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    Learning and Teaching

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    Learning and Teaching

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    x ae. ‘ eeds, Drives end Incentives . — Trait cum Type Approach - - Psycho-znz!ytic Approach umanisid Approach ee of Cloth? ce Quotient : 285 rning and Teaching 267 rosessing Theory of Intelligence 268 ory ef Multiple Intelligence 270 277 278 279 280 281 282 284 285 286 287 290 290 292 293 ¢ Learners and Teachers 294 294 es for Motivating the Students 299 .g. Strengthening and Sustaining Motivation 302 304 304 308 309 311 315: 316° 320 323 18. Adjustment — Meaning, Nature and Methods 324 and Definittons of Adjustment Adjustment as Achiewement or Process Areas of Spheres of Adjustment - Personal Adjustment = Sociel Adjustment - Occupational Adjustment Chsracteristics of a Well Adjusted Person Methods of Adjustment - Direct Methods — — Indirect Methods Referencts and Suggested Readings Study Questions > 324 of Adjustment—In the Context of Teaching and Learning 325 326 327 327 329 2 333 334 337 343 Scanned with CamScanner oe BELL LLL LE EOL Lee CL eC CLE Le Pe Ce eee eee Lee eer ere See eee eee eee ee ee ee eee oer 1 Learning and Teaching — Nature and Relationship CONCEPT OF TEACHING The general notion, popular opinion and the image which we form about an object, people or idea is termed as our concept about them. It is the result of our experiences direct and indirect which we: happen to gain about objects, people or ideas. The same is true also for the concept of teaching. By the term concept of teaching we mean all that which we know or ought to know about teaching in terms of its meaning, nature, and characteristics and all that which can distinguish it from the othersimilar concepts and activities, Looking in this way, if we intend to know thoroughly about the concept of teaching we have to look it from the various angles like below: © Understanding its meaning and defining it. Knowing about the nature and characteristics of teaching. Comparing teaching with other similar cencepts. i Knowing about the relationship of teaching and learning. Discussing about the analytical concept of teaching. Understanding teaching in term of its variables. eoeee Meaning and Definitions of the Term Teaching Teaching in its simple meaning is referred to either as occupation or profession of a community known.as teacher or an activity or activities of a group undertaken to help an individual to lea or acquire some knowledge, skills, attitudes or interests, etc. However, the meaning and concept of teaching is not.so simple as interpreted above. It is a quite complex-social, cultural and ethical process designed in a social or cultural context. By all means and in any shape, it is always designed in.a social context and therefore related with the,social structures, cultural environment, values and ideals of the people, society and -the government. All these factors always stand for dynamicity and therefore, the meaning and definitions of teaching have always been in a state of change depending upon the need of lace and society. It has resulted into various definitions of the term ! , teaching. Some of such definitions are reproduced below. Cod Scanned with CamScanner Learning and Teaching — Nature and Relationship 3 learn something. Teaching may be carried out in the absence of a teacher A book, nature, teaching machine, tape recorder, etc. may play a role of teacher, The important thing is the role of a system of actions or activities. If it results in some or other types of learning then this system may be termed as teaching. The weakest point of the above definition lies in the fact that it does not mention all the elements of the teaching process, namely, the teacher, taught and the subject matter. To do away with the above weakness. Smith tried to elaborate his earlier definition, in 1963, by considering teaching as a tripolar process involving: (i an agent (the source, human or material that tries to produce Jearning), (ii) a goal or target that is to be achieved through the process of teaching, and + (iii) the intervening variable consisting of learning or teaching situation or environment. It may involve physical or human material, conditions and instructional methods. | | ! The definition given by Gage (1962) takes teaching as ‘a process establishing interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the taught as a result of which the behaviour of the latter is modified. Here the relationship plays the key role. In this age of sophistication this typ: of approach is unable to explain the role of hardwares, programmed instructions and teaching machines where the bond of interpersonal relationship is somewhat missing. The next definition given by Amidon (1967) considers teaching as a Process of interaction between the teacher and the taught. It considers teaching as a co-operative enterprise, a two way traffic and a commonly shared phenomenon. It results in the improvement and development of both the participants i.e., teacher and the taught. It considers teaching as a set of Properly planned and clearly defined activities that are undertaken for the achievement of certain objectives. This definition too is limited in the sense