Unit I - Discrete State-Variable Technique Q.No Questions: Scalar Adder Integrator

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UNIT I -DISCRETE STATE-VARIABLE TECHNIQUE
Q.No Questions
1. Define state diagram.
The pictorial 'representation of the state model of the system is called State diagram.
The State diagram of the system' can be either in Block Diagram form or in Signal
flow graph form.
2. How the state diagram of the system is represented?
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The state diagram describes the relationship among the state variables and provides
physical interpretations of the state variables. The time domain state diagram may
be obtained directly from the differential equation governing the system.
It can be either in Block Diagram form or in Signal flow 'graph form.'
3. Write the fundamental elements are used to construct the state diagram.
The state diagram (Block diagram and signal flow graph) of a state model is
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constructed using three basic elements
1. Scalar
2. Adder
3. Integrator
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4. Define state transition matrix.
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is denoted by eAtor in time domain and eAk in discrete domain.

5. Sketch basic model of state diagram
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6. Mention the drawbacks of practical sample / Hold circuit.

The problems encountered in practical hold circuit are
1. Errors in the periodicity of sampling process.
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2. Nonlinear variations in the duration of sampling aperture.

3. Droop (changes) in the voltage held during conversion.
7. List the different methods available for computing Ak.
The state transitonmatrix Ak can be computed by anyone of the following methods.
 Matrix exponential.
 Z - transform
 Canonical transformation,
 Cayley-Hamilton theorem
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8. What is the stability criterion for sampled data control system?

 The sampled data control system is stable if all the poles of the z-transfer function
of the system lies inside the unit circle in z-plane. "
 The poles of the transfer function are given by the roots of the characteristic
equation.
 Hence the system stability can be determined from the roots of the characteristic
equation.
9.
Define characteristic equation of sampled data control system.
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The characteristics equation may have either of the following two forms.
1 + G(z)H(z) = 0
1 + GH(z) = 0
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wherezi’s and pi’s are zeros and poles of open loop transfer function, m is the
number of zeros and n is the number of poles.
10. Write the types of stability analysis of sampled data control systems.
The following methods are available for the stability analysis of sampled data
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control systems using the characteristic equation
1. Jury’s stability test
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2. Bilinear transformation
3. Root locus technique
11. Summarize the necessary and sufficient conditions to be satisfied the stability
of sampled data control system using Bilinear transformation and Jury’s
stability test.
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The necessary conditions to be satisfied for the stability of the system with
characteristic polynomial, F(z) are
o F(l) > 0 and
n
o (-1) F(-l) > 0
Sufficient conditions for stability of the system. Totally (n - 1) conditions
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 laol<lanl
 Ibol :> Ibn-1I
 ICo I > Icn-21
12. Classify the basic types of decomposition.

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 Direct decomposition
 Cascade decomposition
 Parallel decomposition
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13. What is Bilinear transformation?

The bilinear transformation is a mathematical mapping of variables. It is used to
transform continuous-time system representations to discrete-time.
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14. Illustrate the concept of controllability and observability test.

Controllability:
i. Find controllability matrix Qc
ii. Find determinant of Qc
iii. If |Qc| is not equal to zero find rank of Qc and comment about
controllability
Observability:
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i. Find observability matrix Qo

ii. Find determinant of Qo
iii. If |Qo| is not equal to zero find rank of Qo and comment about observability
15. Construct the state model for the system.

 x1 (k  1)  2 3  x1 (k )  0
 x (k  1)  1 1  x (k )  1u(k ),
 2    2   
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 x (k ) 
y(k )  1 1 1 .
 x 2 ( k )
Note : do it either in Jordon form or phase variable form.
16. State the condition for controllability by Kalman’s method.
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 Find Controllability matrix Qc = [B AB A2B A3B …. AnB]
 Find determinant of Qc
 If | Qc | not equal to zero find rank of Qc
17. Classify the methods used for stability analysis
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Stability Analysis using
 Bilinear Transformation and Routh Stability Criterion
 Root locus technique
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 Jury’s stability test
18. Explain pole-placement design.
Pole placement method is a controller design method in which the places
of the closed loop system poles on the complex plane is determined by setting a
controller gain matrix k = [ k1 k2 k3 … kn]
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19. Produce the expression for state feedback gain matrix.

state feedback gain matrix is given by
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Where a1, a2, … an coefficients of desired system characteristic equation

α1, α2, α3 …… αn coefficients of given system characteristic equation
20. Explain about the concept of state observer.
An observer is a dynamic system that is used to estimate the state of a system or
some of the states of a system. A full-state observer is used to estimate all the states
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of the system. . The observer can be designed as either a continuous-time system or

a discrete-time system.
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UNIT II - SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION
Q.No. Questions
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1. Discuss briefly system identification.

System identification is the field modelling dynamic system or process from
experimental data. So it is an experimental approach. Some experiments are
performed on the process' to collect input and output data. Then a model is filled to
the experimental data by assigning suitable values to its parameter.
2. Classify the models available for system identification.
 Black-box model
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 White box model

 Gray box model
3. List the non-parametric methods of system identification.
The four different non parametric methods for system identification are
1. Transient An 1alysis
2. Frequency Analysis
3. Correlational Analysis
4. Spectral Analysis
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4. Differentiate parametric and non-parametric method of system identification.
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5. Write the advantages of transient analysis method.

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 In this method the input is taken as a step or impulse and the

recorded output (example transient response of a FODT system to a unit step input)
helps to Identify a model.
 Model parameter is identified easily.
6. Examine the drawbacks of transient response analysis.
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1. The design and parameter adjustment of closed loop system for specified
closed loop performance cannot be carried out easily.
2. The effect of the noise disturbance and parameter variations in the
frequency domain cannot be easily visualized.
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7. What is meant by frequency analysis?

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8. Briefly explain the first order system parameter estimation using impulse
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response method.
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9. When correlation analysis is required?
Correlation is a statistical procedure applied to calculate association between
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two variables. It shows the extent to which changes in the value of one variable are
correlated to changes in the other.
10. What is spectral analysis?
Spectral analysis for determining transfer functions of linear systems was
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developed from statistical methods for spectral estimation. Spectral analysis is

frequency response estimated for arbitrary inputs by dividing the cross correlation
spectrum between input and output to the input of the spectrum. The model used in
spectral analysis is
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11. Define parametric method of system identification.

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12. Define least squares estimation method.
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13. Classify the methods used for system identification

 Non-parametric methods and
 Parametric methods
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14. Summarize the steps involved in system identification problem.

The steps involved in system identification are:
_ Collection of input-output data
_ Choosing of a set of candidate models and
_ Determination of best model in the set
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15. What are the limitations of LS method?

 LSM is not readily applicable to censored data
 It is generally considered to have less desirable optimality properties than
maximum likelihood
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 It can be quite sensitive to the choice of starting value.

16. Write the recursive least square algorithm which uses Kalman filter as
parameter estimator.
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The recursive least square algorithm which uses kalman filter as parameter estimator
is the derivative upon the use of orthogonal projectors in deriving the minimum
mean square error predictors.
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1. Give the state model of the discrete data system represented by the difference equation
y(k+2)+5y(k+1)+6y(k) = u(k). In
(i) Jordan canonical form. (7)
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(ii) Phase Variable form. (6)

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2. Derive the state equation for the system shown below in which 𝑥1, 𝑥2 and𝑥3 constitute
the state vectors. Test whether the system is completely controllable and observable.
(13)
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3. (i) Sketch the block diagram of a typical sampled data control system and explain
the function performed by each block.(8)
REFER BOOK
(ii) Test the controllability of the following system. (5)
 x1 (k  1)   2  1  x1 (k )  0
 x (k  1)   0 1   x (k )  1u(k ),
 2    2   
 x (k ) 
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y(k )  1 1 1 .
 x 2 ( k )
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4. (i) Describe the principle and design procedure for state feedback control scheme
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with block diagram. (8)

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(ii) Test the stability of the following system. (5)
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p(Z) = Z 4 − 1.2 Z3 +0.07 Z2+0.3 Z-0.08=0.
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5. Examine about state controllability and observability of the following system. (13)
 x1 (k  1)  0 1 0   x1 (k )  0  x1 (k ) 
 x (k  1)  0 1 1   x2 (k )  0u(k ) y(k )  3 4 1 x2 (k ).
 2  
 x3 (k  1)  0  3  2  x3 (k ) 1  x3 (k ) 
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6. Express state equations and output equations of the following difference equation and
draw the state model of the system,
(i) y(k+3)+5y(k+2)+3y(k+1)+2y(k)=u(k).
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(ii) y(k+3)+5y(k+2)+3y(k+1)+2y(k)=u(k+1)+u(k) (7)
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WRITE STATE EQUATION

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7. 0 1 0

Find the state transition matrix of the given system matrix A  0 0 1 
0  0.5 1.5
(13)
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8. Check the stability of the sampled data control system represented by the following
characteristic equations using bilinear transformation. (13)
(i) 𝑍 3 − 0.2𝑍 2 − 0.25𝑍 + 0.05 = 0 (6)

(ii) 2𝑍 4 + 7𝑍 3 + 10𝑍 2 + 4𝑍 + 1 = 0 (7)
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2𝑍 4 + 7𝑍 3 + 10𝑍 2 + 4𝑍 + 1 = 0 (7)
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11. A discrete time system has the transfer function

Y ( z ) 6 z 3  15z 2  7 z  5

U ( z) ( z  2) 2 ( z  1)
Analyze the state model of the system in
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12. Check the stability of the sampled data control system represented by the following
characteristic equation.
𝑍 3 − 1.3𝑍 2 -0.08Z +0.24=0. (7)
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13. 0 1
The system matrix A of a discrete time system is given by 𝐴 = [ ]. Find state
−2 −3
Transition Matrix Ak using Cayley- Hamilton theorem. (13)
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14. A single input system is described by the following state equation.
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𝑥1(𝑘 + 1) 0 1 0 𝑥1(𝑘) 0
[𝑥2(𝑘 + 1)] = [ 0 1 1 ] [𝑥2(𝑘)] + [0] 𝑢(𝑘)
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𝑥3(𝑘 + 1) 0 − 2 − 3 𝑥3(𝑘) 1
Design a state feedback controller which will give closed-loop poles at -3, -5 and 2.
(13)
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LDCS Unit –II PART-A
1. Summarize the purpose of math instruction as applied to the PLC.

