about dams, classification and dam
design details. This paper covers the design criteria of dams essential in designing and
planning dams.

OBJECTIVES:

- To recognize different types of dams and typical design details.

- -To be knowledgeable in design criteria of dams.

- -To be able to understand those criteria and their significance to the course.

DAMS

Dam is a structure or any artificial barrier and its appurtenances

constructed for the purpose of diverting or holding water, other
fluids, sediments including debris for any or whatever purpose.

GRAVITY DAM TYPICAL DETAIL

ARCH DAM TYPICAL DETAIL

EMBANKMENT DAM
TYPICAL DETAIL
PHILIPPINES DAM

DESIGN CRITERIA OF DAMS

 I. DAM & RESERVOIR SITE SELECTION
II. MAPS AND SURVEYS PREPARATION
III. GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
IV. METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
V. EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY SCALES AND DESIGN SEISMIC LOAD
VI. RESERVOIR SITES AND AREA INVESTIGATIONS
VII. SPILLWAYS DESIGN
VIII. OUTLET WORKS

I. DAM & RESERVOIR SITE SELECTION

The selection of dam and reservoir site and the type of dam.
1. Topography
a. The site topography shall dictate the axis selection for any type of
dam to be erected.
b. Topographic map shall have full features with contours lines and
reflected corresponding elevations (preferably at
0.25m/0.5m/1.0m or at any convenient and acceptable contour
interval) that exactly illustrates land form and shall show the true
distance and elevation between points.
c. Reservoir area configuration & size, height and thickness of
abutments, confining rims, planks and storage.
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions
a. High Seismicity and Existence of Active and wide faults lines
b. Potential/Impending landslides or rock slides area,
uncontrolled/unregulated a
3. Availability of Materials
a. Adequacy and suitability of available construction materials and
the proximity of the possible or explored sources shall be one of
 the major factors to be considered in the dam type and dam site/
reservoir site selection process.
4. Vital appurtenances (Spillways, Outlet works, Tunnels, Galleries & Adits)
Size & Location
a. Vital Appurtenance- Spillways, Outlet works, Tunnels, Galleries &
Adits)
b. Location- Right of way, land acquisition
c. Project Cost- Disturbance Compensation for affected persons.
Physical cost of the dam structure as designed and to be
constructed on the selected site. Environmental and social cost
due to adverse impact and mitigation measures.

The following Site Specific/ Special Conditions and Criteria in addition to the above
general factors (items 1-5) shall be considered for the selection and prioritization
of Reservoir Area Sites.
1. Site is not covered by PAMB (protected area management bureau) of
DENR.

2. Shall not encroach permanent settlement.

3. No known presence of existing unfavorable geologic features.

4. The site should not be identified or crossed by Active or Potentially

Active Seismic Fault Line/s.

5. The site should be safe and free from human induces hazard and risk.

II. MAPS AND SURVEYS PREPARATION

Maps and survey are one of the major and primary design data needed in
the formulation, development of project scheme, Operation & Maintenance and
Emergency Preparedness Plans.
1. Topographic maps
 a. Updated topographic maps with scale convenient for design
purposes and with ideally/preferred contour lines and
elevation interval of 0.25m, or 0.50mfor flat sloped terrain and
a maximum interval of 1.00m shall be prepared for steep
slopped terrain of reservoir area, dam site and appurtenant
structures.
2. Ground Topography
a. Topographic Surveys shall be supported with established
Horizontal and Vertical control points and/or Benchmarks
with corresponding Identification and Designation with the
location to be identified by Grid Coordinates (Northing &
Easting) and/or equivalent Geographic Coordinate/location
(Latitude & Longitude) including respective reference
Elevations.
3. Satellite Imagery
a. The use of new Information Technology through the satellite
imagery or Global Information System (GIS) Technology
mapping or the use of real time photographs of the target area
or dam sites.
4. Geological and Geo-Hazard map
a. Philippines Seismic Map (Local and regional) shall be required
as reference for the establishment and confirmation of
seismicity of the project site and the generation/derivation of
seismic design parameters and criteria.
5. Other Map
a. Other maps that shall provide valuable information like
Climate Map, weather map, Typhoon belt map, Wind Zone map
and the Land Resources Map (Land Use Map, Land
Classification Map & Soil Map) Watershed Map
III. GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

The Engineering Geologist in collaboration with the Geotechnical

Engineer/Expert and other related Specialist/Disciplines shall be responsible for
the undertaking of surface and sub-surface mapping & investigations for the Dam
and Reservoir Sites.
1. Surface and Subsurface Mapping of the dam site
a. Regional and Local Geology and Seismicity
b. Identify location of Lineaments, Fault line/s
c. Joints, shear zones and establish other geological features
2. Required degree of sub- surface exploration and number of boreholes
a. The number of drill holes and required depth shall be specified and
decided upon by the Design Team.
3. Dam Axis
a. For Small, low hazard dams a minimum of three (3) exploration/
drill/bore holes shall be made along the dam axis.
b. One drill hole be done on or at location nearest to the deepest section
and one on each abutment side. Borings/drill holes should be
extending to a minimum depth equal to the height of the proposed
dam.
4. Outlet works alignment centerline/Spillway alignment center line
a. A minimum of three (3) boreholes shall be required (for small, low
hazard dams) which shall be done one on the upstream end or
approach channel section, one at location nearest to the middle part
5. When a major active fault is crossing the dam foundation, the site shall be
abandoned and a more appropriate site shall be selected and explored.

IV. METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

 The coverage of the investigation shall include the assessment of the
watershed condition, hydrometeorological parameters needed for the estimation
of Irrigation Diversion Requirement (IDR).
The Engineering Hydrologist shall verify and confirm watershed or the
catchment area surface cover condition, the proposed reservoir area configuration,
riverbed or waterway conditions.

V. EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY SCALES AND DESIGN SEISMIC LOAD

Design shall consider Earthquakes effect on all dam components at the

same time. This situation and condition require careful planning of the dam
components configuration and selection of materials to be adopted as element
parts capable of resisting seismic induced forces.
1. Dynamic Loading Procedure shall be a mandatory requirement to be
applied and to be used in the stability and structural response and
integrity analysis of all Reservoir Dams
2. Pseudo-Static Loading Procedure shall be applicable and acceptable in
the preliminary setting of dam section /configuration, stability and
structural analysis of Class PHRC-1 and PHRC-2, Small and
Intermediate/Medium Size Reservoir Dams only.