that it confines teaching within the interaction of the teacher and taught and that too primarily in the form of class-room talk or a few special activities. Clarke (1970) in his definition has tried to broaden the base/scope of teaching by taking it as a set of all those organised activities that may result in bringing some change in the behaviour of the pupil or leaner. A year later Green (1971) in his definition tried to delimit the boundary and scope of teaching task. He has defined teaching as a profession or occupation by stating that teaching’ is what a teacher does for the development of a child. Actually this is a very narrower and misnomer concept of the term teaching. Neither teaching can be, restricted to a profession or occupation of a people or community like teacher nor it can be always relied for bringing desirable improvément or development in the behaviour or functions of the Scanned with CamScanner 1 os Fs Learning and Teaching ing is an intimate contact between a more Morrison (1934). " ae Pp in mature one which is designed to further SOR andal hing is an arrangement and manipulation ips and obstructions which an and from which he will learn’in the Teaching is a system of actions ii fended to produce s is a form of inter-personal influence aimed Potential of another pérson.”" 28 iS @ system of actions involving an agent, situation including two sets of factors — thove agent has no control (class size, size of classroom I ck: istics of pupils, etc.) and those that he can modify of asking questions about instruction and ways Of structurin, : formation or ideas gleaned)” c i _ Edmund Amidon (1967). “Teaching is defined as an interactive process, involving classroom talk which takes place between teaches 'P ? and occurs during certain definable actWities.” Clarke (1970). “Teaching: refers to activities that are designed and performed to produce change in student (pupil) belfaviour,” Thomas F. Green (1971). “Teaching is the task of teacher which is performed for the development of a child,” : Let us try to analyse these definitions. The definition given by Morrison (1934) takes teaching to a disciplined social process in which a teacher by virtue.of his ideal position, status, knowledge and experiences influences the behaviour of the less experienced pupil and helps him,to develop according to the needs and ideals of the society or government. InShis type of teaching the student has to learn and develop according to the ideals set before him by the teacher. The teaching is reduced to what the teacher teaches. The students are there to copy down the model presented by the teacher. There is no interaction but the flow of instructions from the teachers. As a result, the pupils are bound to become the passive listeners and blind imitators. The definition given by Brubacher (1939) takes teaching to that position where the pupils are required to play the central role and the teacher’s task is limited to arrange and create situations for the learning. Here the student themselves have to decide what they want to do and how they will do it. This type of teaching may lead the pupil for independent learning and problem solving. : oH The third definition given by Smith (1960) terms’ teaching: as an organised system of specific activities that are aimed to help the learner to Scanned with CamScanner Leaxning and Teaching — Nature and Relationship 3 learn something. ‘Teaching may be carried out in the absence of a teacher A book, nature, teaching machine, tape recorder, etc. may play a role of teacher, The important thing is the role of a system of actions or activities. If it results in some or other types of leaming then this system may be termed as teaching. The weakest point of the above definition lies in the fact that it does not mention all the elements of the teaching process, namely, the teacher, taught and the subject matter. To do away with the above weakness. Smith tried to elaborate his earlier definition, in 1963, by considering teaching as a tripolar process involving: (i) an agent (the source, human or material that tries to produce learning), (ii) a goal or target that is to be achieved through the process of teaching, and + Gil) the intervening variable consisting of learning or teaching situation or environment. It may involve physical or human material, conditions and instructional methods. The definition given by Gage (1962) takes teaching as °a process establishing interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the taught as a result of which the behaviour of the latter is modified. Here the relationship plays the key role. In this age of sophistication this type of approach is unable to explain the role of hardwares, programmed instructions and teaching machines where the bond of interpersonal relationship is somewhat missing. The next definition given by Amidon (1967) considers teaching as a Process of interaction between the teacher and the taught. It considers teaching as a co-operative enterprise, a two way traffic and a commonly shared phenomenon. It results in the improvement and development of both the participants i.e., teacher and the taught. It considers teaching as a set of properly planned and clearly defined activities that are undertaken for the achievement of certain objectives. This definition too is limited in the sense that it confines teaching within the interaction of the teacher and taught and that too primarily in the form of class-room talk or a few special activities. Clarke (1970) in his definition has tried to broaden the base/scope of teaching by taking it as a set of all those organised activities that may result in bringing some change in the behaviour of the pupil or learner. A year later Green (1971) in his definition tried to delirnit the boundary and scope of teaching task. He has defined teaching as a profession or occupation by stating that teaching" is what a teacher does for the development of a child. Actually this is a very narrower and misnomer concept of the term teaching. Neither teaching can be restricted to a profession or occupation of a people or community like teacher nor it can be always relied for bringing desirable improvément or development in the behaviour or functions of the Scanned with CamScanni er Learning and Teaching — Nature and Relationship 5 i i content and pupil behaviour in context with prevailing physical ' and social coriditions. 6. Teaching is amenable-o scientific observation and analysis: What is going in a teaching can be observed, analysed and assessed through teacher behaviour, pupil-teacher interaction and the | changes brought in the behaviour of the pupils. Such analysis and assessment may provide essential feedback for bringing desirable | improvement in this proc&s. | 7 Teaching is highly dominated by the’ communication skill: The i} flow of communication within the teaching elements | or sources of teaching, student and the teaching acti | teaching a realityand a success. : i 8. Teaching is an-interactive process: Teaching is ai” interactive ! process carried out of the attainment for some specific purpose and i objectives. ! 9. Teaching may be carried out in various forms and styles: Teaching i may have various forms like formal and informal, formational or informational. directional or instructional, training, conditioning or indoctrination, telling, showing or doing descriptive or, remedial, ete. Teaching is a specialized task comprising of different teaching skills: Teaching is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of component skills for the realization of a specified set of instructional objectives(Jangira and Ajit Singh, 1982). Relation of Teaching with other Similar or Related Concepts The terms like conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination are used * to denote some or the other kinds of teaching. Sometimes they are mistaken as synonymous with teaching. Let us try to evaluate their relationships. “In fact each of these terms denotes one or the other types of teaching. These are various modes of teaching each of which contribute towards teaching. Teaching is a larger concept and each of these terms is a part or aspect of this large concept. Teaching, as a whole, is' aimed to bring changes in the behaviour of pupils These changes may occur through (i) teaching them how to do or perform a task or act to a situation or stimuli, and (ji) teaching them those things that may contribute towards enriching their knowledge and formation of a system of beliefs. While the former type of teaching (better described through the terms conditioning or training) may result into the shaping of behaviour and conduct, the latter (described~ through ifistruction Or indoctrination) works as a potent agent for the acquisition of knowledge and formation of beliefs. The Fig. 1.1 clearly reveals that teaching activities, primarily divided as high or low orders, are distributable along a continue from conditioning to indoctrination. 10. ee | Scanned with CamScanner Learning and Teaching « 4 students, It may end in both the ways—desirable or undesirable, hence it cannot be assumed to play a developmental role in all situations. The above attempt for the analytic description of the definitions may’. reveal that some of these definitions represent a very limited view of the - _ functions and scope of the teaching act while others elaborate it to the” extent of unbridled freedom and undefined tasks of purposeless outcomes. A good definition of teaching, must accomplish the following objectives. 1. It should tell whether teaching is a process or product. 2. It should clearly indicate its constitutional elements or factors. 7 3. It should reveal its objective. 4. It should say something about its organisational or structural aspect + If we try to evaluate the definitions quoted so far on the criterion cited above, none of thd definitions is said to be a comprehensive and functional « ion of the term teaching. There is nothing wrong in the acceptance of. “truth that it is a quite uphill task to narrate an ideal universal definition of “the term teaching. However for the purpose of this text 2 somewhat “comprehensive and functional definition can be adapted as below: Teaching is a triadic relation — tripolar process — involving ofivaching (human or material), student and a set of eetivities designed and manipulated primarily to bring changes in the behaviour of the student, The widespread notions about these things can be summarized as beldw: 1. Teaching is a complex social process: Teaching is a complex” + social phenomenon. It is greatly influenced by the social factors, The social and human factors are dynamic and not static and ~ = therefore teaching is not a fundamental concept. : . 2. Teaching is both art as well as science? Teaching is both art as well as science as Silverman (1966) expresses it in the following words. “To be sure teaching-like the practice of medicine — is very much . an art which is to say, it calls for exercise of talent and creativity. But like medicine, it is also a science, for it involves a repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills that can be systematically studied and described and improved. A good teacher, like a great doctor, is ‘one who adds creativity and inspiration to the basic repertoires 3. Teaching is a professional activity: Teaching is a professional activity involving the teacher ‘and the student and result in the development of the student. 4. Teaching is the output emanating from the teacher: Teaching is what a teacher does with his student for causing the latter to leam something and it is thus purely an outcome of the teacher’s efforts. 5. Teaching in an organised system of varied action: Teaching is a system of actions which are varied in form and are related to Scanned with CamScanner a Learning and Teaching — Nature and Relationship 5 content and pupil behaviour in context with prevailing physical and social cortditions. 6. Teaching is amenablewo scientific observation and analysis: What is going in a teaching can be observed, analysed und assessed through teacher behaviour, pupil-teacher interaction and the changes brought in the behaviour of the pupils, Such analysis and assessment may provide essential feedback for bringing desirable improvement in this proc&s. J. Teaching is highly dominated by the’ communication skill: The flow of communication within the teaching elements like teacher or sources of teaching, student and the teaching activities make teaching a reality and a success. 8. Teaching is an interactive process: Teaching is ai” interactive process carried out of the attainment for some specific purpose and objectives. ‘ 9. Teaching may be carried out in various forms and styles: Teaching may have various forms like formal and informal, formational or informational, directional or instructional, training, conditioning or indoctrination, telling, showing or doing descriptive or, remedial, ete 10. Teaching is a specialized task comprising of different teaching skills: Teaching is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of component skills for the realization of a specified set of instructional objectives (Jangira and Ajit Singh, 1982). Relation of Teaching with other Similar or Related Concepts The terms like conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination are used to denote some or the other kinds of teaching. Sometimes they are mistaken as synonymous with teaching. Let us try to evaluate their relationships. In’ fact each of these terms denotes one or the other types of teaching. These are various modes of teaching each of which con! te towards teaching. Teaching is a larger concept and each of these terms is a part or aspect of this large concept Teaching, as a whole, is aimed to bring changes in the behaviour of pupils These changes may occur through (1) teaching them how to do or perform a task or act to a situation or stimuli, and (ii) teaching them those things that may contribute towards enriching their knowledge and formation ¢ of a system of beliefs. While the former type of teaching (better described through the terms conditioning of training) may result into the shaping of behaviour and conduct, the fatter (described through [fstruction Or indoctrination) works as a potent agent for the acquisition of knowledge and formation of beliefs. The Fig. 1.1 clearly reveals that teaching activities, primarily divided as high or low orders, are distributable along & continue from conditioning to indoctrination. i ‘ ee Scanned with CamScanner eae Soe Learning and Teaching | ” Conditioning in this way is the lowest level or mode of teaching. As a result a dog may be conditioned (taught) to lift his paw when it hears a bell. Similarly, many of the animals and human beings may be taught to respond Shaping of Knowledge ‘Shaping of Shaping of Conditioning Behaviour Fig. 1.1: Relationship of the Term Teaching with other Relete¢ Concepts to signals, alarms, signs and warnifigs through conditioning. Most of our desirable or undesirable behaviours and habits are the creation of the process of conditioning. Training is concerned with a little more raised level of teaching than conditioning. It helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills. A worker may be trained to perform certain tasks requiring very specific skills. He may do a number of jobs on some machine skillfully without knowing its basic structure and operation, the utility of his output and similar other questions. Similarly, a variety of animals may be trained to perform highly specific tasks for the circus shows. Here the worker and a ’ circus animal, as far as their teaching is concerned, stand on the same footing. Both are taught through a particular mode of teaching known as training. We can’t say that they are being educated. In the case of an while starting from conditioning, we seldom cross the stage of training, but for human beings we can move much farther. Here im the case of the worker, we can give him desired knowledge of the machine, its operation and mechanism. He may be acquainted with his work, his contribution towards the economy of the country and similar other things which may shape his behaviour. Which behaviour is the product of taining or which is | 7 Scanned with CamScanner Learning and Teaching — Nature and Relationship 7 : the outcome of (caching may be properly distinguished on the basis of the amount of the degree of intelligence used or demonstrated through such behaviour. While less intelligent or simple behaviour may be produced through training, the complicated behaviour requiring more intelligence need a higher mode of teaching. | Therefore, the distinction between the terms training and teaching may be satisfactorily made through the evaluation of the degree of intelligent behaviour produced by them. If a training results into a demonstrable intelligent and complex behaviour, it may be equated with teaching but if It produces only the simple behaviour requiring no or comparatively less intelligence it is to be termed as training. ‘ Instruction and indoctrination both work on a higher footing than conditioning and training as far as the involvement of intellectual powers and mode of teaching are concerned. But that does not mean that they may be equated with the term ‘teaching’. Instruction, in brief, is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge ant understanding in an individual about a thing, system or process,’ imparting of knowledge and understanding merely represents one of the many objectives which we want to achieve through the process of teaching. Teaching is much more than the act of acquiring sone knowledge and understanding. The conative and affective domains of one’s behaviour are badly neglected in instruction. While teaching is aimed towards shaping a total man, thé instruction cares only for the development of intellect and affects the cognitive domain of one’s behaviour Let us also see the distinction between teaching and instruction from another angle which lies in their processes. The face to face interaction of the teacher and taught found in teaching is not so much essential in the process Of instruction. Here teacher can be replaced by the programmed materia), computer, teaching machine, radio, tetevision video and tape recorder. A teacher may also use these aids and devices in his teaching and hence instruction may be considered a part of teaching. In, short, instruction is always a part of one of the several modes of teaching. Where instruction itself can never be called as teaching, the term teaching may include or cover instruction. Indoctrination (transmission of doctrine, firm faith or system of beliefs) on the rather end of the continum of the modes of teaching represents @ fairly high level of teaching which adds ta the establishment or shaping of beliefs and ideals. It requires higher order of intelligence and results in bringiAg quite stable inges in the cognitive and affective domains of one’s behaviour. Like other modes of teaching, indoctrination represents one of the several modes of teaching. When we say indoctrination it also means teaching but the reverse is not true. We may teach without adopung indoctrination as the mode of teaching. Scanned with CamScanner ie Learning and Teaching , The different modes of teaching — conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination described above — though distinguishable, can not be termed « unrelated. Sometimes they may overlap in their processes and outcomes. : Analytical Concept of Teaching Analysis concerns with the process of breaking or separating out: the elements or constituent of a substance. Therefore, a description of the alytical concept 6f teaching would demand the separation and naming of nt elements er components of the task or process of teaching in s various aspeets like below: (i) Activities undertaken In the . task, end (ii) Educational objectives to be achieved through these geordingly amempts have been made to analyse teaching in several ways with a view to understanding it, designing teaching materials and - methods for realising the specific objectives, perform the task of teaching effectively evaluate and then modify it (on the basis of feedback for . acquiring teaching competency and proficiency). Let us mention some of such amempts: : ‘2n (1966) has tried to analyse teaching into various spe activities like introducing, demonstrating, contrasting, explaining, proving, justifying, explicating, defining, rating, appraising, amplifying, vindicating, interpreting, questioning, elaborating, fying, designating, conjecturing, confirming, etc. Gzge (1968) tried to analyse teaching in terms of technical skills. According to him: “Teaching skills are specific instructional techniques and procedures that a teacher may use in the classroom. They represent an analysis of the teaching process into relatively discrete components that can be used in different combination in the continuous flow of the teacher's performance.” : Clarke (1970), while endorsing the viewpoint of Komisar and Gage and suggesting a definition of teaching, has tried to analyse teaching in terms of some specific activities that are designed and performed to produce change in student’s behaviour. These activities may have 2 cognitive, affective or conative nature and belong to different . levels as expressed in Bloom’s Taxonomy, (Bloom, et all, 1956). Brown (1975) has tried to analyse teaching by considering it as a many sided activity which includes a host of activities like questioning, giving information, listening and such others.’ B.K. Passi ()976), has concluded that teaching constitutes a number of verbal and non-verbal teaching acts, like questioning, accepting pupil responses, rewarding, smiling, nodding to pupil response, movements, gestures, etc. These acts in particular combination ~ % facilitate the achievement of objectives in terms of pupil of pupil growth. ; ‘ Scanned with CamScanner a Learning and Teaching — Mature and Relationship 9 | 6. N.K. Jangira and Ajit Singh (1982) have presented the. afalysis of ” teaching as below: “Teaching can be analysed in terms of teacher behaviour at least at three levels, viz.,:component teaching skills, component teaching behaviours comprising the component skill and atomistic teaching behaviours. Diagrammatically this analysis can be presented as given ahead.” Teaching Level 1 : Teaching may be analysed into various component teaching skills: say Sy, So, Sy Sp \ 32] 53]5al55] Se] 57[8e]So dS l5a] Level 2 : Each of the component mae ‘skills may analysed into a number of conponent teaching behaviours. c say Cy, C3, C3. {87 (Component Teaching Ski-7) [eales[eel2]eo] Level 3 : Each of the component teacher behaviours may be fur- ther analysed into atomistic teaching behaviours, Say Ty, Tz, TD3...3 Top. ltconponent Teaching skilis-4) [res[re2]Tea] Teal Ts] Fig. 1.2: Analysis of Teaching - oS ot Based on the above analysis it can.be, easily concluded that the complex task of teaching may be safely analysed into limited but well aefined components called ‘Teaching Skills’ or ‘Technical Skills’ of teaching. The Asian Institute for Teacher Educators (1972) have considered these skills as specifically those activities of teaching that are especially effective in bringing about desired changes in pupils. In this. way, teaching may be viewed as a group of skills known as teaching skills. A teaching*skill is defined as a group of teaching acts or behaviours intended to bring desirable, changes in the pupils behaviour. This approach of analysing teaching into some specific component teaching skills and related "teaching acts or behaviours has been under severe criticism. As a result, it has now been realized that teaching can not be regarded just a sum total of certain teaching skills. Although it can not be denied that acquisition of teaching skills is very much essential for a teacher for becoming a good teacher yet, in any way,-this is not all what is needed. He needs much more and therefore teaching consists of something more than the teaching skills. * a Scanned with CamScanner [ 10 y Léarning and Teaching of the factors that definitely ans | effective tea cannot be taken simply as a Skilled” worker who knows his job by acquiring certain specific skills buc E ts to act fom some superior level knowing how Variables of Teaching _ : The concept of teaching may be further explained through a description 2bout the different variables involved in the process of teaching. Generally these variables may be classified as under: ‘ 1. Independent variable te 2. Dependent variable 3. Intervening variables. x In the process of teaching, it is the student who is subjected to changes and development through the efforts of the teacher and teaching process. Therefore he acts as a dependent variable while'the teacher has to play the ini dent variable. For the achievement of the goals of teaching “+ there comes a need of desirable interaction between independent and dependent variables. This role is played by the intervening variables. In this way, the teacher plays the role of independent variable. He is responsible for the functioning of the dependent variable, /.e., the students _ He is free to act in the teaching process while students are quite dependent on him for seeking behavioural changes and development. Teacher has to plan, organise, lead and control the process of teaching so that desirable outcomes of his teaching may be properly obtained. He has to handle his teaching activities and all the intervening variables in such a way that the desired movability and functionality can be created among his students for achieving the teaching objectives. ; The intervening variables as it sounds do not exist for creating some interference or obstacle in the functioning of independent or dependent variable. Rather they help in the smooth functioning of these variables for the realization of teaching objectives. The contents of teaching, methods and techniques of teaching, tactics and strategies of teaching, management of instructional material and teaching environment, etc., are all known as intervening variables. These variables are responsible for bringing desirable interaction between the teacher and the taught by producing proper teaching environment, teaching material and facilities and creating appropriate learning conditions or’situations. Functions of Teaching Variables

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