Page |1

CONTENT
Hardware( A+)

S.no Topics Page no.

1 Computer Introduction 3
2 Memory Introduction 15
3 RAM 16
4 ROM 19
5 Cache Memory 23
6 Virtual Memory 26
7 Hard Disk 27
8 Motherboard 33
9 Add on Cards 44
10 Processor 46
11 Monitor 53
12 Keyboard 57
13 Mouse 60
14 Speaker 62
15 Projector 63
16 Printer 66
17 Plotter 71
18 Scanner 72
19 SMPS 78
20 UPS 81
21 Hardware Troubleshooting 83

Operating System

S.no Topics Page no.

22 Different OS 99
23 OS Editions, Minimun HW Requirement 100
24 Installing windows 7/8/10 100
25 Upgrading Editions 103
26 OS Upgradation 106
27 File System 109
28 File Security, Encryption, Quota, Compression 111
29 DOS commands 112
30 Batch File 114
31 Virus 116
32 Group Policy 121
 Page |2

CONTENT
S.no Networking ( N+) Page no.
1 Networking Introduction 124

2 Requirement to create network 128

3 Transmission media 130

4 Networking Devices 139

5 Networking Topology 143

6 148
Media Connector
7 Cabling 150

8 OSI layer 153

9 Networking protocol 156

10 TCP/IP 157

11 IP Addressing 165

12 Subnetting 171

13 Wireless Network 175

14 Firewall 181

15 Internet Connection Management 182

16 TCP/IP Utility 185

17 Cryptography 187

18 Windows OS Networking Practical 189

19 Active Directory 194

20 Li-Fi 201

21 Port Number , IP v6, OSI Layer Exercise 205

22 TCP/IP Exercise 212

 Page |3

Computer Introduction
Definition: Computer is an electronic device which takes data as an input, process
it and then gives out result as an output.

Input device
Mouse Keyboard Scanner

Mic Webcam BCR

Processing device : Central processing unit (CPU)

 Page |4

Output Device

Monitor Printer Projector Speaker

UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply): It is neither input device nor output device. It is just only a
power backup supplier.

Touch Screen:

It is both input and output device.

Storage Device: Hard disk, Pen drive, CD/DVD, Floppy disk, tape drive, memory card etc.
 Page |5

Memory unit
The smallest unit of memory is bits
1 bits = 0 or 1

4 bits = 1 Nibble

8 bits = 1 Byte

16 bits = 1 Word

Optical disk Memory Capacity

CD : Compact Disk

DVD: Digital Versatile Disk

Mini CD = 210 MB

Normal CD = 700 MB

DVD (Single Layer)(Blue) – 4.7 GB DVD (Double layer)(Silver) – 8.5 GB

 Page |6

Blue Ray Disk(BRD) (Single layer) – 25 GB

Blue Ray Disk(BRD) (Double layer) – 50 GB

Archival Disk – 300 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB

 Page |7

Types of Computer

1) Desktop

2) Laptop

3) Palmtop (Tab)
 Page |8

1) Desktop Types

 Main frame computer

 Micro Computer ( also called

Personal computer)

 Workstation Computer
 Page |9

 Super computer
 P a g e | 10

Computer Generation or History of Computer

S. Generation Period Main

n Component
o used
1 First Generation 1946- Vacuum tube
1959

2 Second 1959- Transistor

Generation 1965

3 Third 1965- Integrated Circuit

Generation 1971 based

4 Fourth 1971- VLSI

Generation 1980 microprocessor

5 Fifth Generation 1980- ULSI

onwards microprocessor
 P a g e | 11

Applications of computer:

 Office Management.
 Internet.
 Digital video or audio composition.
 Computers in Medicine.
 Mathematical Calculations.
 Banks.
 Tour and Travel.
 Telecommunications.
 Defence
 E-Learning.
 Examinations.
 Computers in Business.
 ATM machines.
 News Broadcast.
 Aeroplanes.
 Weather analysis.

Architechure of Computer:
 P a g e | 12

Computer Consist of:

1) Hardware

2) Software

3) Firmware

1) Hardware: All physical component of Computer system that we can see and touch it is
called computer hardware.