Math instructions use the contents of two words or registers and perform the desired function.
The plc instructions for data manipulation (data transfer and data compare) are used with the math symbols
to perform math functions.
2. What are the four basic math functions that can be performed on PLCs?
The basic mathematical functions performed by most PLC's are: add, subtract, multiply and divide. These
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types of instructions are used by PLC's to gather data from various memory locations, to compare data, and
to scale values.
3. What standard format is used for PLC math instructions?
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4. What are the advantages of sequencer programming over conventional programming?
1. Large savings of memory words.
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i.e., 16 output rungs are used to implement 16 outputs in a conventional programming, whereas in
sequencer programming 16 outputs can be implemented in a single rung.
2. No external reset is needed in sequencer programming. It automatically resets to position 1.
3. Sequencers simplify programming, and any future changes are easier to make.
5. What is meant by sequencer function?
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SQL (Sequencer Load):

Is an output instruction used to capture reference conditions by manually stepping the machine through its
operating sequences. It transfers data from the input source module to the sequencer file. The
instruction functions much like a file-to-word transfer instruction.
6. How does a bit shift register manipulate individual bits?
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If both bits in the compared position of the bit patterns are 0 or 1, the bit in the resulting bit pattern is 0,
otherwise 1. Left Shift (<< ): Left shift operator is a binary operator which shift the some number of bits, in
the given bit pattern, to the left and append 0 at the end.
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7. Identify any two functions performed by shift register.

1. A shift register can be used to simulate the movement or track the flow of parts and information.
2. Used to store the status of an event
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8. Name the various sequencer instructions in PLC.

SQO- Sequencer output SQC- Sequencer compare SQL- Sequencer load SQI- Sequencer input
9. Develop ladder logic for a car door/ seat belt system. When the car door is open, and the seat belt is not done
up, the ignition power must not be applied. If all is safe, then the key will start the engine.
REFER CLASS NOTES
10. Differentiate FIFO register and a LIFO register.
FIFO register LIFO register
FIFO stands for “First In First Out”. LIFO stands for “Last In First Out”.
FIFO is an asynchronous shift register LIFO is used primarily as a stack in Assembly
language programming
i.e. push and pop from stack.
Q.No. UNIT-III PART-A
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1. Define supervisory control.
Supervisory control is controlling whole plant or more than one field devices through a
master system. It refers to a high level of overall monitoring of individual process
controllers.
2. Mention the main components of data acquisition system.
Sensor, Signal conditioning and anaog to digital converter
3. What are Remote Terminal Units?
A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a multipurpose device used for remote monitoring and
control of various devices and systems for automation.
It is typically deployed in an industrial environment and serves a similar purpose to
programmable logic circuits (PLCs) but to a higher degree.
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An RTU is considered a self-contained computer as it has all the basic parts that, together,
define a computer: a processor, memory and storage.
4. List the limitations of DDC.
• The provision of only ten main classes' means that the base is too short, resulting in lengthy
classification numbers.
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• The limitations of division and subdivision by only 10 places leads to the squeezing of
subjects into a conglomerate last division called 'others'.
5. Describe briefly the function of DDC.
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1.It provides faster response time. 2.Controls the sequence for energy saving
3.Digital interface. 4.Less maintenance
6. Identify the hardware elements of SCADA.
• Supervisory computers. ...
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• Remote terminal units. ...
• Programmable logic controllers. ...
• Communication infrastructure. ...
• Human-machine interface
7. Discuss the two algorithms used in DDC software.
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The two algorithms used in DDC software.

1.Position Algorithm 2.Velocity Algorithm
8. Give the communication architecture for SCADA.
The SCADA system uses wired network tocommunicate between user and devices. The
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real time applications use lot of sensors and components which should be control remotely.
The SCADA system uses internet communications. All information is transmitted through
internet using specific protocols.
9. Describe the control functional units in computer of processes.
omputer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory, arithmetic
logic unit (ALU), output and control unit. Input device accepts the coded information as
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source program i.e. high level language

10. Differentiate DDC and SCADA.
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DDC SCADA
DDC (direct digital control) system is a SCADA is essential a piece of software that is
computer doing the job of a PLC. installed on a PC/computer.
DDC is used for Building automation It is used to control and monitor physical
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(BAS/BMS) applications. processes

Lower initial cost Higher initial cost
11. What is CIMPLICITY?
What is CIMPLICITY?
12. Compare PLC and SCADA.
PLC SCADA
PLC is essentially a hardware based system SCADA is essential a piece of software that is inst
PC/computer.
Programmable Logic Controller is a Industrial It is a monitoring and controlling software, runs on
Computer (It is a hardware)that performs generally connected to varies PLCs and other
discrete or sequential logic in a company devices.
environment.
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13. How does SCADA handle issues?
Generally SCADA system is a centralized system which monitors and controls entire area.
... A supervisory system gathers data on the process and sends the commands control to
the process. The SCADA is a remote terminal unit which is also known as RTU. Most
control actions are automatically performed by RTUs or PLCs.
14. What is DAQ?
Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical
conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be
manipulated by a computer.
15. Point out the applications of RTU.
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RTUs are part of the systems used in several processes, including:
1. Petrochemical (oil) and refineries. 2. Nuclear power plants. 3.Agriculture
4. Quality control.. 5. Chemical plants. 6. Sewage treatment plants. 7.Food processing
16. Draw the general block diagram representation of computer controlled system.
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17.
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Evaluate the necessity to use master station architecture of SCADA?
There are two types of Control Centre configured in SCADA system for redundancy.
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One is considered as MCC - Main Control Centre and Second is BCC - Backup Control
Centre. When Main control centre fails backup control will take over and synchronise with
current real time process , events and Historical data.
18. What are the communication protocols used in SCADA?
Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel.
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19. Summarize the types of computer controlled system.

1.Centralized Computer Control 2. Distributed Computer Control 3. Hierarchical
Computer Control
20. Compose any four functions involved in CCS.
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1.Measurement and data acquisition. 2.Data conversion

3. Data logging and computation. 4. Recording and monitoring of events.
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UNI
TII
I-DI
GITALCONTROLLERDESI
GN
Q.
Quest
ions
No.
1. Def
ineonesi
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EI2402-Logic & Distributed Control System
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Unit IV Distributed Control System
Unit – IV DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM

Syllabus:
DCS - Architectures – Comparison – Local control unit – Process interfacing issues –
Communication facilities.
4.1 Evolution of Industrial Control Technology
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Fig. Evolution of Industrial Control Technology

The lines of technological development can be divided into two separate streams, as shown in
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figure. The upper stream with its two branches is the more traditional one, and includes the evolution of
analog controllers and other discrete devices such as relay logic and motor controllers. The second
stream is a more recent one that includes the use of large scale digital computers and their mini and micro
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descendants in industrial process control. These streams have merged into the current main stream of
distributed digital control systems.
Key Milestones in Control System Evolution:

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 1934 – Direct-connected pneumatic controls dominate market.

 1958 – First computer monitoring in electric utility.
 1959 – First supervisory computer in refinery.
 1960 – First solid-state electronic controllers on market.
 1963 – First Direct Digital Control (DDC) system installed.
 1970 – First programmable logic controllers (PLC) on market.
 1975 – First distributed digital control system on market.
Department of EIE 1 Chettinad College of Engineering & Technology

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4.1.1 Traditional Control Systems Developments

The early discrete device control systems listed were distributed around the plant. Individual
control devices: such as governors and mechanical controllers were located at the process equipment to be
controlled. Local readouts of set points and control outputs were available and a means of changing the
control mode from manual to auto mode usually was provided. It was up to the operator to coordinate the
control of many devices that made up the total process. They did this by roaming around the plant and
making corrections to the control devices. This is a feasible approach to the control of early industrial
processes because the plant was small geographically and the processes were not too large or complex.
The same architecture was copied when direct connected pneumatic controllers were developed in
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the late 1920s. These controllers provided more flexibility in selection and adjustment of control
algorithms, but all the control elements of the control loop were still located in the field. There was no
communication between the controllers other than that provided by the each operator to other operators in
the plant using visual and vocal means. This situation changed of necessity in the late 1930s due to
growth in size and complexity of the process to be controlled. More difficult to run a plant using the
isolate –loop control architecture described above.
The emphasis on improving overall plant operations led to a movement towards centralized
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control and equipment rooms. This was made possible by the development of transmitter-type pneumatic
systems. In this architecture, measurements are made at a process were converted to pneumatic signals at
standard levels, which were then transmitted to the central location. The required control signals were
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computed at this location, and then transmitted back to the operator at the central location. The great
advantage of this architecture was that all of the process information was available to the operator at the
central location.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the technology used to implement this architecture started to
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shift from pneumatics to electronics. One of the key objectives of this shift was replacing the long runs of
tubing used in pneumatic systems with wires used in electronics one. This change reduced the cost of
installing the control systems and also eliminates the time lag inherent in pneumatic systems.
Another consequence of centralized control architecture was development of the split range
controller structure. In this type of controller, the operator display section of the controller is panel
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mounted in the control room and the computing section is located in a separate rack in an adjoining
equipment room. The split controller structure is especially appropriate for complex, interactive control
systems.
In the early 1970s a sophisticated device known as the programmable logic controller (PLC) was
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developed to implement sequential logic systems. This device is significant because it was one of the first
special purpose, computer based devices that could be used by someone who was not a computer
specialist. It was designed to be programmed by a user who was familiar with relay logic diagrams. All
the versions of sequential logic systems have been implemented in direct-connected distributed
architecture as well as in centralized ones. In each case logic controller has been associated directly with
the corresponding unit of process equipment, with little or no communication between it and other logic
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controllers. The late 1970s PLCs and computers started to be connected together in integrated systems for
factory automation.
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4.1.2 Computer-based Control System Developments

The first application of computers to industrial processes was in the areas of plant monitoring and
supervisory control. In September 1958, the first industrial computer system for plant monitoring was
installed at an electric utility power generating station. This innovation provided an automatic data
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acquisition capability. In 1959 and 1960, supervisory computer control systems were installed in a
refinery and in a chemical plant. In these applications, analog controllers were still the primary means of
control. The computer used the available input data to calculate control set points. The next step in the
evolution of computer process control was the use of the computer in the primary loop itself, in a mode
usually known as direct digital control or DDC. The first DDC system was installed in 1963 in a
petrochemical plant. For security, a backup analog control system was provided to ensure that process
could be run automatically in the event of a computer failure. The advantages of digital control over
analog control: tuning parameters and set points, complex control algorithms can be implemented to

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improve plant operation, and control tuning parameters can be set adaptively to track changing operating
conditions. As the result of developments described above, two industrial control system architectures
came to dominate the scene by the end of the 1970s. The typical examples of these architectures are
shown in figure below.
4.1.3 Hybrid System Architecture
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Fig. Hybrid System Architecture

The figure shown in hybrid architecture one, making use of a combination of discrete control
hardware and computer hardware in a central location to implement the required control functions. In this
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approach, first level or local control of the plant unit operations is implemented by using discrete analog
and sequential logic controllers. Panel board instrumentation connected to these controllers is used for
operator interfacing and is located in the central control room area. A supervisory computer and
associated data acquisition system are used to implement the plant management functions, including
operating point optimization, alarming, data logging and historical data storage and retrieval. The
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computer also used to drive its own operator interface, usually consisting of one or more video display
units (VDUs).
4.1.4 Central Computer System Architecture
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In this type, all system functions are implemented in high-performance computer hardware in a central
location. In general, redundant computers are required so that the failure of a single computer does not shut the
whole process down. Operator interfacing for plant management functions is provided using computer driven
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VDUs. Operator interfacing for first-level continuous and sequential closed-loop control also may be implemented
using VDUs. Optionally, the computers can be interfaced to standard panel board instrumentation so that the
operator in charge of first-level control can use a more familiar set of control and display hardware. Note both of
the above systems use computers. The main difference between the two systems is the location of the
implementation of the first level continuous and sequential logic control functions.