VI. RESERVOIS SITE AND SITE INVESTIGATION

a. Leakage Investigation and Identification
i. Identified sites of high leakage yield rate shall be corrected by
introducing appropriate engineering interventions.

b. Seismicity and Stability of Reservoir Bed and Rim /Flanks

i. Stability of reservoir bed and surrounding rims and flanks against
ground movement has to be established and confirmed by the
 geologist and the geotechnical engineer/expert.
VII. SPILLWAYS DESIGN

Spillways as Controlled (Gated) or Uncontrolled (Un-gated) primary outlet

Structures shall be designed and to be constructed (as a primary and critical
appurtenance) for dam protection from overtopping and for regulation of flood
outflow from the reservoir.
1. Type of Spillways
a. Service Spillway- have the sufficient capacity to pass and
handle the routed extreme reservoir Inflow Design Flood.
b. Auxiliary Spillway- have sufficient capacity to pass certain
percentage or excess portion of the routed prescribed
maximum reservoir inflow design flood.
c. Emergency Spillway- The structure shall be designed to
function only during extreme flood situations exceeding the
maximum perceived or prescribed reservoir inflow design
flood.

VIII. OUTLET WORKS

All reservoir dams irrespective of hazard and size classification shall be

designed and fitted with the appropriate type of Outlet Works.
a. Provision of these appurtenant hydraulic structures and the construction of
the related facilities particularly the Diversion Tunnel or Conduit, Diversion
(Inlet or Outlet) Channels, Temporary or Permanent Cofferdams.
 10
SPILLWAYS

Objectives:

To know what is spillway.

To know the purpose of spillway.

Be able to identify the types and application of spillways.

Introduction

A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of flows from a

dam or levee into a downstream area, typically the riverbed of the dammed river itself. In
the United Kingdom, they may be known as overflow channels. Spillways ensure that the
water does not overflow and damage or destroy the dam.Wikipedia.

"Spillways are structures constructed to provide safe release of flood waters from a dam
to a downstream area”. Haseeb J. (2017).

Spillways can be controlled or uncontrolled. A controlled spillway is provided with

gates which can be raised or lowered. Controlled spillways have certain advantages.
When a reservoir is full, its water level will be the same as the crest level of the spillway.

Types of spillways

These are the different types of spillways that are used depending on the situation
available in the area.
1. Drop Spillway
2. Ogee Spillway
3. Siphon Spillway
4. Chute or Trough Spillway
5. Shaft Spillway
6. Side Channel Spillway

1. Drop Spillway
 As the name of the spillways indicates, the flow drops freely and almost vertically
on the downstream side of the hydraulic structure. This type of spillway is suitable for
weirs or low dams. The crest of the spillway is provided with nose so that the water jet
may not strike the downstream base of the structure. To protect the structure from the
effect of scouring horizontal impervious apron should be provided on the downstream
side. Sometimes a basin is constructed on the downstream side to form a small
artificial pool which is known as water cushion. This cushion serves the purpose of
energy dissipater.

2. Ogre Spillways

The Ogee spillway is generally provided in rigid dams and forms a part of the
main dam itself if sufficient length is available. The crest of the spillway is shaped to
conform to the lower nappe of a water sheet flowing over an aerated sharp crested weir.

It is a modified form of drop spillway. Here, the downstream profile of the spillway is
made to coincide with the shape of the lower nappe of the free falling water jet from a
sharp crested weir. In this case, the shape of the lower nappe is similar to a projectile
and hence downstream surface of the ogee spillway will follow the parabolic path where
“0” is the origin of the parabola. The downstream face of the spillway forms a concave
curve from a point “T” and meets with the downstream floor. This point “T” is known as
point of tangency. Thus the spillway takes the shape of the letter “S” (i.e. elongated
form). Hence, this spillway is termed as ogee spillway.

3. Siphon Spillway

As the name indicates, this spillway works on the principle of a siphon. A hood
provided over a conventional spillway forms a conduit. With the rise in reservoir level
water starts flowing over the crest as in an "ogee" spillway. The flowing water
however, entrains air and once all the air in the crest area is removed, siphon action
starts. Under this condition, the discharge takes place at a much larger head. The
spillway thus has a larger discharging capacity. The inlet end of the hood is generally
kept below the reservoir level to prevent floating debris from entering the conduit. This
may cause the reservoir to be drawn down below the normal level before the siphon
action breaks and therefore arrangement for de-priming the siphon at the normal
reservoir level is provided.

4. Chute or Through Spillway

In a chute (or trough) spillway, the spillway discharge flows in an open channel
(named as ‘chute’ or ‘trough’) right from the reservoir to the downstream river. The
open channel can be located either along the abutment of the dam or through a
saddle. The channel bed should always be kept in excavation and its side slopes must
be designed to be stable with sufficient margin of safety. As far as possible, bends in
the channel should be avoided. If it becomes necessary to provide a bend, it should
be gentle. The spillway control structure can be an overflow crest, or a gated orifice or
some other suitable control device. The control device is usually placed normal or
nearly normal to the axis of the chute. The simplest form of a chute spillway is an
open channel with straight centre line and constant width.

5. Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are located just upstream and to the side of the dam.
The water after flowing over a crest enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to
the crest. This is then carried by a chute to the downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel
may be used instead of a chute.

 It is similar to the chute spillway but the only difference between it and chute
spillway is that in a chute spillway, the water flows at right angles to the weir crest
after spilling over it whereas in a side channel spillway the flow of water is turned by
90 degrees such that it flows to the weir crest.
6. Shaft Spillway

This type of spillway utilizes a crest circular in plan, the flow over which is
carried by a vertical or sloping tunnel on to a horizontal tunnel nearly at the stream
bed level and eventually to the downstream side. The diversion tunnels constructed
during the dam construction can be used as the horizontal conduit in many cases.

Conclusion

There is no guarantee that spillways work in its full capacity without the risk of
failure, that’s why civil engineers are task do the comprehensive analysis and economical
design for that’s the pledge we offer to the clients.
References:

12
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Gates – a door, valve, or other device for controlling the passage especially of fluid.

Floodgates – a gate for shutting out, admitting, or releasing a body of water.