Eg : Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse etc.

2) Software: It is a set of programs that ispecially designed to perform specific task.

Eg :Ms office , Photoshop , firefox etc.

3) Firmware: It is neither or both hardware and software.

 Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a
hardware device.
 It provides the necessary instructions for how the device communicates with
the other computer hardware.
 Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device.
 Eg : ROM chip BIOS setup
Types of Software:

Software Types
System Software Application Software Utility Software
1) Translator : It is used to manage the
 Interpreter Main software where we system.
Compiler works.
2) Operating System Eg: Antivirus
Used to create interface Anytime it can be added
between user and or removed from
hardware. computer
Provide platform for
other software to install Eg: MS office, Tally,
in it. Adobe photoshop,
Eg: Windows 7, Power iso etc.
Windows 10, Red hat
linux etc.

 Example: Bus is computer, Driver is Operating System, Passengers are Application Software
and conductor is utility software.
 P a g e | 13

Translater:

 Interpreter and Compiler

A compiler or an interpreter is a program that converts program written in high-level language

into machine code understood by the computer.

I t converts the source code into machine code.

Source code: A program written in high-level language is called a source code.

Machine code: Program written in 0's and 1's in binary, called the machine code.

Assembler:

 An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them
into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic
operations.

Exercise :
1) Write some example of input and output device.
2) Write full form of GB, TB, PB, EB, ZB and YB.
3) Difference between interpreter and compiler ?
4) Difference between system software and application Software ?
5) Draw computer architecture ?
6) Write the disk capacity of CD, DVD, BRD and Archival disc.
7) Write the main components used in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4rth and 5th generation computer.
 P a g e | 14

Computer Memory
Memory is a space to store data either temporary or permanently

Memory
Primary Memory Secondary Memory

RAM ROM Magnetic Optical Flash

Memory Memory Memory
Static Dynamic PROM EPROM Hard Disk CD Pen Drive
RAM RAM
Floppy Disk DVD Memory Card
Tape Drive BRD
Archival
Disk

Other types of Memory : Register , Cache and Virtual Memory

 P a g e | 15

RAM
RAM is also called as volatile memory because the memory can’t store the data
permanently.

RAM is computer memory that a processor or computer accesses first or directly.

RAM is also known as primary storage or main memory.
As soon as a computer starts, RAM loads all running applications, including the base
operating system (OS), user interface and any user-installed and running software utility

RAM Types

DRAM Types

FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form
of DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and
then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 176 MBps.

EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for
all of the processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of
the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about five percent faster
than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.

RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory use a special high-speed data bus
called the Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of
800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate much more
heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips are fitted with a
heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer.
 P a g e | 16

VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access

memory (MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D
accelerators. The "multiport" part comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two
independent access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the
RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats,
many of which are proprietary.

DRAM Memory module

Single In-line Memory Module, SIMM:

Dual In-line Memory Module, DIMM:

Rambus In-line Memory Module, RIMM:

 P a g e | 17

Small outline DIMM, SO-DIMM:

Small outline RIMM, SO-RIMM:

1) What is maximum clock rate in Ram ?

Ans: The bus clock rate is the actual speed of ur FSB(The FSB connects the processor (CPU) in your
computer to the system memory).
The frequency is expressed in Hertz, which means "cycles per second" that the RAM operates on.

2) What is FSB ?
Ans: Front Side Bus, FSB is also known as the Processor Bus, Memory Bus,
or System Bus and connects the CPU (chipset) with the main memory and L2 cache.

RAM Manufacturer

a) Hynix b) Adata c) Samsung d) IBM e) Lenovo f) Sony g) HP

 P a g e | 18

ROM
 Read Only Memory.
 It is non-volatile or permanent.
 We can see the content but cannot do any changes ( Some options we can make up and
down)
 It is secondary memory and used during the execution of Programs.

ROM Types
 P a g e | 19

BIOS:
 Basic Input Output System.
 We can See Full System information here.
 Booting Process can be modified from here.
 At the initial of booting process check all enabled device in BIOS and load OS into RAM.