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Fig. Central Computer System Architecture
4.2 Distributed Control System (DCS) Architecture
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Introduction: The biggest disadvantages of the centralized computer control architecture is that
the central processing unit (CPU) represents a single point process if it is lost. Another problem with
these computer-based systems has been that the software required to implement all of the functions is
extremely complex, and requires a priesthood of computer experts to develop the system. The centralized
system is limited in its capability to accommodate change and expansion. The disadvantages of hybrid
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system architecture has its deficiencies. It is composed of many different subsystems. Starting them up
and making them work as an integrated whole is no less difficult task. The hybrid approach also is
functionality limited compared to the central computer based system.
The limitation of centralized computer system and hybrid system introduced distributed control
system. The devices in this (DCS) architecture are grouped into three categories; those that interface
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directly to the process to be controlled or monitored, those that perform high-level human interfacing and
computing functions, and those that provide the means of communication between the other devices. A
brief definition of each device is given below:
Local Control Unit (LCU): The smallest collection of hardware in the system that can do closed
loop control. The LCU interfaces directly to process.
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Low Level Human Interface (LLHI): A device that allows the operator or instrument engineer to
interact with LCU (eg: to change set points, control modes, control configurations, or tuning parameters)
using a direct connection. LLHIs can also interface directly to the process. Operator-oriented hardware at
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this level is called Low Level Operator Interface (LLOI); instrument engineer–oriented hardware is called
a Low Level Engineering Interface (LLEI).
Data Input / Output Unit (DI/OU): A device that interfaces to the process alone for the purpose
of acquiring or outputting data. It performs no control functions.
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High Level Human Interfaces (HLHI): A collection of hardware that performs functions similar
to the LLHI but with increased capability and user friendliness. It interfaces to other devices only over the
shared communication facilities. Operated-oriented hardware at this level is called a High Level Operator
Interface (HLOI); instrument engineer-oriented hardware is called a High Level Engineering Interface
(HLEI).
High Level Computing Device (HLCD): A collection of microprocessor based hardware that
performs plant management functions traditionally performed by a plant computer. It interfaces to other
devices only over the shared communication facilities.

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Fig. Generalized Distributed Control System
Computer Interface Device (CID): A collection of hardware that allows an external general
purpose computer to interact with devices in DCS using shared communication facilities.
Shared Communication Facilities: One or more levels of communication hardware and
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associated software that allow the sharing of data among all devices in DCS. Shared communication
facilities do not include dedicated communication channels between hardware elements within the device.
4.3 Comparison of Architectures
The development of distributed control systems has been to maintain the best features of the
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central computer control and hybrid architectures described.

FEATURE HYBRID CENTRAL COMPUTER DISTRIBUTED
1. Scalability and Good - due to Poor – very limited range of Good - due to modularity.
expandability modularity. system size.
2. Control capability Limited – analog and Full - digital control Full - digital control
sequential control capability. capability.
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hardware.
3.Operator Limited by panel Digital hardware provides Digital hardware provides
interfacing board instrumentation. significant improvement for improvement for full
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capability large systems. range of system sizes.

4. Integration of Poor - due to variety All functions performed by Functions integrated in a
system functions of products. central computer. family of products.
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5. Significance of Low - due to High. Low - due to modularity.

single point failure modularity.
6. Installation costs High – discrete Medium- saves control and Low – savings in both
wiring, large volume equipment room space, but wiring costs and
of equipment. use discrete wiring. equipment space.
7. Maintainability Poor –many module Medium- requires highly Excellent - automatic
types; few diagnostics. trained computer diagnostics and module
maintenance personnel. replacement.

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4.4 Local Control Unit (LCU) Architecture

The LCU is the smallest collection of hardware in the DCS that performs closed loop control.
That is, it takes inputs from process-measuring devices and commands from operator and computes the
control outputs needed to make the process follow the command. It then sends control output to actuators,
drives valves and other mechanical devices that regulate the flows, temperatures, pressures, and other
variables to be controlled in the plant. An LCU malfunction can cause a condition that is hazardous to
both people and equipment. Its proper design is critical to the safe and efficient operation of the plant.
4.4.1 Basic Elements of a Microprocessor-Based Controller
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Fig. Basic elements of a Local Control Unit

The basic elements of a LCU are shown in figure. The microprocessor along with the associated
clock comprises the central processing unit (CPU) of the controller. ROM is used for permanent storage
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of controller programs. RAM is used for temporary storage of information. Depending upon the type of
microprocessor used, RAM and ROM can be located on the microprocessor chip or on separate memory
chip. The LCU must have I/O circuitry so that it can communicate with the external world by reading in,
or receiving analog and digital data as well as sending similar signals out. The CPU communicates with
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the other elements in the LCU over an internal shared bus that transmits addressing, data control and
status information in addition to the data.
The controller structure shown in figure is the minimum required to perform basic control
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functions. The control algorithms could be coded in assembly language and loaded into ROM. After the
controller was turned on, it would read inputs, execute the control algorithms, and generate control inputs
in a fixed cycle indefinitely. However, because the situation is not this simple in industrial applications,
the controller structure shown in figure must be enhanced to include the following:
 Flexibility of changing control configuration.
 Ability to use the controller without being computer expert.
 Ability to bypass the controller in case it fails so that the process still can be controlled manually.
 Ability of the LCU to communicate with other LCUs and other elements in the system.

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4.4.2 LCU Architecture

There are three configurations are shown in LCU architecture.
i) Configuration A ii) Configuration B and iii) Configuration C.
Configuration A: In configuration A the controller size is the minimum required to perform a
single loop of control or a single motor control function or other simple sequencing function. LCU that
provides both analog and digital inputs and outputs and executes both continuous and logic function
blocks. All outputs in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 seconds maximum.
Controller size: Number of functions needed for single PID loop or motor controller.
Controller functionality: Uses both continuous and logic function blocks.
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Controller scalability: High degree of scalability from small to large systems.
Controller performance: Requirement can be met with simple and inexpensive set of microprocessor
based hardware.
Communication channels: Need inter module communications for control.
Controller output security: Controller has single loop integrity; usually only manual backup is needed.
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Fig. LCU Architecture Configurations

Configuration B: Configuration B represents architecture in which two different types of LCUs are used
to provide the full range of required continuous and logic functions. Outputs in the range of 0.1 to 0.5
seconds.
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Controller Size: Includes functions and I/O needed for eight control loops and a small logic controller.
Controller functionality: Continuous and logic function blocks split between controllers.
Controller scalability: Requires both types even in small systems.
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Controller performance: Because of functional split, performance requirements are not excessive. It is
usually implemented using a high-performance eight bit or an average performance 16bit microprocessor
and matching memory components.
Communication channels: Functional separation requires close interface between controller types.
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Controller output security: Lack of single loop integrity requires redundancy in critical applications.
Configuration C: Configuration C represents a multi loop controller architecture in which both
continuous and logic functions are performed. Outputs in the range of 0.5 seconds of less.
Controller size: System size is equivalent to small DDC system.
Controller functionality: Uses both continuous and logic function blocks: can support high level
languages.
Controller scalability: Not scalable to very small systems.

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Controller performance: Hardware must be high performance to execute large number of functions.
Usually implemented with one or more 16bit or 32bit microprocessor in conjunction with support
hardware such as arithmetic co processors to attain the required speed.
Communication channels: Large communication requirement to human interface: minimal between
controllers.
Controller output security: Size of controller requires redundancy in all applications.
4.4.3 Comparison of LCU Architecture
ARCHITECTURE CONFIGURATION A CONFIGURATION B CONFIGURATION C
Parameters (Single Loop) (2 LCU Types) (Multi-Loop)
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1. Controller size Single PID loop or motor 8 control loops Small DDC system
controller Small logic controller
2. Controller Both continuous and Split between controllers Can support high-level
functionality logic blocks languages
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3. Controller Small to large systems Both even in small systems Not very small systems
scalability
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4. Controller Simple & Inexpensive Requirements not excessive High performance to
performance microprocessor based execute large no. of
hardware functions
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5. Communication Need inter module Close interface between Large- human interface,
channels communications for controller types min- bet controllers
control; min. need for
human interface
6. Controller output Controller has single loop Lack of single loop integrity; Requires redundancy in
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security integrity; Only manual requires redundancy in critical all application

backup application
4.5 LCU-Process Interfacing Issues

Figure shows a block diagram illustrating these other interfaces from the point of view of the
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LCU. This figure expands on the basic LCU elements through the addition of interfaces to external
communication facilities and to a low-level human interface device. The communication interfaces permit
the LCU to interact with the rest of the distributed system to accomplish several functions:
 To allow several LCUs to implement control strategies that is larger in scope than possible with a
single LCU.
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 To allow transmission of process data to higher-level elements.

 To allow these Higher-level elements to transmit information requests and control commands to
the LCUs.
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 To allow two or more LCUs to act together as redundant controllers to perform the same control
or computational functions.
 To augment I/O capability of LCUs with that of data input/output units in system.
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Fig. LCU Interfaces to Distributed System Elements
The LLHI device and its associated interface hardware allow several important human interfacing
functions to be accomplished through hardware that is connected directly to the LCU rather than over the
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shared communication facilities. These functions include:

 Allowing the plant operator to select control set points and controller modes.
 Allowing the plant operator to override automatic equipment and control the process manually in
case of a controller hardware failure of other system malfunction.
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 Allowing the plant instrumentation engineer to Configure control system logic and later tune
control system parameters.
4.6 Security Design Issues for LCU
4.6.1 Security Requirements
The first priority of the user of any process control system is to keep the process running under
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safe operating conditions. One way of designing a highly reliable control system is to manufacture it
using only the highest quality of components, conduct extensive burn-in testing of the hardware, and
implement other quality control measures in the production process. The security objectives necessary in
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designing a DCS in the following hierarchy:

 Maximize availability of automatic control functions of the system. Failure of a single control
system element does not shut all automatic control functions.
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 Automatic control to manual control, if a portion of the control system failure happens.
 If critical (both automatic and manual function) failure, operator can shut down the process in an
orderly and safe manner.
4.6.2 Overview of Security Design Approaches
There are three basic categories of security approaches currently in use.
i) Manual backup only.
ii) Hot standby redundant controller.
iii) Multiple active controller.

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i) Provide manual backup only: In this case, each LCU is designed to implement only one or two
control loops, and the operator take over manual control in case of a failure of the LCU. The control
output is fed back to the manual backup station and to the computation section of the controller so that
inactive element can synchronize its output with the active element. This ensures that the out to the
process will not be bumped when a switchover from the active to the inactive device occurs.
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Fig. Manual Backup Approach
ii) Provide a standby redundant controller: In this case, the LCU is backed up by another LCU
that takes over if the primary controller fails. In this way, full automatic control is maintained even under
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failure conditions. The control output is fed back to both controllers to allow bump less transfer to be
accomplished.
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Fig. Hot Standby Redundancy Approach
iii) Provide multiple active controllers: In this case, several LCUs are active at the same time in
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reading process inputs, calculating control algorithms, and producing control outputs to the process. Since
only one output can be used at a time, voting circuitry selects the valid outputs. Failure of one of the
controllers does not affect the automatic control function. The selected control output is fed back so that
each controller can compare its own output with the output generated by the voting device.
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Fig. Multiple Active Redundant Controllers

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4.6.3 Secure Control Output Design

Techniques to improve security of the control output circuitry:
 Minimum output in D/A converters.
 Safe level when LCU fails (both analog and digital).
 Independent power supply for control output and rest of LCU.
 Actual value of output to be read back by rest of the LCUs.

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 Minimum number of components and electrical connections between control output hardware
and field terminating point.
4.6.3.1 Multiplexed Control Output Configuration
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Fig. Multiplexed Control Output Configuration
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In this scheme, a single D/A converter is used to produce several control outputs by including an
analog multiplexer in the circuitry. To generate each output, the microprocessor writes the proper values
to the output register shown, and the D/A converter generates a corresponding analog voltage. At
effectively the same time, the processor instructs the multiplexer to switch the output of the D/A
converter to the proper hold circuit. This hold circuit is an analog memory that stores the output value and
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causes the current driver to generate the appropriate output current, usually in the 4-20mA range. Then
the processor writes the next output value into the register and directs the D/A converter output to the
next hold circuit through the MUX. This process occurs on a cyclic basis at least several times per
second.
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4.6.3.2 Secure Control Output Configuration

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Fig. Secure Control Output Configuration

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In this case, the D/A converter is dedicated to generating a single control output. Also provision is
made to allow the processor to “read back” the value of the control output. This is done by means of a
current-to-voltage converter and an A/D converter. The processor uses this capability to verify that the
control output has been generated correctly. In some systems, a known reference voltage is switched into
the A/D converter and the processor checks the output value of the converter. The processor can then take
into account and correct any errors that occur in the process of reading the A/D converter output and
generating the control output values to the D/A converter.
4.6.3.3 Pulsed Control Output Configuration
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Fig. Pulsed Control Output Configuration
In this case, the LCU processor is directly involved in the output generation process by generating
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raise and lower command to an up/down counter in the output channel. This counter responds the
commands by incrementing or decrementing a digital value in memory. This value is fed to the D/A
converter, which generates a control output through the current driver. The processor keeps track of the
output through the current-to-voltage converter and A/D converter circuitry shown and manipulates the
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raise and lower commands until the output reaches the desired value.
4.6.3.4 Secure Digital Output Configuration
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Fig. Secure Digital Output Configuration

An output read back capability also can be added to this configuration if desired. The fail safe
output selection section is much simpler in the digital output case than in analog one. In the digital case,
there are only two states (0 or 1) and selecting and generating the safe state is a relatively straight forward
process.
4.7 Redundant Controller Designs
Guidelines to follow designing redundant control system.
1. Redundant architecture should be simple as possible. At some point more hardware reduces
system reliability.
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2. The architecture must minimize potential single points of failure. The redundant hardware
elements must be as independent as possible so that the failure of any one does not bring the rest
down as well.
3. The redundant nature of the controller configuration should be transparent to the user; that is, the
user should be able to deal with the redundant system in the same way as a non-redundant one.
4. The process should not be bumped when failure occurs.
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5. After a control element has failed, the system should not rely on control element till replacement.
6. Hot spare replacement; replace failed elements without shut down.
Several approaches to designing a redundant LCU architecture:
i) CPU redundancy
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ii) One-on-one redundancy
iii) One-on-many redundancy
iv) Multiple active redundancy
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4.7.1 CPU Redundancy
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Fig. CPU Redundancy Configuration

The configuration shown in figure only the CPU portion of the LCU is redundant, while the I/O
circuitry is not redundant. The CPU is redundant because its failure affects all of the control outputs. Only
one of the CPUs is active in reading inputs, performing control computations, and generating control
outputs at any one time. The user designates the primary CPU through the priority arbitrator circuitry,
using a switch setting or other mechanism. The arbitrator monitors the operation of the primary CPU, if it
detects a failure in the primary, the arbitrator transfers priority to the backup. During operation, the
backup CPU periodically updates its internal memory by reading the state of the primary CPU through

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the arbitrator. While both CPUs are connected to the plant communication system, only the primary is
active in transmitting and receiving messages over this link. The main operator and engineering interface
in this system is the high-level human interface. A CRT-based video display unit that interfaces with the
LCU as if it were non-redundant. Only the primary CPU will accept control commands or configuration
and tuning changes transmitted by the VDU.
4.7.2 One-on-One Backup Redundancy
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Fig. One-on-One Backup Redundancy
The remaining three redundancy approaches provide for redundancy in the control output circuitry
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as well as in the CPU hardware. Most of these architectures do not provide a low-level operator interface
for manual backup purposes. The approach provides a total backup LCU to the primary LCU. The control
output circuitry is duplicated in this case; an output switching block must be included to transfer the
outputs when the controller fails. As in the first redundant configuration, a priority arbitrator designates
the primary and backup LCUs and activates the backup if a failure in the primary is detected. In this
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configuration, the arbitrator has the additional responsibility of sending a command to the output
switching circuitry, if the primary LCU fails, causing the backup LCU to generate the control outputs.
Communication with the high-level human interface are handled in the same way as in the CPU
redundant configuration.
The main advantages of the one-on-one configuration, compared to the previous CPU redundant
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approach, are that no manual backup is needed. It eliminates any questions that may arise with a partial
redundancy approach.
4.7.3 One-on-Many Backup Redundancy
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More cost effective approach to redundancy. Single LCU is used as a hot standby to back up any
one of several primary LCUs. In other configurations, an arbitrator is required to monitor the status of the
primaries and switch in the backup when a failure occurs. In this case, there is no way of knowing ahead
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of time which primary controller the backup would have to replace. A general switching matrix is
necessary to transfer the I/O from the failed controller to the backup. This configuration is loaded into the
backup LCU from the primary LCU only after the primary has failed. This approach violates the second
and fifth design guidelines list. A better approach would be to store a copy of each primary LCU’s control
configuration in the arbitrator. When an LCU failure occurs, the arbitrator could then load the proper
configuration into the backup LCU.

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Fig. One-on-Many Backup Redundancy
4.7.4 Multiple Active Redundancy
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Fig. Multiple Active Redundancy

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Three or more redundant LCUs are used to perform the same control functions performed by one
in the non-redundant configuration. In this one all of the redundant controllers are active at the same time
in reading process inputs, computing the control calculation, and generating control outputs to the
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process. Each LCU has access to all of the process inputs needed to implement the control configuration.
An output voting device selects one of the valid control outputs from the controllers and transmits it to the
control process. When a controller fails, it is designed to generate an output outside the normal range. The
output voting device will then discard this output as an invalid one. The voting device is designed to
select the signal generated by at least two out of the three controllers.
The main advantage of this approach is that, as long as the output voting device is designed for
high reliability, it significantly increases the reliability of the control system.

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4.8 Process Input / Output Design Issues

4.8.1 Input / Output Requirements
The first dimension is simply the large variety of input/output signals that the control system must
handle in order to interface with sensors, analyzers, transmitters, control actuators and other field
mounted equipment.
The second problem in providing cost effective I/O hardware is the wide range of input and output
performance specifications that are imposed to facilitate interfacing with various types of field
equipment.
 Common and normal mode voltage rejection.
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 Voltage isolation between terminal and system elements.
 Input impedance requirements.
 Ability to drive loads.
The third dimension to the I/O problem is the varying degree of I/O “hardening” required in
different applications.
 No hardening is required- application requires low-cost hardware.
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 Application is in a hazardous environment- I/O hardware must be designed to be explosion proof.
 Field mounted equipment is subject to lightening strikes or large induced voltage spikes- I/O
hardware must be designed to withstand high level voltage surges.
 Field mounted equipment is subject to Radio frequency Interference (RFI)- I/O hardware must be
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shielded, filtered or isolated from RFI environment to minimize or eliminate errors due to this
type of noise.
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4.8.2 Input / Output Design Approaches
» Separate unit DI/DO
» Augment in LCU
4.9 Communication Facilities
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Fig. Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring

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Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring: In conventional non-distributed control systems, the

connections that allow communication between the various system elements. This system consists of a
combination of continues controllers, sequential controllers, data acquisition hardware, panelborad
instrumentation, and a computer system. The controllers communicate with each other by means of point-
to-point wiring. This approach to interconnecting system elements has proven to be expensive to design
and check out, difficult to change, burdensome to document, and subject to errors.
• Advantage:
– In conventional system communication between system elements travels at the speed of
light with zero delay.
– No overloading a channel.
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• Disadvantage:
– Expensive to design.
– Difficult to change.
– Subject to errors.
Communication Facility as a “Black Box”: When DCS were introduced in the late 1970s; the
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use of digital communications was extended to control-oriented systems as well. The communication
system began to be viewed as a facility that the various elements and devices in the distributed network
share as “black box”, replace the point to point wiring and cabling.
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Fig. Communication Facility as a “Black Box”

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• Advantage:
– Cost of plant wiring is reduced because 1000 of wires are replaced by the few cables or
buses used to implement shared communication system.
– Flexibility of marking changes increases because of it is software configuration.
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– Less time to implement large system since the wiring labor is nearly eliminated,
Configuration error reduced.
– Control is more reliable due to reduction in physical connection. So failure is easily
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identified.
• Disadvantage:
– Delay occurs between communication systems.
4.8.1 Communication System Requirements
• Minimize delay and maximize security transmission.
• Transmission of process variables, control variables, and Alarm status information from LCU to
HLHI, and LLHI in the system.

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• Communication of special commands, operating modes, control variables from the HLHI to LCU
for the purpose of supervisory control.
• Down loading of control system configuration, tuning parameters and user programs from HLHI
to LCUs.
• Transmission of information from data input/output unit to high level computing devices for the
purpose of data acquisition.
• Transfer of large block of data (data base) / programs from one high level computing devices to
another high level computing devices or low level computing devices.
• Synchronization of real time among all of the elements in the DCS.
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4.8.2 Communication System Performance Requirements
• Maximum size of the system.
– Distance; number of devices.
• Maximum delay time through the system.
• Interaction between LCU architecture and communication facility.
• Rate of undetected errors occurring in the system.
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• Sensitivity to traffic loading.
• System scalability.
• System fault tolerance.
• Interfacing requirements.
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• Ease of application and maintenance.
• Environment specification.
4.8.3 Architectures Issues
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4.8.3.1 Channel Structure
The first decision to make in evaluating or designing a communications facility is whether to
choose a parallel or serial link as the communication medium.
Parallel: Multiple conductors or wire to carry a combination of data and handshaking signal. It
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provides a higher message throughput rate than does the serial approach.
Disadvantages:
– More cost.
– Arrive data at different time if distance between nodes become large (IEEE 488 BUS).
Serial: Uses only a single coaxial cable, fibre optic link, or pair of wires.
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Advantages:
– Cable cost is less.
– Long distance.
– Use baseband signal.
4.8.3.2 Levels of Subnetworks
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Sub network is defined to be a self-contained communication system:

• It has own address structure.
• Allows communications among elements connected to it using a specific protocol.
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• Allows communication between elements directly connected to it and elements in other sub
networks through an interface device that “translates” the message addresses and protocols of the
two subnetworks.
• Local subnetwork- Located in central control room. Allow high level devices to
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intercommunicate.
• Plant level subnetwork –Interconnect the control room elements with the distributed elements in
process.

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Fig. Communication system Partioning-example1
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Fig. Communication system Partioning-example 2

4.8.4 Communication System Standards
• CAMAC-Computer Automated Measurement And Control.
• IEEE 488 BUS
• PROWAY-PROcess data highWAY.
• IEEE 802 Network.

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Unit V Interfaces in DC S
Unit – V INTERFACES IN DCS

Syllabus:
Operator interfaces - Low level and high level operator interfaces – Operator displays –
Engineering interfaces – Low level and high level engineering interfaces – General purpose computers in
DCS.
5.1 Operator Interfaces
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5.1.0 Introduction
Automated equipment to be used in a safe and effective manner, however, it is absolutely
necessary to have a well-engineered human interface system to permit error-free interactions between the
humans and the automated system. Two distinct groups of plant personnel interact with the control
system on a regular basic:
• Instrumentation and control engineers: These people are responsible for setting up the control
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system initially and adjusting and maintaining it from time to time afterwards;
• Plant operators: These people are responsible for monitoring, supervising and running the
process through the control system during startup, operation and shutdown condition.
As generalized distributed control system architecture shows, a human interface capability can be
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provided at one or both of two levels:
• Low Level Human Interface: LLHI connected directly to local control unit (LCU) or data input
output unit (DI/DO) via dedicated cabling.
• High Level Human Interface: HLHI connected to LCU or DI/DO via shared communication
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facility.
The low-level human interface equipment used in DCS usually resembles the panelboard instrumentation
(stations, indicators, and recorders), and tuning devices used in conventional electric analog control
systems. The HLHI equipment makes maximum use of the latest display technology (e.g., CRTs or flat-
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panel displays) and peripheral devices (e.g., printers and magnetic storage) that are available on the
market. The LLHI generally is located geographically close to (within 100-200 feet of) the LCU or
DI/DO to which it is connected.
Some examples of typical installations and their corresponding equipment configurations are
shown in the below:
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Fig. Stand-Alone Control Configuration

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Figure shows a relatively small and simple installation. A single LCU located in the plant
equipment room performs all of the required control functions. Low-level human interface units located
in the equipment room and the plant control room, provide the complete operator and instrument engineer
interface for the control system. This type of equipment configuration is typical of a stand-alone control
system for a small process or of a small digital control system installed in a plant controlled primarily
with conventional electrical analog or pneumatic equipment.
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Fig. Geographically Centralized Control Configuration
A typical structure of a complete plant wide control system is shown in the figure. Several LCUs
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are used to implement the functions required in controlling the process; therefore, the control is
functionally distributed. The LCUs are all located in a central equipment room area, and so it is not a
geographically distributed control system. Both high-level and low-level human interface devices are
located in the control room area for operational purposes. Most of the operator control functions are
performed using the high-level interface; the low-level interface is included in the configuration primarily
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to serve as a backup in case the high-level interface fails. A high-level human interface is located in the
instrument engineer’s area so that control system monitoring and analysis can be done without disturbing
plant operations. This type of installation is typical of early distributed control system configurations in
which equipment location and operator interface design followed conventional practices.
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Fig. Geographically Distributed Control Configuration

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Another example shows a fully distributed control system configuration. In this case, each LCU is
located in the plant area closest to the portion of the process that it controls. Associated low-level human
interface equipment is also located in this area. The control room and instrument engineering areas
contain high-level human interface units, which are used to perform all of the primary operational and
engineering functions. The low-level units are used only as manual backup controls in case the high-level
equipment fails or needs maintenance. This configuration takes advantage of two areas of equipment
savings that result from a totally distributed system architecture;
i) Reduction in control room size (by eliminating panelboard equipment),
ii) Reduction in field wiring costs (by placing LCUs near the process).
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These examples of system configurations illustrate the point that human interface equipment in a
distributed control system must be designed to meet a wide range of applications:
 Large as well as small systems.
 Centralized equipment configuration (often used in retrofit installations made long after original
plant construction) as well as distributed ones (likely in “grass roots” installation made during
plant construction).
 Variety of human interface philosophies, ranging from accepting CRT only operation to requiring
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panelboard instrumentation in at least a backup role.
5.1.1 Operator Interface requirements
The operator interface in a distributed control system must be allow the operator to perform tasks
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in the following traditional areas of responsibility: Process monitoring, Process control, Process
diagnostics, and process record keeping.
1. Process monitoring: a basic function of the operator interface system is to allow the operator to
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observe and monitor the current state of the process. This function includes the following specific
requirements:
– Current values of all process variables in system.
– Identified by tag rather than address (descriptor for that tag associated TT075/B
“COLUMN TEMPERATURE 75 IN AREA B”).
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– Display of process variable in engineering units with values.

– Variables (functions of basic PV) available with engineering units.
– Variables that are functions of or combinations of the basic PV (e.g., an average of several
temperature, a maximum of several flows, or a computed enthalpy).
 Alarming: Another monitoring function of the operator interface system.
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– Alarm status identified by control and computing devices for each variable in DCS
reported in clear manner.
– Also report similar alarm status for computed variables.
– Display alarm along with process variables or easily accessible to the operator.
– Alert and acknowledge from the operator.
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– Multiple alarms in short time period, operator must inform with priority.
– Multivariable alarm (abnormal depend on several variables) – appropriate mechanism to
report the same.
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 Trend in time: Fast access to recent history of selected process variables are known as trended
variables (TV). Some specific requirements in trending are:
– Group the trended variables by related process function.
– Trend graph must be clearly labeled in engineering units.
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– Able to obtain precise reading of both current and past values recent and trend variable.
– Also show auxiliary information; to evaluate status.
2. Process control: the process monitoring capabilities just described provide the necessary
information for the operator’s primary function – process control. The following specific operator
interface requirements come under the category of process control:
– Operator interface must allow the operator to have rapid access to all continuous and logic
sequences.

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– For each continuous control loop, interface must allow the operator to changing control
modes, set points and monitor results.
– Interface allow the operator to perform logic control operations as starting and stopping
pumps, opening and closing of valves.
– Batch process, the operator interface must allow the operator to observe current status, and
interact to initiate new steps or halt the sequence.
– Both continuous and sequential control cases, interface system allow the operator to have
access to and be able to manipulate control (if any single point failure).
3. Process diagnostics: Monitoring and controlling the process under normal operating conditions
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are relatively simple functions compared to operation under abnormal conditions caused by plant
equipment or in the instrumentation and control system. The operator interface system must
provide enough information during these unusual conditions to allow the operator to identify the
equipment causing problem, take measures to correct it.
– Ongoing tests and reasonable checks on sensors and analyzers that measure the process
variables of interest.
– Ongoing self-tests on components and modules within the DCS itself: controllers,
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communication elements, computing devices, and the human interface equipment itself.
Diagnosing problems within the process itself has been a manual function left to the operator. A
conventional alarming system, for example, may include the most immediate failure symptom but
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provide few clues as to the original source of the alarm condition. As a result, diagnostic functions that
automatic detect process faults are now often required in DCS. These functions may include:
– First-out alarming functions, which tell the operator which alarm in a sequence occurred
first.
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– Priority alarming functions, which rank the current alarms by their importance to process
operation, allowing the operator to safety ignore the less important ones.
– More advanced diagnostic functions that use a combination of alarming information and
data on process variables to identify the item of failed process equipment and the mode of
failure.
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4. Process record keeping: One of the more tedious that operating people on a process plant must
perform has been to walk the board; that is, to take a pencil and clipboard and periodically note
and record the current values of all process variables in the plant. The record keeping burden has
increased significantly in recent years due to logged information. Record keeping was one of the
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first functions to be automated using conventional computers systems. This function often can be
implemented in the operator interface system without the use of a separate computer. Specific
record keeping requirements include the following:
– Recording of short-term trending information.
– Manual input of process data: The operator must be able to enter manually collected
process information into the system for record keeping purpose.
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– Recording of alarms: These are logged on a printer, a data storage device, or both, as they
occur. Often, the return-to-normal status and operator acknowledgements must also be
logged. The information recorded includes the tag name of the process variable, the time
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of alarm, and the type of alarm.

– Periodic records of process variable information: The values of selected variables are
logged on a printer, data storage devices, or both on a periodic basic (every few minutes or
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hours).
– Long-term storage and retrieval of information: The alarm and periodic logs as described
above are accessible for short term periods like, a single eight-hour shift or a single day. In
addition, the same information must store on a long term basis (months or years).
– Recording of operator control actions: Some process plants require the actions of the
operator affecting control of the process to be recorded automatically.
5. Guidelines for human factors design: Operator interfacing has often been designed more for the
convenience for the equipment vendor or architect-engineer.

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Guidelines for designing operator interface systems for industrial control include the following:
– Full range of expected operator population (male, female, large, small).
– Minor disabilities (color blindness, near sightedness).
– For operators not computer programmers.
– Rapid access to all necessary controls and displays.
– Arrange (equipment, displays) based on operational point of view, cluster.
– Use colors, symbols, labels to minimize operator confusion.
– Do not flood parallel information; give prioritized, arranged and meaningful.
– Aid with operator guides, menus, prompts or interactive sequences.
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– Detect and filter erroneous operator input, tell operator what to do next.
– Control room equipment is consistent with proper selection and design of equipment.
5.1.2 Low-Level Operator Interface
The Low-Level Operator Interface (LLOI) in a distributed control system is connected directly to
the LCU and is dedicated to controlling and monitoring that LCU. LLOIs are used in a variety of
applications, in some cases in conjunction with high-level operator interfaces (HLOIs) and in others in
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place of them. There are a number of motivations for using an LLOI:
• It provides an interface that is familiar to trained operators to use panelboard instrumentation,
since it is usually designed to resemble that type of instrumentation.
• It is usually less expensive than an HLOI in small applications.
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• It can provide manual backup in case the automatic control equipment or HLOI fails.
LLOI instrumentation usually includes the following devices: control stations, indicator stations, alarm
annunciators, and trend recorders.
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Continuous Control Station: One type of panelboard instrumentation used in process control
systems is the manual / automatic station associated with a continuous control loop. The continuous
control stations are split from LCU.
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Fig. Continuous Control Station

Figure illustrates a typical version of smart continuous control station in a DCS. Most
conventional control station has one bar graph indicators that display the process variable associated set
point (“SP”), and the control output as a percent of scale (“OUT”). In addition, the smart station includes
a shared digital display to provide a precise reading of each of these variables in engineering units. The
shared digital display also can be used to indicate the high and low alarm limits (“HI ALM” and “LO

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ALM”) on the process variable when selected by the operator. Pushbuttons allow the operator to change
the mode of control and to ramp the set point (“SET”) or control output (“OUT”), depending on the
mode. To minimize requirements for spare parts, one basic control station should be used for all types of
control loops.
Manual Loader Station: A device is still needed to hold the 4-20mA control output signal if the
LCU fails or is taken off-line for maintenance or other reasons. A simple manual loader station is a low
cost alternative to the continuous control station for the purposes of backup. The manual loader station is
plugged in at the same point as the continuous control station but only allows the operator to run the loop
in manual mode. Both the continuous control station and the manual loaders station should be powered
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from a different supply than that used for the LCU, to ensure continuous backup in case of an LCU power
failure.
Indicator Station: The indicator station is similar to the control station in that it provides both bar
graph and digital numeric readouts of the process variables in engineering units.an indicator station
requires no control push buttons. However, it often provides alarming and LCU diagnostic indications, as
does the continuous control station.
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Fig. Logic Control Station

Logic Station: Figure shows a control station for a logic control or sequential control system. It
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consists simply of a set of push buttons and indicating lights that are assigned different meanings
depending on the logic functions being implemented. This type of station is used to turn pumps on and
off, start automatic sequences, or provide permissive or other operator inputs to the logic system. In some
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systems, the logic control station performs a manual backup function similar to that performed by the
continuous control station in case of a failure of an LCU. More often, the logic station acts simply as a
low cost operator interface.
Smart Annunciators: Alarm annunciator in distributed control systems are often microprocessor
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based, providing a level of functionality beyond the capability of conventional hard-wired annunciator
systems. These smart annunciators can provide such functions as:
 Alarm prioritization: The annunciator differentiates between status annunciation and true alarms.
 Annunciation and acknowledgement mode options: The operator receives a variety of audible and
visible alarm annunciation signals like horn, buzzers, flashing lights, and voice messages.
 First-out annunciation: The annunciator displays the first alarm that appears within a selected
group.

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 Alarm “cutout”: The annunciator suppresses an alarm condition if other specified statuses
conditioned are fulfilled.
Chart Recorders: Although conventional round chart or strip chart recorders are often used to
record process variables in a DCS, digital recorders which use microprocessors are becoming more cost
effective and popular. The digital recorder gathers trend data in its memory and displays the data to the
operator using a liquid crystal panel or other flat display device. Each process variable can be recorded
using a different symbol or color to allow the operator to distinguish between the variables easily.
Because of the flexibility of the printing mechanism and the memory capabilities of the recorder,
intermittent printing of the process variables can supplement the display output without losing any of the
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stored information.
5.1.3 High-Level Operator Interface
The high-level operator interface in a DCS is a shared interface that is not dedicated to any
particular LCU. Rather, the HLOI is used to monitor and control the operation of the process through any
or all of the LCUs in the distributed system. Information passes between the HLOI and the LCUs by
means of the shared communications facility. While the LLOI hardware resembles conventional
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panelboard instrumentation, HLOI hardware uses CRT or similar advanced display technology in console
configurations often called video display units (VDUs). The HLOI accepts operator inputs through
keyboards instead of the switches, push buttons, and potentiometers characteristic of conventional
operator interface panels.
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In general, the use of microprocessor-based digital technology in the design of HLOI system
allows the development of a hardware configuration. This configuration provides the user with several
significant advantages over previous approaches.
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 Control room space is reduced significantly; one or a few VDUs can replace panelboards several
feet to 200 feet in length, saving floor space and equipment expense.
 One can design the operator interface for a specific process plant in a much more flexible manner.
There is no panelboard instrumentation operation.
 Using microprocessors permits cost effective implementation of functions that previously could
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be accomplished only with expensive computers.

5.1.3.1 Architectural Alternatives
All HLOI units in distributed control systems are consists of operator display, keyboard or other
input device, main processor and memory, disk memory storage, interface to the shared communication
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facility, and hard copy devices and other peripherals. However, the architectures of the various HLOIs on
the market vary significantly depending on the way in which these common elements are structured.
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Fig. Centralized HLOI Configuration

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Figure shows architecture commonly used in computer-based control systems and early
distributed systems. In this architecture, there is a single central processing unit that performs all of the
calculations, database management and transfer operations, and CRT and keyboard interfacing functions
for the entire HLOI system. A separate communication controller interfaces the central processor with the
shared communications facility.
There are several advantages to this configuration. First, there is a single database of plant
information that is updated from the communication system. As a result, each of the CRTs has access to
any of the control loops or data points in the system. This is desirable; since it means that the CRTs are all
redundant and can be used to back each other up in case of a failure. Another advantage is that the
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peripherals can be shared and need not be dedicated to any particular CRT/keyboard combination. This
can reduce the number of peripherals required in some situations.
The disadvantages of this configuration are similar to those of all centralized computer systems:
 It is an “all egg in one basket” configuration, and so is vulnerable to single point failures. In
some cases, redundant element can be provided.
 Any single processor, single memory configuration has limitations on the number of loops and
data points it can handle before its throughput or memory capacity runs out.
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 The centralized architecture is not easily scalable for cost effectiveness; if it is designed properly
to handle large systems, it may be too expensive for small ones.
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Fig. Overlap in HLOI Scope of Control

Figure illustrates a two-to-one overlap configuration, in which three HLOI units control and
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monitor a 600 loop process. With this approach, the loss of any single HLOI unit does not affect the
capability of the operator interface system to control the process. This design approach results in a more
expensive version of an HLOI than one designed to handle a smaller number of points. However, in this
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case each HLOI unit is capable of backing up any other unit in the system.
In the below diagram fixed HLOI configuration shows that is a single HLOI unit consisted of a
communications controller, main processor, CRT and keyboard, and associated mass storage. The only
option for the user was whether to include a printer or other hard copy device. Because of this fixed
configuration of elements, the scope of control and data acquisition of the HLOI unit also was fixed.

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Fig. Fixed HLOI Configuration
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Figure shows one example of a modular HLOI configuration. The base set of hardware in this case
is a communications controller, main processor, single CRT and keyboard, and mass storage unit.
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Fig. Modular HLOI Configuration

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However, the system is designed to accommodate optional hardware such as:

 One or more additional CRTs to allow monitoring of a portion of the process while the primary
CRT is being used for control purposes.
 Additional keyboards for configuration or backup purposes.
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 Hard copy devices such as printers or CRT screen copiers.

 Additional mass storage devices for long term data storage and retrieval.
 Interfaces to trend recorders, voice alarm systems, or other external hardware.
 Interface ports to any special communication systems such as back door networks to other HLOI
units or diagnostic equipment.
 Backups to critical HLOI elements such as the main processor, communications controller, or
shared memory.
The modular approach to HLOI unit design significantly improves configuration flexibility.

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Fig. Modular HLOI Configuration in Detail
The figure shows a more detailed block block diagram of the modular HLOI configuration.
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Usually, an internal bus is used to allow communication of information among the modular elements in
the HLOI. Note that this configuration uses a direct memory access (DMA) port to allow the
communications controller to transfer data directly into the shared memory of the HLOI. The other
elements of the HLOI then can obtain access to this information over the internal bus.
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5.1.3.2 Hardware Elements in Operator Interface

Since the HLOI system is based on digital technology, many of the hardware elements that go into
the system are similar to those used in other portions of the DCS. However, the performance requirements
of the HLOI place special demands on its elements; also the on-line human interface functions performed
by the HLOI require display and input hardware that is unique to this subsystem.
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Microprocessor and Memory components: The microprocessor hardware selected for use in the
HLOI in commercially available systems tends to have the following characteristics:
 It uses one or more standard 16 or 32 bit microprocessors available from multiple vendors; these
are not single sourced special components.
 Its processors are members of a family of standard processors and related support chips.
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 It is designed to operate in a multiprocessor configuration, using a standard bus for

communication between processors and an efficient real time operating system as an environment
for application software.
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The last characteristic is important, since to accomplish the desired computing and data control functions
at the speeds required by the real time operating environment, most HLOI configurations must use
multiple processors.
Operator Input and Output Devices: A great variety of operator input devices have been
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considered for use in industrial control systems:

 Keyboard – There are two kinds of keyboard in use; the conventional electric typewriter type and
the flat panel type.
 Light pen – This device allows a person to “draw” electronically on a CRT screen. In industrial
control systems, the light pen is more often used by the operator to select among various options
displayed on a CRT screen.
 Cursor movement devices – These allow the user to move a cursor around on a CRT screen.
Types of devices used include joy sticks, track balls, and the mouse.

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Touch screens – There are CRTs with associated hardware that allows the user to select from
menus or to “draw” on the screen by directly pointing with a finger.
 Voice input devices – These devices allow a user to speak directly to the HLOI and be understood.
They are most useful for specific commands such as selecting displays or acknowledging alarms.
As with input devices, several types of display and output devices have then considered for use in HLOI
systems:
 CRTs – This still is the dominant technology in the area of operator displays; CRTs come in either
color or monochrome versions.
 Flat panel displays – These include gas plasma, vacuum fluorescent, liquid crystal, and
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electroluminescent displays: most are monochrome only.
 Voice output devices – Usually these are used to generate alarm messages that the operator will
hear under selected plant conditions. The messages can be prerecorded on the tape or computer
generated by voice synthesizer.
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Fig. Two Types of Display Construction

Figure shows these two approaches to display generation. The upper portion of the figure shows
typical characters that are defined and used in combination to create a complete display. The lower
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portion of the figure shows a segment of a display created using the bit mapped approach.
Peripherals: in addition to the processing, memory, input, and display devices required to
perform the basic operation interface functions, the HLOI configuration must include the following
additional peripherals devices to implement the full range of functions:
 Fixed disk drives – This type of mass memory uses non-removable memory media to store large
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amounts of information that must be accessed rapidly.

 Removable mass memory – This type of mass memory, the floppy disk, uses removable memory
disks for storage of information that is to be downloaded to other element in the DCS.
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 Printers and plotters – At least one printer is required to implement the logging and alarm
recording functions. The printer can also provide a hard copy of the CRT displays.
5.2 Operator Displays
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Typical Display Hierarchy: A typical version of this hierarchy, illustrated in the figure is
composed of displays at four levels:
1) Plant level – Displays at this level provide information concerning the entire plant, which can be
broken up into several areas of interest.
2) Area level – Displays at this level provide information concerning a portion of the plant
equipment that is related in some way, e.g., a train of operation process in a refinery or a boiler
turbine generator set in a power plant.

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3) Group level – Displays at this level deal with the control loops and data points relating to a single
process unit within a plant area, such as a distillation column or a cooling tower.
4) Loop level – Displays at this level deal with individual control loops, control sequences, and data
points.
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Fig. Typical Display Hierarchy
5.2.1 Plant-Level Displays

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Fig. Example of a Plant Status Display

This display summarizes the key information needed to provide the operator with the “big picture”
of current plant conditions. This example shows the overall production level at which the plant is
operating compared to full capacity. It also indicates how well the plant is running. In addition, some of

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the key problem areas are displayed. A summary of the names of the various areas in the plant serves as a
main menu to the next level of displays. At the top of the plant status display is a status line of
information provided in all operating displays. This line shows the current day of the week, the date, and
the time of the day for display labeling purposes. In addition, it provides a summary of process alarms
and equipment diagnostic alarms by listing the numbers of the plant areas in which outstanding alarms
exist.
5.2.2 Area-Level Displays
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Fig. examples of Area Overview Display

After obtaining a summary of the plant status, the operator can move down to the next level to
look at the situation in a selected plant area. The figure shows a composite of four of these types. The top
line of the display is the system date and status line described previously. The upper left quadrant
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illustrates an area display type known as deviation overview, which displays in bar graph form the
deviation of key process variables from their corresponding set points. The lower left quadrant of figure
shows a variation of this approach in which a bar graph indicates the absolute value of the process
variable instead of its deviation from set point. Some versions of this display also show the set point and
the high and low alarm limits on the process variable. When one of these limits is exceeded, the bar graph
changes color.
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The upper right hand quadrant of figure shows another approach to the area overview display.
Here the tag numbers of the various loop and process variables are arranged in clusters by group. If the
point associated with a particular tag is not in alarm, its tag number is displayed in a low-key color. If it
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does go into alarm, it changes color and starts flashing to get the attention of the operator. Underlining
also can be used under the tag number, so that a color-blind operator. The lower right hand quadrant
shows a variation of this display. In addition to the tag number itself, the current value of the process
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variable is displayed in engineering units to the right of the tag.

5.2.3 Group-Level Displays
To perform control operations, however, it is necessary to use the displays at the next lower level
in the hierarchy- the group level. Mimics of manual and automatic stations for continuous control loops
occupy the upper left hand corner of the display. The upper right section shows indicator stations that let
the operator view selected process variables. The bottom half of the display is devoted to plotting the
trends of one or more process variables as a function of time. Switching from one group display to

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another is the equivalent the operator move around a panelboard to accomplish the monitoring and
control functions.
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Fig. Example of a Group Display
5.2.4 Loop-Level Displays
The operator uses a few types of displays dealing with single loops or data points for control and
analysis purposes.
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Fig. Example of an X-Y Operating Display

The figure shows one example, X-Y operating display. Here one process variable is plotted as a function
of another to show the current operating point of pair of variables. The operator then can compares this
operating point against an alarm limit curve or an operating limit curve. In the example, the combination
of temperature and pressure for a particular portion of the process may be critical to safety.

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Fig. Example of a Tuning Display
Example of a tuning display is shown figure. The display includes several elements that make the
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tuning function possible:
 A “fast” trend-plotting capability.
 A manual/automatic station to allow the operator to control the loop.
 A list of the tuning parameters (e.g., proportional band, reset rate, derivative rate) associated with
the loop.
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5.3 Engineering Interfaces

5.3.1 Introduction
The human interfaces that allow the plant operator to monitor and control the process, an
engineering interface that is totally independent of the operator interface. As in the case of operating
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interface, normally provide the user a choice between two levels of engineering interface hardware;
1) Low-level, minimum-function devices that is inexpensive and justifiable for small systems.
2) High-level, full-function devices that are more powerful, but which are needed and justifiable for
medium, and large sized DCSs.
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5.3.2 Engineering Interface Requirements

The instrument engineers had to select and procure the control and data acquisition modules,
mount them in cabinets, and do a significant amount of custom wiring between modules. Then the
engineers had to test and check out the entire system manually prior to field installation. Similarly, they
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had to select operator interface instrumentation, mount it in panelboards, wire it up, and test it. They had
to prepare documentation for the entire configuration of control and operator interface hardware and the
corresponding control logic diagrams, usually from manually generated drawings.
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A small number of general purposes, microprocessor-based modules have replaced dozens of

dedicated-function hardware modules. The use of shared communication, links has reduced or eliminated
custom intermodule wiring. CRT based operator consoles have replaced huge panelboards filled with
arrays of stations, indicators, annunciators, and recorders.
This engineering interface hardware must perform functions in the following categories:
 System Configuration: Define hardware configuration and interconnections, as well as control
logic and computational algorithms.

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 Operator Interface Configuration: Define equipment that the operator needs to perform his or
her functions in the system, and define the relationship of this equipment with the control system
itself.
 System Documentation: Provide a mechanism for documenting the system and the operator
interface configuration and for making changes quickly and easily.
 System Failure Diagnosis: Provide a mechanism to allow the instrument engineering to
determine the existence and location of failures in the system in order to make repairs quickly
and efficiently.
5.3.3 Low-Level Engineering Interface
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The low-level engineering interface (LLEI) is designed to be a minimum function, inexpensive
device whose cost is justifiable for small distributed control systems. It also can be used as a local
maintenance and diagnostic tool in larger systems.
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Fig. Examples of Low-Level Engineering Interfaces

The LLEI is usually a microprocessor based device designed either as an electronic module that
mounts in a rack or as a hand held portable device. To minimize cost, the device usually is designed with
a minimal keyboard and alphanumeric display so that the instrument engineer can read data from and
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enter data into the device. Some versions of the LLEI must connect directly to and communicate with
only one local control unit or data input / output unit at a time. The LLEI can be connected or
disconnected while the LCU or DI/OU is powered and in operation; it is not necessary to shut down the
process. In general, the LLEI is a dedicated device that is not used for operational purposes. Therefore, it
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is not needed for engineering use; it can be disconnected from the DCS and locked up for safe keeping.
 System Configuration: When the system provides only an LLEI, the hardware in the system is
selected and configured manually. To simplify this task, provide a system engineering guide or
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documentation. The primary purpose of the LLEI is to provide a tool for configuring the
algorithms in the system configuration (i.e., entering control strategies, setting tuning parameters,
selecting alarm limits, and so forth). In some low-level interface removable mass memory devices
is available and without controller engineer can edit control strategies only with power supply.
The LLEI is not support high-level language program such as BASIC and FORTRAN.
 Operator Interface Configuration:
– Minimum devices – manually
o Assign tag names, labeling station

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– Difficult, time consuming, prone to error