Figure 1. Tokyo floodgate created to protect from typhoon surges

PURPOSE

Floodgates are gates for shutting out or releasing the flow of water over spillways, in
connection with the operation of a dam.

Also called stop gates, are adjustable gates used to control water flow in flood barriers,
reservoir, river, stream, or levee systems.
TYPES AND APPLICATIONS:
 Hinged Crest Gates/Flap gates – permit the free flow of water from a pipe or
structure while preventing and sealing against backflow.
o Reservoirs
o Tidal basins
o Ponding basins
o Waste lines
o Pump stands
o Storm drain
systems
 Bulkhead gates - vertical walls with movable, or re-movable, sections. Movable
sections can be lifted to allow water to pass underneath (as in a sluice gate) and
over the top of the structure. Mainly used to isolate a waterway structure for
maintenance.
o Canals
o Repair of existing gates, valves, and channels
 Drum gates - are hollow gate sections that float on water. They are pinned to rotate
up or down. Water is allowed into or out of the flotation chamber to adjust the
dam's crest height.
o Dams
 Fusegates - a mechanism designed to provide the controlled release of water in the
event of exceptionally large floods. The design consists of free standing blocks (the
fusegates) set side by side on a flattened spillway sill; the Fusegate blocks act as a
fixed weir most of the time, but in excessive flood conditions they are designed to
topple forward, allowing the controlled discharge of water.
o Dams
 Tainter gates - also referred to as radial gates are primarily used as spillway (flood
control) gates due to their simplicity and efficient design.
o Dams
o Canal locks
 13
DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. GATE: In general, a device in which a leaf or member is moved across the waterway
from an external position to control or stop the flow.
2. FREEBOARD: The vertical distance from the water surface to the lowest elevation at
which water would flow over the dam at a section not designed to be overflowed.
3. HIGH FLOOD LEVEL: Flood stage is the level at which a body of water's surface has risen
to a sufficient level to cause sufficient inundation of areas that are not normally covered
by water, causing an inconvenience or a threat to life and property. 
4. FULL RESERVOIR LEVEL: It is the level corresponding to the storage which includes both
inactive and active storages and also the flood storage, if provided for. 
5. TAIL WATER LEVEL: refers to waters located immediately downstream from a hydraulic
structure, such as a dam (excluding minimum release such as for fish water), spillway,
bridge or culvert.
6. UPSTREAM: moving or situated in the opposite direction from that in which a stream or
river flows.
7. DOWNSTREAM: situated or moving in the direction in which a stream or river flows.

ACRONYMS

1. HFL – HIGH FLOOD LEVEL

2. U/S – UPSTREAM
3. D/S – DOWNSTREAM
4. FRL – FULL RESERVOIR LEVEL
5. TWL – TAIL WATER LEVEL
6. NIA – NATIONAL IRRIGATION ADMINISTRATION
 ABSTRACT

A gate is a movable barrier for controlling the passage of fluid through a channel or sluice. They
regulate the release of water for various purposes for which they are planned. There are other various
types of gates but for this paper we will focus on the design criteria of the most common ones. The
most commonly used gates are radial and vertical lift gates. A radial gate is a gate with curved
upstream plate and radial arms hinged to piers or other supporting structures. On the other hand,
vertical lift gates are raised and lowered vertically to open or close a spillway bay.

In designing vertical gates, it involves the design of the skin plate, vertical and horizontal stiffeners and
girder, wheels, seals and accessories, guide rollers, wheel track and track base, sill beam and
anchorages. The size of gate shall be specified as the clear width of opening & the vertical height
above crest/sill of gate unto the full reservoir level excluding freeboard.

The gate requirements are gates shall be water tight. Maximum permissible leakage should not be
more than 5 liters/min/m length of seal. Also, Gate shall be capable of being raised/lowered by hoist
at specified speed. Power operated gates shall normally be capable of operation by alternative means
in case of power supply failure. In addition, gate shall be capable of being held in position within range
of travel to pass required discharge without cavitation & undue vibration.

Designing of radial gate involves fixing the parameters and designing components. Fixing the
parameters are the location of sill, location of trunnion, top of gate, radius of gate and location of
hoist. In addition, designing components are the skin plate and stiffeners, horizontal girder, arms,
trunnion assembly, and load carrying anchorages.
SECTION 1.0 – INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION

Gate, in hydraulic engineering, is a movable barrier for controlling the passage of fluid through
a channel or sluice. Being vital components of dams, gates are installed on spillway to store water
and create reservoir behind them. They regulate the release of water for various purposes for
which they are planned. The spillway gates regulate and control the flood discharge. Outlet gates
control the release of water for irrigation.

1.2 GATES AND VALVES FOR SPILLWAYS AND OUTLET WORKS

Gates and valves for Spillways and Outlet Works shall be defined based on Classification
according to Pressure Head Rating and based on Category according to their functional use in the
structure.

1.3 PRESSURE HEAD RATING CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR GATES AND VALVES

Pressure head rating classification shall be defined and reckoned from the bottom sill to
maximum operating water surface level of the gates and valves and shall be classified as follows:

1. LOW PRESSURE HEAD- Pressure head below 15.0meters

2. INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE HEAD-Pressure head above 15.0 meters and below 30.0 meters

3. HIGH PRESSURE HEAD –Pressure head greater than 30.0 meters

1.4 GATES AND VALVES FUNCTIONAL USE CATEGORY

Operating Gates and Regulating Valves - shall be used to control and regulate the outlet works
flow and shall be designed to operate in any position from closed to fully open position.

Guard or Emergency Gates- shall be designed to be utilized only to effect closure in the event
of maintenance or failure of the operating gates or where de-watering is desired either to inspect the
conduit below the guard gate or to inspect and repair the operating gates.

Stop Logs / Bulk Head- shall be designed to be installed and provided at the Intake Tower
Inlets for Intermediate and high dams, High pressure conduits and/or Tunnel entrances so that the
conduit/tunnel can be temporarily closed off during an emergency period or during the construction
of closure structure or concrete plug of diversion tunnel.

Bypass Valves- shall be required to be designed and installed for balancing pressure between
Guard and Regulating gates or valves. It shall also be designed having a capacity to release, reduce
water level or empty/drain the water trapped in the space between the gates or valves at specified
duration.