The four main functions of a PC BIOS

 POST - Test the computer hardware and make sure no errors exist before loading the
operating system. Additional information on the POST can be found on our POST and
Beep Codes page.
 Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is
located, the BIOS will pass control to it.
 BIOS drivers - Low level drivers that give the computer basic operational control
over your computer's hardware.
 BIOS or CMOS Setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure
hardware settings including system settings such as computer passwords, time, and
date.
 P a g e | 20

CMOS:
 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
 Any changes done in BIOS setup is saved by CMOS memory.
 To save configuration permanently, CMOS need power source.
 A small 3 v lithium battery is used is give continuous power.
 Date and time in System is maintained by this CMOS battery.

Problem -1: When I start my PC I get 12:00 time only. How to correct it?
Ans: CMOS battery may be expired. Change CMOS battery.
 P a g e | 21

What other problem can arise if date and time is incorrect ?

Ans: We cannot open https sites in web browser.

How to open BIOS setup ?

Ans: At the initial of booting press f2 or del or f10 key.

Types of password in BIOS:

1) Supervisor Password or User password (setup) : This pswd will be asked if you enter
into
BIOS setup.
2) User password (always) : This password will be asked every time when system starts.

How to break BIOS pswd ?

Ans: 1) In desktop remove CMOS battery.

2) By Jumper setting changes

3) Use Backdoor key.

 Press Enter only( no password).
 Type AWARD, AMIBIOS etc based on BIOS brand.
 Type dell, HP, Compaq etc. Based on System brand.

4) Use third party software : Hiren’s Boot CD etc.

 P a g e | 22

Cache Memory

 It used by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to reduce the average cost (time
or energy) to access data from the main memory.

 A cache is a smaller, faster memory, closer to a processor core, which stores copies of the
data from frequently used main memory locations.
P a g e | 23
 P a g e | 24

Available cache memory in Inter i core processors

Virtual memory:
Virtual memory is a memory management capability of an OS that uses
hardware and software to allow a computer to compensate for physical
memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from random access
memory (RAM) to disk storage.

Virtual memory is always being used, even when the memory that is required by all
running processes does not exceed the volume of RAM that is installed on the
system.
 P a g e | 25

HARD DISK
 Permanently Storage Magnetic device.

 IBM developed 1st hard disk in 1953.

 HD weight : Over a ton
 HD capacity : 5 MB

Physical Component of Hard Disk

1)Platter (or disk) is the circular disk on which magnetic data is stored in a hard
disk.
 P a g e | 26

a) Sector: The smallest unit of HD plate is called ―Sector‖.

b) Track: The circular path is called ―Track‖.

c) Cluster: A group of sector is called ―Cluster‖.

d) Cylinder: Logical Grouping of each track from multiple plate is called ―Cylinder‖.

Stepper Motor:

It rotates the hard disk.

 P a g e | 27

Rotation speed:

1)5400

2)7200

3)8500 RMP-Rotation per minute

4)10,000

5)15,000

RMP will be more the HD Performance will be more.

Actuator: An actuator is an electronic device controlled by a motor that moves the

hard drive head arm.
 P a g e | 28

Hard Disk Circuit board

It perform all logical operation.

Hard Disk connector: SATA and PATA

 P a g e | 29

PATA SATA
Old technology Latest technology
Parallel ATA Serial ATA
DTR : 532 mbps DTR : 1.5 gbps,3gbps,6gbps
39 pins 7pins

Disk access time:

 It is the total time it takes the computer to process a data request from the
processor and then retrieve the required data from a storage device.

Seek time:

 It is measured defines the amount of time it takes a hard drive's read/write

head to find the physical location of a piece of data on the disk.

Latency:

 It is the average time for the sector being accessed to rotate into position under
a head, after a completed seek.

Fragmentation
 P a g e | 30

The process of saving data is to save data in cluster and can leave some empty
sectors.

If we delete any data the data is deleted Randomly from any sector.

This creates fragmentation in hard disk that decreases hard disk performance.

How to do Defragmentation:

Path: Open my computer --> Right click on any disk(like C,D,E) --> Click on
properties -->Go to Tools --> Defragmentation

Recycle bin

It is like dustbin of computer. It takes a space from hard

disk (10% disk space from every drive).