 Documentation
– Manual – with standard forms
 Diagnosis Of System Problems
– Not always connected
– Rely on Self test of equipment
5.3.4 High-Level Engineering Interface
The high-level engineering interface allows a user to reap the full benefits of the flexibility and
control capabilities of a DCS while minimizing the system engineering costs associated with such a
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system. Although more expensive than the low-level version, this device is extremely cost effective when
used in conjunction with medium to large scale systems because of the significant engineering cost
savings it can provide.
The HLEI is implemented in the form of a CRT based console or VDU, similar to the high level
operator interface unit. Flexibility in accommodating hardware’s, like special keyboards or printers. Same
elements of operator interface used for engineering interface. Like the VDU, the engineering console can
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interact with any other elements in DCS through the shared communication facility.
Dual Console Functions: The engineering console is a specialized device that is dedicated to the
engineering function. However, the engineering console can also be used as an operator’s console; a key
lock on the console implements the switch between the two console “personalities”.
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The first key position permits only operator functions like display selection, control operations
such as mode selection and set point modification, and trend graph selection. The second position allows
engineering functions such as control logic configuration, modification and tuning, and system
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documentation as well as operator functions. Some systems provide a third key lock position that allows
the user to perform tuning operations but does not allow the user to modify the control logic structure.
Implementing dual console “personalities” in a single piece of hardware is very cost effective for the user.
Since the engineering functions are needed only during initial system start-up and occasionally system
modifications are made.
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Special Hardware Required: The operator’s console uses a flat panel, dedicated function
keyboard for ruggedness and simplicity of operation. The engineer’s console requires a general purpose
keyboard to promote speed of data entry and to support a wider range of human interface functions. This
keyboard usually is a push button type whose keys are laid out either QWERTY configuration or Dvorak
configuration. The vender may supply additional special purpose keys to allow the user to select special
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characters, symbols, and colors employed in generating control configurations and displays. In additional,
some vendors also supply special color graphic printing or plotting devices, which allow more
sophisticated system documentation to be generated than is possible with standard printer that comes with
an operator’s console.
Portable Engineering Interface: In DCS, CRT based engineering interface device that is a
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compromise between the full function engineering console and the minimum function. Usually, this is a
portable unit that includes a bulk memory device such as a floppy disk or cassette tape drive for storage of
system configuration data. This unit generally is designed to plug into and interface with a single LCU or
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cabinet. It can be very useful and cost effective device for certain system configurations.
5.3.5 System Configuration
• HLEI – major role in automating process
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• Control structures, computational algorithm stored in HLEI. Following information

– Number, type and location of H/W in LCU
– Definition of any H/W selected on each module
– Define input point to H/W module
– Number, type and location of all operator and engineering consoles in the system
– Number, type and location of any other device that communicate using shared
communication facility(special logging or computing device)
• Some manually others automatic using broadcast messages

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Control and computational information

– Tags, descriptors, definitions, addresses
– Logic state descriptors for digital system
– Signal conditioning in DI/OUs
– Communication linkages
– High-level language computation algorithms in LCU
Control and computational logic configuration
 Fill-in-the-blanks function; through sequence of prompts and responses
 Graphics capability engineer draws using light pen, similar to CAD
 Enter debug and check high level language routines
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Storage of configuration
• Use of mass memory to store configuration information
– Control logics without presence of target H/W
– Verify engineer input to LCU; comparison from mass storage
– Failed devices replaced with new one, configuration downloaded to it
– Upload configuration from device to interface
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5.3.6 Operator interface configuration
• Configure or change display structures
– Number of areas in plant, identifying tags and descriptors
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– Number of groups in each area
– Assignment of control loops and input points to group
– Types of display at each level (preformatted or custom)
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– Linkages between displays
– Assignment of points in system for special function
• Layout of display
– Graphic symbols
– Static background elements
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– Dynamic graphics elements

– Dynamic alphanumeric elements
– Control stations
– Poke points- touch screen
• Operator input mechanisms
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– Special function definition

– Graphics drawing and editing
– Symbol modifications
– Macro symbol operations
– Display transportability
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– Expanded display definition

5.3.7 Documentation
• Following documentation automatically
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– List of H/W modules and their location

– Control configuration and associated tuning parameters for each LCU
– Listing of tags, descriptors, H/W address of I/P or O/P modules
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– Listing of special operator interface function with tag

– Operator display in system with drawing and display hierarchy

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Fig. Example of Typical Diagnostic Hierarchy
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Fig. Example of a Diagnostic Display

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5.3.8 Diagnosis of system problems

• Most of H/W devices is microprocessor based, intelligent to perform on-line self-diagnosis
5.4 General Purpose Computers in DCS

The advantages in flexibility, modularity, and user friendliness of the distributed approach to
implementing high-level control and computing functions were noted. The general purpose computer may
well have a role to play in a DCS depending on the background of the user and the needs of the particular

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application. Some of the issues that would motivate a user to include a general purpose computer in a
DCS are:
 Software Investment: The user already may have invested considerable time and resources in
software packages that run on a specific computer. The cost of converting these packages to a
form that would run in a vendor’s distributed computing environment may not be worth the
benefits.
 Specialized Language Requirements: The user’s application may be implemented most readily
by means of a software language that is not available in the system provided by the distributed
control vendors.
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 Extensive Computational Requirements: The speed and memory requirements of a particular
application may preclude the use of microprocessor-based devices. Some examples of large
computing application of this type include modeling large dynamic systems, running large linear
and non-linear programs, and identifying the dynamics of high order systems.
 Personal Computer for Small Systems: Some digital control applications require some high-
level functions but are too small in scope to justify the purchase of any high-level computing or
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human interface devices from the control system vendor. In many of these situations, a personal
computer can provide the functions required (typically, a few data acquisition, logging, and
computational functions).
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sr ef
lect
edbyacor respondi
ngchangeinthesteady
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w
ofthecorr
espondingoutputandonlythatout
put.
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10. Whati
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ti
aldecoupl
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ng?
Decoupleri
susedtoremov
eorcancelt
heint
eract
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ect
sbet
weent
he
twoloopsandthusr
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act
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oll
oops
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UNI
TV -MULTI
VARI
ABLEREGULATORYCONTROL
om
1. I
dent
if
yanyt
wochal
l
engesi
nthecont
rol
ofMI
MOpr
ocess.
 MIMOsy st
emsaremorecompl
ext ocontr
olduetoinher
ent
nonli
nearit
yandduet
otheexi
stenceofint
eract
ionsamonginputand
outputvari
abl
es.
 Cont
rolofnonl
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MOpr ocessi
sachall
engingtaskbecause
.c
nonl
i
nearprocessesdonotsharemanypr
opert
ies.

2. Whati
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ti
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iabl
eCont
rol
?
ul
3. Whatar
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eat
ur
pa
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ull
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ti
var
iabl
econt
rol
l
er?
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atedv
ari
abl
ecandependon2ormoreofthecontr
oll
ed
var
iables.Adynami
calsy
stem i
nwhicht
henumberofei
theri
nputsorout
put
s
jin
i
sgr eatert
han1.
4. Li
stf
ewmet
hodsoft
uni
ngofmul
ti
var
iabl
ePI
Dcont
rol
l
er?
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5. Compar
ethecl
assi
cal
PIDcont
rol
andI
MC.
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assi
cal
pid:
sui
tabl
eforSI
SO,
li
nearandst
abl
esy
stem
I
MC canbeappl
i
cabl
eforMI
MO,
nonl
i
neari
nter
act
ivesy
stem
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6. Const
ructt
hebl
ockdi
agr
am ofmul
ti
var
iabl
ePI
D.
w
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7. I
ll
ust
rat
ethebl
ockdi
agr
am ofI
MC.
ul
pa
jin
8. Whati
sthedesi
redsetpoi
ntt
raj
ect
ory
?
.re
Setpoi
nt (
also setpoint
or
set-
poi
nt)isthedesi r
edort argetval
ueforan
essent
ialvar
iable,orprocessv al
ueofasy stem.Depar t
ureofsuchav ari
able
fr
om i ts setpoint is one basi s for error
-contr
oll
ed regulati
on using
negati
ve
feedback forautomaticcontr
ol.Thesetpoi ntisusuall
yabbrev
iated
toSP,andthepr ocessvalueisusuall
yabbreviat
edtoPV
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w
9. Def
inet
het
ermr
esi
l
iency
.
Resi
l
iencyisonethatmai
ntai
nsstat
eawarenessofanunexpect
edlevel
of
oper
ational
normall
yindi
stur
bancesi
ncl
udingthr
eatsofanunexpect
edand
w
mali
ciousnatur
e.
10. Wr
it
etheobj
ect
ivef
unct
ionf
ormul
ti
var
iabl
eGPC.
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Unit I - Discrete State-Variable Technique Q.No Questions: Scalar Adder Integrator

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UNIT I -DISCRETE STATE-VARIABLE TECHNIQUE

is denoted by eAtor in time domain and eAk in discrete domain.

6. Mention the drawbacks of practical sample / Hold circuit.

2. Nonlinear variations in the duration of sampling aperture.

8. What is the stability criterion for sampled data control system?

12. Classify the basic types of decomposition.

13. What is Bilinear transformation?

14. Illustrate the concept of controllability and observability test.

i. Find observability matrix Qo

15. Construct the state model for the system.

Note : do it either in Jordon form or phase variable form.

16. State the condition for controllability by Kalman’s method.

19. Produce the expression for state feedback gain matrix.

Where a1, a2, … an coefficients of desired system characteristic equation

of the system. . The observer can be designed as either a continuous-time system or

UNIT II - SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION

1. Discuss briefly system identification.

 White box model

5. Write the advantages of transient analysis method.

 In this method the input is taken as a step or impulse and the

7. What is meant by frequency analysis?

developed from statistical methods for spectral estimation. Spectral analysis is

11. Define parametric method of system identification.

13. Classify the methods used for system identification

14. Summarize the steps involved in system identification problem.

15. What are the limitations of LS method?

 It can be quite sensitive to the choice of starting value.

(ii) Phase Variable form. (6)

with block diagram. (8)

(ii) Test the stability of the following system. (5)

(ii) y(k+3)+5y(k+2)+3y(k+1)+2y(k)=u(k+1)+u(k) (7)

WRITE STATE EQUATION

(i) 𝑍 3 − 0.2𝑍 2 − 0.25𝑍 + 0.05 = 0 (6)

11. A discrete time system has the transfer function

1. Summarize the purpose of math instruction as applied to the PLC.

SQL (Sequencer Load):

7. Identify any two functions performed by shift register.

8. Name the various sequencer instructions in PLC.

The two algorithms used in DDC software.

source program i.e. high level language

(BAS/BMS) applications. processes

19. Summarize the types of computer controlled system.

1.Measurement and data acquisition. 2.Data conversion

Unit – IV DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM

Fig. Evolution of Industrial Control Technology

Key Milestones in Control System Evolution:

 1934 – Direct-connected pneumatic controls dominate market.

Department of EIE 1 Chettinad College of Engineering & Technology

4.1.1 Traditional Control Systems Developments

4.1.2 Computer-based Control System Developments

Department of EIE 2 Chettinad College of Engineering & Technology

Fig. Hybrid System Architecture

Department of EIE 3 Chettinad College of Engineering & Technology

Department of EIE 4 Chettinad College of Engineering & Technology

central computer control and hybrid architectures described.

capability large systems. range of system sizes.