1.5 LOCATION OF CONTROL GATES/VALVES AND STOPLOGS/BULKHEADS

Locations of steel gates and operation control system/facilities for OUTLET WORKS shall be governed
by the provisions of SECTION 11.4.0 - OUTLET WORKS CONTROL LOCATIONS of National Irrigation
Administration of the Philippines’ guidelines.

For gated/controlled spillways, the location of control Gates and Stoplogs shall be dictated by the
Hydraulic requirements, Structural considerations, Configurations, and setting of the Structure.

1.6 VARIOUS TYPES OF GATES

There are so many classifications for designating the types of gates. However, there are

two most commonly used.

COMMONLY USED TYPE OF GATE

RADIAL GATE VERTICAL LIFT GATES

 FIGURE 1.0 – COMMONLY USED TYPE OF GATE

1.6.1 RADIAL GATE

A radial (or tainter) gate acts similar to a section of a drum. Pressure is transferred from the
curved face through the horizontal support beams to the radial arms at the sides of the opening. The
arms act as columns and transfer thrust to a common bearing located on either side of the gate
opening.

FIGURE 1.1 – ILLUSTRATION OF RADIAL GATE

FIGURE 1.2 – DETAILED PARTS OF RADIAL GATE

FIGURE 1.3 – PICTURE OF RADIAL GATE

1.6.2 VERTICAL LIFT GATE

A vertical lift gate is raised and lowered vertically to open or close a spillway bay. It consists of
stiffened plates, such that water pressure on the stiffened plate is transmitted through horizontal
girders.

FIGURE 1.4 – ILLUSTRATION OF VERTICAL LIFT GATE

 FIGURE 1.5 – DETAILS OF VERTICAL LIFT GATE

FIGURE 1.5 – FIXED WHEEL GATE (TYPE OF VERTICAL GATE)

 FIGURE 1.6 – LESLIE HARRISON DAM

SECTION 2.0 – DESIGN CRITERION FOR VERTICAL LIFT GATE

Vertical Gates Involves the Design of:

 Skin Plate
 Vertical and Horizontal Stiffeners and Girder
 Wheels
 Seals and Accessories
 Guide Rollers
 Wheel track and track base
 Sill beam
 Anchorages
 FIGURE 2 – PARTS OF VERTCAL LIFT GATE 1

2.1 SKIN PLATE AND STIFFENERS

Skin plate and Stiffeners shall be designed together in composite manner. It shall be designed
in bending across the stiffeners or Horizontal girders as applicable. To take care of corrosion the actual
thickness of skin plate shall be provided at least 1.5 mm. The stiffeners may be of a built-up section or
of standard rolled section.
2.2 HORIZONTAL/VERTICAL STIFFENERS AND MAIN GIRDER

The Horizontal and Vertical Stiffeners shall be designed as simply supported or continuous
beam depending upon framing adopted for gate. The spacing between main horizontal girders shall be
preferably such that all the girders carry almost equal load. Maximum deflection of gate under normal
condition of loading shall be limited to 1/800 of the span.

FIGURE 2.1 – PARTS OF VERTCAL LIFT GATE 2

2.3 WHEELS 

The gate wheels shall be suitable to withstand the stresses developed due to
hydrostatics loads which they will carry.

FIGURE 2.2 – GATE GROOVE FOR WHEEL TRACK GUIDE ROLLER

2.4 WHEEL TRACK AND TRACK BASE 
 The wheel track shall provide a true and smooth machined surface for the wheels to roll and
transmit the loads through the wheels to track base.

FIGURE 2.3 – MAIN ROLLER

2.5 SEALS AND ACCESSORIES 

Seal shall be fixed by means of seal clamps so as to ensure a positive water pressure between
the seal and gate and to bear tightly on the seal seat to prevent leakage.

FIGURE 2.4 – SEALS AND ACCESSORIES

2.6 GUIDE ROLLERS 

Gate Guide Rollers shall be provided on the sides of the gates to limit the lateral motion of the
gate to not more than 6 mm in either direction. A minimum of two guide rollers should be provided on
each side of the gate to resist the transverse and lateral movement of the gate at same time to
prevent the gate for jamming.

2.7 SILL BEAM 

The minimum width of seal seat shall be 80 mm excluding the required chamfer. The
minimum thickness of the plate for low head gates be 6 mm and for medium and high head gate is 8
mm. The sill beam may be provided with the corrosion resistant steel flats welded or screwed with
corrosion resistant steel sheets. The surface of sill beam may be machined smooth.

FIGURE 2.5 – SILL BEAM

2.8 ANCHORAGES/ANCHOR PLATES 
 Anchorages shall be provided in first stage concrete, with suitable block out openings to hold
the embedded parts of second stage concrete. The minimum size of Anchor Bolts shall not be less
than 16 mm. and anchor plate thickness shall not be less than 8 mm.

FIGURE 2.6 – TOP VIEW OF LIFTING FIGURE 2.7 – FRONT VIEW OF LIFTING

BRACKET BRACKET
 FIGURE 2.8 – VIEW FROM THE TOP OF THE VERTICAL LIFT GATE

SECTION 3.0 - DESIGN CRITERION FOR RADIAL GATE

Size of gate shall be specified as the clear width of opening & the vertical height above
crest/sill of gate unto the full reservoir level excluding freeboard.

3.1 GENERAL
 Normally, radial gate has an upstream skin plate bent to an arc with convex surface of arc in the
upstream side.
 The center of arc is at the center of trunnion pin, about which the gate rotates.
 The skin plate is supported by suitably spaced stiffeners either horizontal or vertical.
 If vertical stiffeners are used, these are supported by suitably spaced horizontal girders which
are supported by radial arms.
 The arms transmit water load to the trunnion/anchor girder.
 Suitable seals are provided along curved ends of gate & along bottom.
 Guide rollers are also provided to limit sway of gate during raising/lowering.
 Total water thrusts on gate are transmitted through trunnion which
are fastened with anchor girder.
 Anchor girder transfers all loads to the pier through horizontal and vertical anchorages.
 FIGURE 3 – PARTS OF RADIAL GATE

3.2 GATE REQUIREMENTS

1. Gate shall be water tight
2. Maximum permissible leakage should not be more than 5 liters/min/m length of seal.
3. Gate shall be capable of being raised/lowered by hoist at specified speed.
4. Power operated gates shall normally be capable of operation by alternative means in case of
power supply failure.
5. Gate shall be capable of being held in position within range of travel to pass required discharge
without cavitation & undue vibration.

3.3 DESIGN OF GATE INVOLVES:

A. FIXING THE PARAMETERS
B. DESIGNING COMPONENTS
3.3.1 FIXING THE PARAMETERS
1. Location of sill
2. Location of trunnion
3. Top of gate
4. Radius of gate
5. Location of hoist

3.3.1.1 LOCATION OF SILL

The sill of gate shall preferably be located slightly downstream of crest   to avoid cavitation of

downstream glacis. In general practice, we provide 0.25 to 0.35 m below crest towards downstream.

3.3.1.2 LOCATION OF TRUNNION

It should be at least 1.5 m. Above water profile (under H.F.L. condition). Resultant hydraulic

thrust in gate position for F.R.L. condition lies as close to horizontal as possible. (1/3 height of gate)
not allowed in submerged condition. T.W.L. shall be below 1.0 m. none of any parts of civil structures
interfere while raising/lowering gate.

3.3.1.3 TOP OF GATE

For effects of wave, free board shall be provided above F.R.L. Normally, top of gate = F.R.L.
+0.3m.

3.3.1.4 RADIUS OF GATE

Radius of gate is the distance from center of trunnion pin to inside of skin plate. It should
be 1.0 to 1.25 of head of water. Large radius shall increase per dimension.

3.3.1.5 LOCATION OF HOIST

Hoist shall be so located that, as far as possible, hoisting force is applied to gate at largest
possible radius & hoisting angle does not change much during travel of gate.

3.3.2 DESIGNING COMPONENTS

1. Skin plate and Stiffeners
2. Horizontal Girder
3. Arms
4. Trunnion Assembly
a) Trunnion Hub
b) Trunnion Pin
c) Trunnion Bush
d) Trunnion Bracket
5. Load Carrying Anchorages – Anchor Girder

FIGURE 3.1 – MATERIALS FOR PARTS OF RADIAL GATE

 FIGURE 3.2 – VARIOUS PARTS OF RADIAL GATE

FIGURE 3.3 – CONNECTION BETWEEN ARM & ANCHOR GIRDER

 FIGURE 3.4 – CONNECTION BETWEEN ARM & HORIZONTAL ANCHORAGE

3.3.2.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

 Radial gate consists of skin plate supported by verticals which in turn rest on horizontal girder.
 The horizontal girders are mounted on end arms which transmit hydraulic pressure to anchor
ties (rods)through anchor girder.
 Anchor girder transmit the load to the pier through anchor ties. Thus, hydraulic pressure
resisted by skin plate is ultimately transmitted to pier concrete.

3.3.2.2 THE SKIN PLATE & STIFFENERS

The skin plate & stiffeners shall be designed together in a composite manner. The stiffeners
generally used are tees, angles or channels. The minimum thickness used is 8mm. To take care of
corrosion, the actual thickness of skin plate be provided at least 1.5 mm. more than thickness
required.

3.3.2.3 HORIZONTAL GIRDERS

Minimum nos. be used to simplify the fabrication, erection & maintenance of gates. Numbers
to be finalized by following criteria:
 Gate Height No. of Girders

Up to 8.0 m 2

8.0 to 12.5 m 3

Above 12.5 m. 4

May be spaced in vertical stiffeners at girder support are nearly equal. It should be suitably braced to
ensure rigidity. It shall be checked for shear at points where they are supported by arms.

3.3.2.4 Arms

The no. of pair of arms shall be equal to no. of horizontal girders. Arms may be straight or
inclined. For bigger span of gate, inclined arms are preferred. It should be designed as column for axial
load transmitted by horizontal girder. The arms are suitably braced in such way that l/r ratio of arm in
longitudinal &transverse direction is nearly equal. If there is diff. In H.F.L. & F.R.L., side shields on top
of gate leaf are provided to protect end arms against impact of water.

3.3.2.5 TRUNNION ASSEMBLY

It consists of trunnion hub, trunnion pin, trunnion bearing & trunnion bracket.
 Trunnion Hub - It shall rotate @ trunnion pin. Arms are rigidly connected to hub by welded or
bolted connection. It may be cast steel.
 Trunnion Pin - It shall normally be supported at both ends of trunnion bracket it shall be of cast
steel or forged steel with chrome plating.
 Trunnion bush - it should be of high tensile bronze.
Thickness of bush = .08 d + 3 mm., “d” is pin diameter. However, thickness of bushing is not
less than 12 mm.
 Trunnion bracket - it shall be rigidly fixed to anchor girder by bolts. It shall transfer total load
from trunnion to the anchorages. It shall be of cast steel.
 FIGURE 3.5 – TRUNNION ASSEMBLY

3.3.2.6 LOAD CARRYING ANCHORAGES AND ANCHOR GIRDER

It shall be designed to withstand the total water load on gate & transfer into piers. Generally,
common anchor girder system is used. It shall be designed for max. Load, when one gate is fully closed
& adjacent gate is in fully open position. Numbers of anchorages & root diameter of threaded end of
anchorages are worked out against total tensile load.
 FIGURE 3.6 – ANCHOR GIRDER AND ANCHORAGE

FIGURE 3.7 – TOP VIEW OF ANCHOR GIRDER

3.3.2.7 ADDITIONAL DESIGN CRITERIA

 The embedded length is worked out for bond stress requirement. However, minimum length of
anchorages shall be 2/3 of radius of gate.
 When trunnion is kept 1/3 height of gate, anchor girder is kept in horizontal position.
 If trunnion is kept above 1/3 height of gate, anchor girder is kept inclined at an angle “θ”, so as
to keep them parallel in direction of resultant load passing through trunnion.
 Very accurate design, fabrication & erection are required to be done as telescopic failure of all
the gates will takes place in case of failure of any one anchor girder.
 To avoid cracking of face concrete, they should be insulated to a minimum of 500 mm length
from the face concrete.
 14
IRRIGATION

WHAT IS IRRIGATION?

Irrigation is the process of applying water to the crops artificially to fulfil their water
requirements. Nutrients may also be provided to the crops through irrigation. The
various sources of water for irrigation are wells, ponds, lakes, canals, tube-wells, and
even dams. Irrigation offers moisture required for growth and development, germination,
and other related functions.

PURPOSE OF IRRIGATION

Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water onto cropland

To satisfying the water requirements necessary for growing crops.

To plays a key role in stabilizing food production in a number of countries by either

supplementing or replacing the need for natural precipitation for the purpose of food
production.

Irrigation is a key to the ability of many farmers, and even nations, to feed themselves
and provide an adequate standard of living. Irrigation not only protects against drought
but brings with it numerous other benefits as well as occasional problems.

TYPES OF IRRIGATION
There are different types of irrigation practiced for improving crop yield. These types of
irrigation systems are practiced based on the different types of soils, climates, crops and
resources. The main types of irrigation followed by farmers include:

SURFACE IRRIGATION

In this system, no irrigation pump is involved. Here, water is distributed across the land
by gravity.

LOCALIZED IRRIGATION

In this system, water is applied to each plant through a network of pipes under low
pressure.

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

Water is distributed from a central location by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or from

sprinklers from the moving platform.

DRIP IRRAGTION

In this type, drops of water are delivered near the roots of the plants. This type of
irrigation is rarely used as it requires more maintenance.

CENTRE PIVOT IRRIGATION

In this, the water is distributed by a sprinkler system moving in a circular pattern.

SUB IRRIGATION

Water is distributed through a system of pumping stations gates, ditches and canals by
raising the water table.

MANUAL IRRIGATION
This a labour intensive and time-consuming system of irrigation. Here, the water is
distributed through watering cans by manual labour.

APPLICATION OF IRRIGATION

• To controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals.

• To helps to grow agricultural crops

• To maintain landscapes and re-vegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and

during periods of less than average rainfall. 

15
Design Criterion of Irrigation System

Objectives:
 You will learn that designing an irrigation system means satisfying some criteria.
 You will understand that a design must follow some considerations.

Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed

intervals. Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall.
 The Philippines has about 10.3 million ha agricultural lands. Out of this, around 3.1
million ha are considered irrigable, with up to 3 percent slope, and primarily devoted to
rice and corn. A study by the World Bank, however, identified more than 6.1 M ha as
irrigable, including areas that are relatively more difficult to irrigate and up to 8 percent
slope. As of December 2015, about 1.731 million ha or 57.33 percent of the 3.1 million ha
have been developed for irrigation. Of the total area under irrigation, about 754,665 ha
are under NIS; 615,797 ha under CIS that are farmer-managed; and 187,766 ha under
privately owned systems that are constructed through private initiatives.

Proper system planning and design is essential to Irrigation Water Management (IWM)
and requires the thoughtful consideration of many elements. Selecting a system must
include the following major items: Management, water, soil, and crops.

1. Management – The irrigator and planner need to collaborate in order to develop the
best plan. The discussion of desired system type needs to include an understanding of
management, operation, and maintenance requirements.

2. Water – The source, whether surface or ground, and the quantity, quality, availability,
and flow rate, are needed to determine the type of system that is appropriate. Most
sources of ground water require power, no matter which type of system is planned.
With micro irrigation, a ground water source might only need an inline screen to clean
the water while a surface water source would require a sophisticated filtration
system. Some sources, due to high salinity (EC), may not be suitable for sprinkler
irrigation. A micro irrigation system works best with a constant source while a surface
system can operate on a longer interval between water applications. A surface system,
in turn, requires a relatively high flow for most efficient application, while sprinkler or
micro irrigation systems can function well at a lower rate of application.

3. Soil – Many soil qualities are important when planning an irrigation system. Soil texture
is a good indicator of water holding capacity (whc), permeability, and transmissivity.
Whc is particularly important when considering a surface system, due to intervals
between irrigations. Permeability plays a key role in surface system design, and to a
lesser extent, sprinklers. Transmissivity, the ability of water to move through the soil,
is important when considering a point source of irrigation, such as with drip emitters.
The water needs to be able to move into and through the root zone.
4. Crops – Selection of crops to be grown can be limited due to water quality and quantity.
High salinity (EC) can cause yield reduction and even crop failure, depending upon the
crop planted.

When building, modifying, maintaining, or operating any part of an irrigation system, one
must always consider the effect of that part on the entire system. The original design
must be kept in mind and the balance of flows and pressures must be maintained.

Three overall design criteria should be kept in mind:

Adequate availability of water. The water supply may be limited to some minimum

flow rate for year-round delivery. Wells may be fairly steady all year but surface water
supplies may fluctuate. Determine the limits on the water supply and size primary and
backup pumps to the available flow. Seasonal minimum flow rates will likely occur at
time of maximum demand.

Irrigation system capacity. An irrigation system frequently cannot cover everything at

one time and must be divided into zones that do not exceed the water supply available in
gallons per minute. An irrigation zone is the amount of the irrigation system that can be
operated at one time without exceeding the water available. The total number of zones
cannot exceed the daily water supply. An irrigation zone must be able to supply the water
needed by a mature crop on a hot, summer day.

Distribution Uniformity. Uniformity refers to the extent to which all plants in an

irrigation zone receive the same amount of water. Although perfect uniformity is an ideal
that cannot be achieved in practice, a high level of uniformity is desired so that the crop is
fairly uniform.

Examples of Irrigation System

1. Furrow Irrigation - is conducted by creating small parallel channels along the field
length in the direction of predominant slope. Water is applied to the top end of each
furrow and flows down the field under the influence of gravity.

2. Level Basin Irrigation - has historically been used in small areas having level
surfaces that are surrounded by earth banks. The water is applied rapidly to the
entire basin and is allowed to infiltrate.
3.
Graded Border Irrigation - are usually long, uniformly graded strips of land, separated
by earth bunds. In Contrast to basin irrigation these bunds are not to contain the

water for ponding but to guide it as it flows down the field.

 4. Wild Flood Irrigation - is when water is allowed to flow freely across farmland. It is
a relatively cheap form of irrigation, but uses water inefficiently and some areas get
more than others.

5. Drip Irrigation - is particularly suited to orchards or vineyards. Water lines along

each row have small holes at the site of each tree. This allows a continuous dripping
of water, which is very efficient and stops the soil from drying out.

Detailed Plan of an Irrigation System

 16
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
Objectives:

To know what is Water Supply System

To know the History of Water Supply System

To know what is Water Distribution System

Abstract:

The distribution system for water supply consists of a complex network of pipes,
reservoirs, and pumps that supply water to the consumers from the processing plant. Day
and season demand for water varies greatly. In comparison, supply is generally constant.
Consequently, the distribution system must include storage elements and must be
capable of flexible operation. Water pressures within the system are normally kept
between a maximum (about 70 m head) and a minimum (about 20 m head) value. This
guarantees that demand from the customer is met and that undue pressure does not
cause unreasonable leakage. In the design of the distribution system, the topography of
the region in demand plays a major role, particularly when ground levels vary greatly.
Several independent networks may be appropriate in this case to maintain pressure
limits. They are normally connected by booster pumps or pressurizing valves to increase
operational flexibility. This topic presents an introduction to water sources selection and
the identification of water requirements to develop appropriate ground or surface supply
sources.

Water Supply System

 Infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and distribution
of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry, and irrigation, as well as for
such public needs as firefighting and street flushing.

Historical Background

In the site of the earliest communities, water was an important factor and the
development of public water supply systems directly links to city development. The
excavation of shallow wells was probably the earliest innovation in the development of
water resources beyond their natural conditions in rivers, lakes and springs.

Ancient China

Brick lined wells have been constructed as early as 2500 BCE by city dwellers in
the basin of the Indus River and wells that are known to have been used in ancient China
almost 500 meters deep.

Ancient Persia

The qanât construction, slightly sloping tunnels driven into groundwater hillsides,
probably originated around 700 BCE from ancient Persia. Water was transported from
the hillsides through open streams to nearby towns or towns by gravitation. The
application of qanāts has spread across the region and some still exist. Until 1933,
Tehran, the capital of Iran, drew from a system of qanāts all of their water supplies.

Ancient Rome

A consequence of increasing urban populations was the need to channel water

sources from distant springs. The aqueducts constructed between 312 BCE and 455 CE in
the Roman Empire are among the oldest water transport systems. There are still some of
those amazing pieces. Details on the nature and construction of the 11 main aqueducts
supplying Rome itself can be found in the writings of the Sexus Julius Frontinus (who was
appointed superintendent of roman aqueducts in 97 CE). A traditional Roman aqueduct
included a series of underground and above-ground canals extending from a distant
spring-feed field, a lake or a river. The longest was Aqua Marcia was about 37 km (23
miles).

Water pumping

Many kinds of pumps are used in distribution systems. Well pumps lift water from
underground and discharge it directly into a distribution system. Most water distribution
pumps are of the centrifugal type, in which a rapidly rotating impeller adds energy to the
water and raises the pressure inside the pump casing. The flow rate through a centrifugal
pump depends on the pressure against which it operates. The higher the pressure, the
lower the flow or discharge

Is concerned with
 Lifting of water from source to storage
 Forcing water through water treatment facilities
 Forcing water through transmission and distribution systems

Water Storage

Distribution storage tanks, familiar sights in many communities, serve two basic

purposes: equalizing storage and emergency storage. Equalizing storage is the volume of
water needed to satisfy peak hourly demands in the community. Emergency storage
water in a distribution storage tank may also be needed for fighting fires, cleaning up
accidental spills of hazardous materials, or other community emergencies. The capacity
of a distribution storage tank is designed to be about equal to the average daily water
demand of the community.

Distribution storage tanks are built at ground level on hilltops higher than the service
area. In areas with flat topography, the tanks may be elevated aboveground on towers in
order to provide adequate water pressures, or ground-level storage tanks with booster
pumping may be provided.
 At source prior to transmission
 At the treatment plant
 In between the transmission and distribution systems
 Within the water distribution system

Water Treatment

Water in rivers or lakes, although not originally handled or washed, is rarely clean
enough for human consumption. Groundwater too often needs a degree of treatment to
make it drinkable. Water treatment is mainly concerned with protecting the community's
health. Potable water must, of course, be free of harmful microorganisms and chemicals.

It could be:
 Limited just to disinfection
 Conventional (suspended & colloidal solids removal, and disinfect)
 Advanced (softening/demineralization, and removal of heavy metals, fluorides,
organics, etc.)

Levels of Water Supply System in the Philippines

 Level I - Stand-alone water points (e.g. hand pumps, shallow wells, rainwater
collectors) serving an average of 15 households within a 250-meter distance
 Level II - Piped water with a communal water point (e.g. bore well, spring system)
serving an average of 4-6 households within a 25-meter distance
 Level III - Piped water supply with a private water point (e.g. house connection)
based on a daily water demand of more than 100 liters per person.

Water Distribution System

A network of pumps, pipelines, storage tanks and other facilities is a water

distribution system. It should generate adequate volumes of water at pressures necessary
to operate plumbing devices and firefighters, but it should not provide sufficiently high
pressures of water to increase leakage and pipeline pauses. In low-lying service areas,
pressure control valves may be mounted to decrease pressure levels.

 Pipelines

A water distribution pipeline must be able to resist internal and external forces, as
well as corrosion. Pipes are placed under stress by internal water pressure, by the weight
of the overlying soil, and by vehicles passing above.
 Materials

Of these the most commonly used materials for distribution pipes are made of
asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, plastic, reinforced concrete, or steel.
 Asbestos Cement
 Although not as strong as iron, asbestos cement, because of its corrosion resistance
and ease of installation, is a desirable material for secondary feeders up to 41 cm (16
inches) in diameter. Pipe sections are easily joined with a coupling sleeve and rubber-
ring gasket. 
 Cast iron 

It has an excellent record of service, with many installations still functioning after
100 years. 
 Ductile iron

Is a stronger and more elastic type of cast iron, is used in newer installations. Iron
pipes are provided in diameters up to 122 cm (48 inches) and are usually coated to
prevent corrosion. Underground sections are connected with bell-and-spigot joints, the
spigot end of one pipe section being pushed into the bell end of an adjacent section. A
rubber-ring gasket in the bell end is compressed when the two sections are joined,
creating a watertight, flexible connection. Flanged and bolted joints are used for
aboveground installations.
 Precast reinforced concrete 

This pipe sections up to 366 cm (12 feet) in diameter are used for arterial mains.
Reinforced concrete pipes are strong and durable. They are joined using a bell-and-
spigot-type connection that is sealed with cement mortar. 
 Steel pipe

Is sometimes used for arterial mains in aboveground installations. It is very strong

and lighter than concrete pipe, but it must be protected against corrosion with lining of
the interior and with painting and wrapping of the exterior. Sections of steel pipe are
joined by welding or with mechanical coupling devices.

Fittings

In ordesr to function properly, a water distribution system requires several types of

fittings, including hydrants, shutoff valves, and other appurtenances.

 Hydrants

The main purpose of hydrants is to provide water for firefighting. They also are
used for flushing water mains, pressure testing, water sampling, and washing rubbish off
public streets.
 Shutoff Valves

A shutdown valve is a valve which is actuated to stop a dangerous fluid from

flowing when a dangerous event is detected. This protects individuals, equipment or the
environment against potential damage. Shutdown valves are part of a safety equipment
Installation

Water mains must be placed roughly 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 feet) below the ground
surface in order to protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing. Since the water in
a distribution system is under pressure, pipelines can follow the shape of the land, uphill
as well as downhill. They must be installed with proper bedding and backfill. Compaction
of soil layers under the pipe (bedding) as well as above the pipe (backfill) is necessary to
provide proper support. A water main should never be installed in the same trench with a
sewer line. Where the two must cross, the water main should be placed above the sewer
line.

17
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

What is Municipal water?

- Municipal water is commonly known as Tap water. Municipal water is supplied to
household and industries using underground pipes in most developed countries. It is
processed and treated to meet drinking water standards, even though only a very small
proportion is consumed or used in food preparation.
- Municipal water comes from large wells, lakes, rivers, or reservoirs. Most cities and
towns process the water at treatment plants before the water is tested for EPA compliance
and is then piped to residential homes and industries.
- In the Philippines, LWUA is a government-owned and controlled corporation (GOCC)
with a specialized lending function mandated by law to promote and oversee the
development of water supply systems in provincial cities and municipalities outside of
Metropolitan Manila.
- LWUA is the only Philippine water supply institution with full expertise in developing
Level III (individual household connection) water supply systems. Its competence spans
the financial, technical, institutional development and regulatory aspects of water supply
development. It is also an expert in developing Level I (communal well) and Level II
(communal faucet) systems. This expertise is often availed of by other government
institutions involved in the development of these water supply systems.
 - The purpose of municipal water delivery systems is to transport potable water from a
water treatment facility to residential consumers, for use as drinking water, water for
cooking, water for sanitary conditions, and other water use in a domestic environment.

Municipal Water Consumption

- Water consumption in a community is characterized by several types of demand,
including domestic, public, commercial, and industrial uses. Domestic demand includes
water for drinking, cooking, washing, laundering, and other household functions. Public
demand includes water for fire protection, street cleaning, and use in schools and other
public buildings.
- In any community, water demand varies on a seasonal, daily, and hourly basis. On a hot
summer day, for example, it is not unusual for total water consumption to be as much as
200 percent of the average demand. The peak demands in residential areas usually occur
in the morning and early evening hours (just before and after the normal workday).
- Water demands in commercial and industrial districts, though, are usually uniform during
the work day. Minimum water demands typically occur in the very early or predawn
morning hours.
- Civil and environmental engineers must carefully study each community’s water use
patterns in order to design efficient pumping and distribution systems.
- Estimates vary, but, on average, each person uses about 80-100 gallons of water per day,
for indoor home uses.

-
Water Treatment

- Water in rivers o lakes is rarely clean enough for human consumption if it is not first
treated or purified. Groundwater too, often needs some level of treatment to render it
potable. The primary objective of water treatment is to protect the health of the
community.
- Potable water must, of course, be free of harmful microorganisms and chemicals, but
public supplies should also be aesthetically desirable so that consumers will not be
tempted to use water from another, more attractive but unprotected source.
- The type and extent of treatment required to obtain potable water depends on the quality
of the source. The better the quality, the less treatment is needed.
 18
Industrial Water Supply System
Objectives:
 To learn what is Industrial Water
 To know the uses of Industrial Water
 To recognize the process on how to reuse water during the production pf products

Industrial Water
 Water is essential to most industries. It was used for a variety of purposes, such as cleaning or
dissolving substances. The amount of water a country needs for industrial purposes varies widely.
Manufacturing and other industries use water during the production process for creating their
products or cooling equipment used in creating their product.

According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), industrial water is used for:
 Fabricating
 Processing
 Washing
 Diluting
 Cooling
 Transporting
 Smelting Facilities
 Petroleum Refineries
 Producing Products

Water is also used by:

Smelting Facilities

Producing Chemical Products

 Producing Food

Producing Paper Products

Even though the industrial sector consumes less water than agriculture and domestic users, it
has high potential as it releases complex pollutants. Hence, it is easy to impose laws and take action
against defaulters compared to many local bodies that are managed officers of the government itself.
 Reuse to maximum extent. Instead of keeping water in a closed loop system, it is often
used in a linear system.

Closed-loop system
 Linear system

 Use treatment options that require large quantities of chemicals and energy only if
low chemical-/energy-use options are not available. Options requiring large quantities
of chemicals or large amounts of energy are often recommended by consultants or
suppliers to increase their profit. Construction costs are often increased by unnecessary
use of steel and cement.
 Avoid water wherever possible. Avoiding water is a major principle adopted by many
industries. Water cooling is being replaced by air cooling in thermal power plants,
cement plants and other industries.
 Segregate wastewater with different characteristics. Mixing of organic wastes with
inorganic wastes will lead to the inhibition of microbial activity during the treatment
process.
 Minimize the carbon footprint. Components that are responsible for a high carbon
footprint during construction are overdesigning and the use of large quantities of
cement and metal. Components that are responsible for a high carbon footprint during
operation are electro mechanic devices such as pumps, scrapers, aerators and heaters.

 Research and design the manufacturing unit to attain sustainability. If a manufacturing

unit is not designed in the initial stage of the project to attain environmental
 sustainability, its incorporation in the latter stage of the life of a manufacturing unit
would be costly and may not be feasible.
 Investment in human resources. Most industries do not plan human-resource
investments well. As a result of a poorly trained and unknowledgeable workforce, many
countries have ended up paying in terms of environmental degradation.

Industries with High Dissolved Solids

Industrial wastewater can be classified based on biodegradability and dissolved solids.

Industrial wastewater classification

Industries with Low Dissolved Solids

Industries with low dissolved solids will have an advantage in that most of the pollutants can
be removed by physical operations.
 Different wastewater types should not be mixed because of the difficulty of purifying the total
wastewater output.

Basic Scheme of Water Supply for Industry