Any data in Recycle bin can be restore back.

Recovering Permanently Deleting data

Software Available

1) Easy data Recovery

2) Recuva
3) I-care format / Data Recovery
4) Stellar Data recovery
5) Hirens boot cd.

Hard disk Manufacturer

1) Seagate
2) Western Digital
3) Hitachi
4) Samsung
5) Toshiba
 P a g e | 31

Mother Board
The motherboard is a printed circuit board that is the foundation of a computer, located on
the back side or at the bottom of the computer chassis.
It allocates power and allows communication to the CPU, RAM, and all other
computer hardware components.
Motherboard specifically refers to a PCB with expansion capability
It is also called as ―Main Board‖.
 P a g e | 32

Motherboard components

Back Panel

A) PS/2
Connector

Green color TO connect

Mouse
Purple color TO connect
Keyboard

B) VGA PORT
 15 pins Female connector.
 Called VGA(video Graphic
Array).
 To connect Monitor or
Projector.
 P a g e | 33

C) Serial Port

9 pins Male Connector.

Called Serial Port.
Previously used to connect
mouse etc but used to connect
router, PLC etc.

(D)Parallel Port

25 pins Female connector.

called Parallel Port.
Used to connect dot matrix
printers.

E) LAN Port

Used to connect LAN network

cable

F) Audio Port

Sky blue to connect

Headphone
Green to connect Speaker
(home theatre)
Pinkt o connect headphone
mic
 P a g e | 34

(E)USB Port

USB(Universal Serial Bus) port.

4 pins.

 Now almost all modern devices comes with USB interface.

It is hot swappable in nature, means anytime you can plug-in or plug-out the
device.

(F) USB versions:

Version Speed

1.1 12 mbps

2.0 480 Mbps

3.0 4.8 Gbps

3.1 10 gbps

Through one USB host we can connect multiple USB house and can add maximum
of 127 devices.
 P a g e | 35

(2) Processor Socket:

Different model of processors having different processor sockets.

(3) Memory module

To connect RAM

Two Types : SIMM and DIMM

(4) Motherboard Power connector

It is connected from SMPS to mother board.
 P a g e | 36

Two types: AT and ATX

(5) ATA (Advanced technology Attachment):

To connect a storage device

Two types : PATA and SATA

(a) PATA :
Old technology

Parallel ATA
 P a g e | 37

DTR 532 mbps

39 pins

(b) SATA:
Latest technology

Serial ATA

1.5 gbps, 3gbps, 6gbps

7pins

6) Front panel connector

 P a g e | 38

7) Front panel USB connection

8) Front panel audio connection

(7)Expansion slot
 P a g e | 39

Types
ISAIndustry Standard Architecture

EISAEnhanced Industry Standard Architecture

PCIPeripheral component Interface

PCIE Peripheral component Interface express

AGPAccelerated Graphic port.

AGP is used to add graphic card.

PCMCIA  Personal computer memory card International Association. It is used in laptop

(8) Motherboard Chipset

A chipset is a set of electronic components in an integrated circuit that manages the data
flow between the processor, memory and peripherals.

Chipsets are usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors.

 P a g e | 40

Chipset manufacturers : ALi, AMD, Intel, NVidia, SiS, and VIA

Intel Chip set name:

810 Q45 H97

845 P55 X99

865 P67 H110

945 Q75 Q170

975 H81 C232

G31 H87 CM238

Mother board form Factor:

Form factor is shape and size of mother board as well as the distance between the
screw holes.

Form factor is especially important if you build your own computer systems and
need to ensure that you purchase the correct case and components

Form Factor
BABY AT NLX Branded desktop system
ATX Mini-ITX having their own shape
Mini-ATX Nano-ITX and size. These system do
MicroATX Pico-ITX not follow standard size.
FlexATX DTX
LPX & Mini LPX
 P a g e | 41

Motherboard Manufacturer:
1) Intel 2) Asus 3)HP 4)Gigabyte 5)BIO star
6) Samsung 7) Acer 8) AsRock 9) MSI 10) Foxcom

Adds on cards
Extra connectors to add in computer

1) LAN Card

2) Sound card

3) