SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

METHOD
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RIOT 7119

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 COURSE CONTENT
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 Chapter 1: Introduction to Research

 Chapter 2: Literature Review
 Chapter 3: Building a Research Scaffold
 Chapter 4: Sampling, Data Collection and Analysis
 Chapter 5: Writing, Presentation, Publication and
Appraisal

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Sampling, Data Collection and
Analysis
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CHAPTER FOUR

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 Sampling
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 Sampling
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 Sampling is indispensable technique of the research. The

research work cannot be undertaken without use of
sampling.
 The study of the total population is not possible and it
is also impracticable.
 The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors
which are usually operative in the situation, stand in the
way of studying the total population.
 The concept of sampling has been introduced with a
view to making the research findings economical and
accurate.

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 Sampling
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Population
 Population or universe means, the entire mass of
observations, which is the parent group from which a
sample is to be formed.
 The term ‘population’ or universe conveys a different
meaning than a traditional one. In census survey, the
count of individuals (men, women and children) is
known as population.
 But in research methodology population means the
characteristics of a specific group.

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 Sampling
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 Population and Sample

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 Sampling
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Advantages of Sampling Technique

 It has a greater adaptability.
 It is an economical technique.
 It has a greater precision and accuracy in the
observation.
 It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
 It has a greater scope in the field of research.
 It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

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 Sampling
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 Characteristics of a Good Sample

 A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.
 The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe.
 A good sample is also economical from energy, time and
money point of view.
 A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature
of a sample is closely linked with true-representativeness.
 A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate
estimates or statistics and does not involve errors.

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 Sampling
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 Characteristics of a Good Sample

 A good sample is free from bias
 A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity
in
selecting procedure
 The subjects of good sample are easily approachable.
 The size of good sample is such that it yields an
accurate results. The probability of error can be
estimated.
 A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
 A good sample has the practicability for research
situation

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 Sampling
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 Types of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling
1. Method of sampling which gives the probability that
our sample is representative of population.
2. Non-probability Sampling
1. If there is no such idea of probability then the method
of sampling is known as non- probability sampling.
2. Non-probability is also known as non-parametric
sampling which are used for certain purpose

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 Sampling
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 Types of Sampling

Sampling

Probability Non-
Sampling probability
Sampling
Simple Multi-
Random Systematic Stratified Cluster stage

Accidental Purposive Quota Judgment

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 Probability Sampling
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 Simple Random Sampling

 A simple random sample is one in which each element of
the population has an equal and independent chance of
being included in the sample
 It is done by using a number of techniques as :

 Tossing a coin
 Throwing a dice
 Lottery method
 Blind folded method
 By using random table.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Probability Sampling
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 Simple Random Sampling

 Advantages
 It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
 It is free from subjectivity and free from personal
error.
 It provides appropriate data for our purpose

 Disadvantages
 The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured;
 it does not use the knowledge about the population.
 The accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of
the sample.
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 Probability Sampling
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 Systematic Sampling
 Systematic sampling requires the complete information
about the population.
 Now we decide the size of the sample.

 Let sample size = n and population size = N

 Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and
thus we have the desired size of sample which is known
as systematic sample.
 Thus for this technique of sampling population should be
arranged in any systematic way

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 Probability Sampling
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 Probability Sampling
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 Systematic Sampling
 Advantages
 A simple method of selecting a sample.
 It reduces the field cost.
 Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
 Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions
and generalizations.
 Disadvantages
 This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different
ways of systematic list by different individuals.
 Information of each individual is essential.
 There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the
sample

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 Probability Sampling
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 Stratified Sampling
 The researcher divides his population in strata on the
basis of some characteristics and from each of these
smaller homogeneous groups (strata) draws at random a
predetermined number of units.
 Types of Stratified Sampling
 Disproportionate stratified sampling.
 Proportionate stratified sampling.

 Optimum allocation stratified sampling.

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 Probability Sampling
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 Probability Sampling
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 Stratified Sampling
 Advantages
 It is a good representative of the population.
 It is an objective method of sampling
 Disadvantages
 It is difficult to decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
 Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it generally
seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification.
 It is costly and time consuming method.
 Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used
criterion but not for the other.
 There is a risk in generalization.

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 Probability Sampling
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 Cluster Sampling
 To select the intact group as a whole is known as
a Cluster sampling.
 In Cluster sampling the sample units contain
groups of elements (clusters) instead of
individual members or items in the population.

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 Probability Sampling
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 Cluster
Random
Sampling

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 Probability Sampling
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 Cluster Random Sampling

 Advantages
 It may be a good representative of the population.
 It is an easy and economical method.

 It is practicable and highly applicable in education.

 Disadvantages
 Cluster sampling is not free from error.
 It is not comprehensive.

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 Probability Sampling
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 Multi-Stage Sampling
 This sample is more comprehensive and representative
of the population.
 Primary sample units are inclusive groups and
secondary units are subgroups within these ultimate
units to be selected which belong to one and only one
group.
 Stages of a population are usually available within a
group or population, whenever stratification is done by
the researcher.
 The Individuals are selected from different stages for
constituting the multi-stage sampling.

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 Probability Sampling
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 Multi-stage
Sampling

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 Probability Sampling
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 Multi-stage Sampling
 Advantages
 It is a good representative of the population
 Multi-stage sampling is an improvement over the earlier
methods.
 It is an objective procedure of sampling

 Disadvantages
 It is a difficult and complex method of samplings.

 It involves errors when we consider the primary and

secondary stages.
 It is again a subjective phenomenon

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Non-probability Sampling
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 Characteristics of Non-probability Sampling

1. There is no idea of population in non-probability
sampling.
2. There is no probability of selecting any individual
3. Non-probability sample has free distribution.
4. The observations of non-probability sample are
not used for generalization purpose.
5. There is no risk for drawing conclusions.

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 Non-probability Sampling
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 Accidental Sampling
 The term incidental or accidental applied to
those samples that are taken because they are
most frequently available,
 This refers to groups which are used as samples
of a population because they are readily available
or because the researcher is unable to employ
more acceptable sampling
methods.

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 Non-probability Sampling
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 Accidental Sampling
 Advantages
 It is very easy method of sampling.
 It reduces the time, money and energy

 Disadvantages
 It is not a representative of the population.
 It is not free from error.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Non-probability Sampling
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 Judgment Sampling
 This involves the selection of a group from the
population on the basis of available information
thought
 It is to be representative of the total population.

 Generally investigator should take the judgment

sample so this sampling is highly risky.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Non-probability Sampling
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 Judgment Sampling
 Advantages
 Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this
technique of sampling.
 This technique of sampling is also economical.

 Disadvantages
 This technique is objective.
 It is not free from error
 It includes uncontrolled variation.
 Generalization is not possible.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Non-probability Sampling
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 Purposive Sampling
 Sample is selected by some arbitrary method because
it is known to be representative of the total
population, or it is known that it will produce well
matched groups.
 The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to some
criterion, which are considered important for the
particular study.
 This method is appropriate when the study places
special emphasis upon the control of certain specific
variables

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 Non-probability Sampling
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 Kinds of Purposive Sampling

 Snowball Sampling- Begin by identifying someone who
meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. Then ask
respondent to recommend others who they may know who also
meet the criteria
 Modal Sampling -Sampling the most frequent case such as
polls
 Expert Sampling- sample of persons with known or
demonstrable experience and expertise in some area
 Heterogeneity Sampling- when we want to include all
opinions or views, and we are not concerned about
representing these views proportionately

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 Non-probability Sampling
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 Purposive Sampling
 Advantages
 Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample
subjects.
 Better control of significant variables.
 Sample groups data can be easily matched.
 Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
 Disadvantages
 Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
 Knowledge of population is essential.
 Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
 Inability to make generalization concerning total
population.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Non-probability Sampling
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 Quota Sampling
 This combined both judgment sampling and probability
sampling.
 The population is classified into several categories: on the
basis of judgment or assumption or the previous
knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each
category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be
drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he
likes.
 Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in
municipal surveys.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Non-probability Sampling
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 Quota Sampling
 Advantages
 It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
 It is an easy sampling technique.
 It is most frequently used in social surveys.

 Disadvantages
 It is not a representative sample.
 It is not free from error.
 It has the influence of regional geographical and social
factors.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Sample Size
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How big should your sample be?

 Rule of Thumb: The bigger the better

 As n(sample) approaches N(population), the

Confidence Interval approaches to zero

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 Sample Size
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 In addition to the purpose of the study and

population size, the following three criteria usually
need to be specified to determine the appropriate
sample size:
1. the level of precision,

2. the level of confidence or risk, and

3. the degree of variability in the attributes being

measured

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 Sample Size
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 The Level of Precision

 The level of precision, sometimes called sampling
error, is the range in which the true value of the
population is estimated to be.
 This range is often expressed in percentage points (e.g.,
±5 percent). Thus, if a researcher finds that 60% of
engineers in the sample have experience in industries
with a precision rate of ±5%, then he or she can
conclude that between 55% and 65% of the engineers in
the population have the practice.

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Sample Size
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 Sample Size
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 The Confidence Level

 The confidence or risk level is based on ideas
encompassed under the Central Limit Theorem.
 In a normal distribution, approximately 95% of the sample
values are within two standard deviations of the true
population value (e.g., mean).
 In other words, this means that if a 95% confidence
level is selected,
 95 out of 100 samples will have the true population value
within the range of precision specified earlier.
 There is always a chance that the sample you obtain
does not represent the true population value
 This risk is reduced for 99% confidence levels and increased
for 90% (or lower) confidence levels.

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 Sample Size
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 Sample Size
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 Degree of Variability
 The third criterion, the degree of variability in the attributes which
refers to the distribution of attributes in the population.
 The more heterogeneous a population, the larger the sample
size required to obtain a given level of precision. The less variable
(more homogeneous) a population, the smaller the sample size.
 Note that a proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of variability
than either 20% or 80%.
 This is because 20% and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or
do, respectively, have the attribute of interest. Because a proportion of
0.5 indicates the maximum variability in a population, it is often used
in determining a more conservative sample size, that is, the sample
size may be larger than if the true variability of the population
attribute were used.

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 Sample Size
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 Sample size for infinite population, where the

population is grater than 50,000

Z 2 * p * 1  p 
SS 
C2
SS  sample size
Z  Z value( 1.96 for a 95% confidence level
P  percentage of population picking a choice, decimal
C  confidence interval in decimal(0.04)
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 Sample Size
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 A Z-values represent the probability that a sample

will fall within a certain distribution.
 The Z-values for confidence levels are:
 1.645 = 90% confidence level
 1.96 = 95% confidence level
 2.576 = 99% confidence level

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 Sample Size
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 Sample size – finite population where the population

is less than 50,000

SS
New SS 
  SS  1  
1   
  N 
SS  sample size
N  population
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 Sample Size
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 Example
 Find the sample size for a total student population
5600. Use 95% confidence level, population
percentage of 60% and a confidence interval of 4%.

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 Sample Size
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 49

Sample Size

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 Sample Size
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 Assignment
 Review some of the formulas in determining the
sample size out of population.
 Try looking for the book “Determining Sample Size”
by Patrick Dattalo

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 Data Collection
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 Data is a collection of facts, such as values or

measurements.
 It can be numbers, words, measurements,
observations or even just descriptions of things.

 Data can be qualitative or quantitative.

 Qualitative data is descriptive information (it
describes something)
 Quantitative data, is numerical information
(numbers).

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 Data Collection
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 Quantitative data can also be Discrete or

Continuous:
 Discrete data can only take certain values (like
whole numbers)
 Continuous data can take any value (within a
range)

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 Data Collection
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 With your eyes and ears you get data or information

and with these data you can answer your questions
and support or not the claims you made at the
beginning of your research.
 When data are used in support of a proposition in
this way they become evidence.

“Evidence is very important in research”

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 Data Collection
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 Types of Data
1. Primary Data : Are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time and this happen to be
original in character
2. Secondary Data: Are those which have been
collected

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 Data Collection
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 Collection of Primary Data:

 There are several methods of collecting primary
data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
research.
 In descriptive research, we obtain primary data
either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form
or another or through personal interviews

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 Data Collection
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 Collection of Primary Data in Structural Engineering

 In experimental research, data comes from
laboratory experiment. In most cases, data in
structural engineering is quantitative in nature
 In theoretical/numerical research, data comes from
results of structural software where numerical
validation is a must to make it sure that the modeling
used is accpetable

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 Data Collection
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 Collection of Secondary Data

 These are already available i.e. they refer to the
data which have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else.
 Secondary data may either be published or
unpublished data. Researcher must be very careful
in using secondary data, because the data available
may be sometimes unsuitable

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Precautions in Data Collection

 The data must be relevant to the research problem.
 The data should be complete in itself and also
comprehensive in nature.
 The data should have minimum measurement
error.
 The data should be such as these can be subjected
to statistical treatment easily

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Precautions in Data Collection

 The data should be collected through objective
procedure.
 The data should be accurate and precise.
 The data should be reliable and valid.
 The data should be such that these can be
presented and interpreted easily.
 It should be collected through formal or
standardized research tools.

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 A scientific researches require the data by means

of some standardized research tools or self-
designed instrument.
 A great variety of research tools are of many
kinds and employs distinctive ways of describing
and qualifying the data.
 Questionnaires / checklist / observation format
are one of the most frequently used self-designed
research tools in basic and/or applied research

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 Data Collection
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 Data Collection for primary and secondary data
Option What might it include?
Retrieving existing Structural codes; numerical
documents and analysis results, structural
data programs
Collecting data Interviews of individual or focus
from individual or group; Questionnaires or surveys
group thru email, face to face , mobile
data
Observation Structural problems on
buildings, method of
construction
Physical Building structural check;
Measurement experimental results on
structural materials
Engr. Elmer C. Agon
Example
Literature of
experimental results
based on structural aspect
Interview with structural
engineers and other
stakeholders on certain
topic.
Building analysis on
performance and
maintenance
Structural failure such as
cracks, , deflection, fire
hazard and others
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 Steps in designing questionnaires/interviews

1. Content: Use the objectives and variables as a
staring point

2. Formulating Question: Compose one or more

questions that will provide the information needed
for each variable. Question should be specific,
measure one thing at a time and not be leading

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3. Sequencing question
 Design the question to be informant friendly
 Follow logical sequence
 Start with an interesting but no-controversial question
 Pose more sensitive question as late as possible in the
interview

4. Formatting the questionnaire

 Introductory page
 Heading and sub-heading
 Space for responses

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5. Translation:
 There should be translation in cases where language is a
problem
6. Ethical Considerations
 Obtaining informed consent before the study or the
interview begins
 Ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained

 Leaning enough about the culture of informants to ensure

it is respected during the data collection process

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7. Pre-test : it refers to a small-scale trial of a

particular research components
 Data collection tools

 Availability and willingness of respondents

 Sampling procedure

 Procedures for data processing and analysis

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 Two Question Rules

 Bear in mind these rules when drafting your

questionnaires
1. Keep it short using conversation language
2. Ask only one piece of information per question

Ex. Good: What is the cause of building failure?

Not so good: What is the cause of building failure
and its probable solution?

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 Kinds of questions
1. Open Question
Gives free rein to the respondents to say what they
want
2. Closed Question
It has to be answered with one of the alternatives
that the questionnaire asked for. These are
common in questionnaires and there is a range of
ways of providing the closeness of the answer

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 Closed Question
 Yes/No Question
 From these questions , it is clear that answer should be
yes or no only
 Multiple Choice Question
 In this type, there are two or more answers and respondents are told
either to tick one or as many as they like
 Rank Order Question
 Respondents have to put items in order: best to worst;
most important to least important and others

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 Closed Question
 Rating Scale Question
 The respondent will rate something (an experience, attitude,
attribute, etc.) along a continuum.

For example: If you engaged in construction industries, how
influential do you find these factors?
Super Very Good Not much Useless
much use
Quality
Cost
Time
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 The Likert Scale

 It named after the psychologist Rensis Likert and can be used
in any situation where belief or attitude is being measured
 You will be asked for agreement or disagreement with a
statement that you provide.
Strongly Agreed Neutral Disagreed Strongly
Agreed Disagreed

The new ES EN code

is far better than the
old code
Dynamic analysis is
better than static
analysis

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 Stages in data collection process

1. Permission to proceed
1. Obtaining consent from relevant authorities individuals
and community in which the project is to be carried out

2. Data handling
1. Coding number questionnaires/samples/measurement
2. Identify the person responsible for storing data and the place
where it will be stored

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 Stages in data collection process

3. Data Collection
 Logistics
 Who will collect data
 When and
 With what resources
 Quality Control
 Prepare a fieldwork manual
 Select and train your research assistants
 Supervise the collection
 Check for completeness and accuracy

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 Questionnaire Online

 Try to log in to www.surveymonkey.com for more

helpful services in constructing your questionnaires

Engr. Elmer C. Agon

 Data Processing and Analysis
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 The processing of data and further analysis

may be break up into three stages:
1. data management,
2. explanatory data analysis and
3. statistical analysis (testing and modeling)

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 Data Processing and Analysis
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 Before proceeding for statistical analysis,

researcher must consider the following raised
points:
 Understand the process involved in data processing.
 Use computers to perform data processing.

 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.

 Understand probabilities and their applications.

 Interpret summary statistics, graphical presentation and

contingency tables.

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 Before proceeding for statistical analysis,

researcher must consider the following raised
points: Conti….
 Carry out exploratory data analysis.
 Understand the process involved in estimations and
hypothesis testing.
 Interpret the functions of confidence intervals and p-
values.
 Understand statements in published articles relating to
statistics.
 Use computers to perform some statistical analysis

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 How to analyze data?

 The methods you use to analyze your data will

depend on whether you have chosen to conduct
qualitative (words) or quantitative (numbers)
research, and this choice will be influenced by
 personal preference,

 methodological preference and

 educational background.

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 Good data management includes developing

effective processes for:
 consistently collecting and recording data,
 storing data securely,

 cleaning data,

 transferring data (e.g., between different types of

software used for analysis),
 effectively presenting data and

 making data accessible for verification and use by

others
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 Stages of Data Processing

 Sorting data
 Into groups of different study populations or
comparison groups
 Quality control checks
 Check again for completeness and internal consistency

 Missing data

 Inconsistency - correct, return or exclude

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 Aspects of data quality

 Validity: Data measure what they are intended to measure.

 Reliability: Data are measured and collected consistently

according to standard definitions and methodologies; the
results are the same when measurements are repeated.
 Completeness: All data elements are included as per the
definitions and methodologies specified
 Precision: Data have sufficient detail.

 Integrity: Data are protected from deliberate bias or

manipulation for political or personal reasons.
 Timeliness: Data are up to date (current) and information is
available on time

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 Data processing
 Categorizing the data

 Coding, and data entry

 In a proposal-dummy table which contains all elements

of
a real table, except that the cells are still empty
 Data analysis
 Frequency counts

 Cross-tabulations

 And others

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Key purposes of combining data sources

 Enriching
 Using qualitative data to identify issues or obtain information about
variables that cannot be obtained by quantitative approaches
 Examining
 Generating hypotheses from qualitative data to be tested through the
quantitative data such as identifying subgroups that should be
analyzed separately in the quantitative data,
 Explaining
 Using qualitative data to understand unanticipated results from
quantitative data
 Triangulating (confirming or rejecting)
 Verifying or rejecting results from quantitative data using qualitative
data (or vice versa)

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How to analyze quantitative data?

 For quantitative data analysis, issues of validity and
reliability are important.
 The analysis of large-scale surveys is best done with
the use of statistical software, although simple
frequency counts can be undertaken manually.

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How to analyze quantitative data?

1. Eyeballing
Eyeballing just means looking at your numbers to
see what they tell you:
 What do they seem to say?
 Are they going up or down?
 Are they all around one point?
 Are there any that seem not to fit with the others?

Sometimes: we should rely on our common sense as well as the

statistics to tell us what a range of numbers may be saying.

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How to analyze quantitative data?

2. Presenting
 Do remember your readers and that you:
 need to make things intelligible for them, and
 demonstrate to them that you can think
intelligently about numbers and how they can
best be presented.
 Tables and chart can do to presents quantitative
data. Choose the one that best explain these
numbers
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How to analyze quantitative data?

 These statistics described here are called
descriptive statistics (because they describe) but
there are of course others that have different
purposes.
 If you are using these statistics you will probably
need to use SPSS rather than Excel. SPSS
(Software Package used for Statistical Analysis)

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 Options on analyzing numeric data

 Correlation: a statistical technique to determine how strongly
two or more variables are related.
 Cross-tabulations: obtaining an indication of the frequency of
two variables occurring at the same time.
 Data and text mining: computer-driven automated techniques
that run through large amounts of text or data to find new
patterns and information.
 Exploratory techniques: taking a ‘first look’ at a data set by
summarizing its main characteristics, often through the use of
visual methods.
 Frequency tables: arranging collected data values in
ascending order of magnitude, along with their corresponding
frequencies, to ensure a clearer picture of a data set.

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 Options on analyzing numeric data

 Measures of central tendency: a summary measure that
attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single
value that represents the middle or centre of its
distribution.
 Multivariate descriptive: providing simple summaries of
(large amounts of) information (or data) with two or
more related variables.
 Non-parametric inferential: data that are flexible and do
not follow a normal distribution.
 Parametric inferential: carried out on data that follow
certain parameters.

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 Options on analyzing numeric data

 In Structural Engineering, presenting data is a bit
different from others where data cab be generated
through structural software.
 In case on experimental research, data are generated
depending on the compared parameters and the
results of laboratory experiments

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How to analyze quantitative data?

3. Explaining
 The next thing to remember with numbers is that the
numbers and the statistics used to analyze them
serve
no function in themselves.
 They help you to analyze, but this analysis exists in
order for you to explain, discuss and communicate
your findings.
 So, remember that when you present an analysis
using numbers, you will need to explain with words.
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 How to analyze qualitative data?

 Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process.
Ask two researchers to analyze a transcript and
they will probably come up with very different
results.
 Examples of qualitative data analysis include
 Content analysis
 Thematic analysis,

 Narrative analysis,

 Timeline

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 Content analysis: reducing large amounts of

unstructured textual content into manageable data
relevant to the research questions.
 Thematic coding: recording or identifying passages
of text or images linked by a common theme or idea,
allowing the indexation of text into categories.
 Narratives: construction of coherent narratives of the
changes occurring for an individual, a community, a
site or a program or policy.
 Timelines: a list of key events, ordered
chronologically.

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 Data analysis approaches for causal attribution

 Counterfactual approaches
 Developing an estimate of what would have happened in the
absence of the program or policy; this implies the use of a
control group or comparison group.
 Consistency of evidence with causal relationship
 Identifying patterns that would be consistent with a causal
relationship, and then seeking confirming and disconfirming
evidence.
 Ruling out alternatives
 Identifying possible alternative causal explanations, and then
seeking information to determine if these can be ruled out.

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 Ethical issue on data collection and analysis

 During the data collection stage, respondents were
assured that all data were provided confidentially and
would be used exclusively for evaluation purposes
 During the focus group discussions, the names of the
participants were not recorded nor were the sessions
taped
 During the interviews, the interactions among the
participants themselves as well as between the
participants and the evaluators were based on mutual
respect and trust.

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 Ethical issue on data collection and analysis

The same evaluation also provides good examples of
safeguards to ensure the confidentiality of data:
 During data processing, no precise references were
made to particular respondents or to statements
made by respondents
 Data from the questionnaires were statistically
processed and the qualitative data reviewed as a
whole, in the absence of any personal information.

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End of Chapter
Four

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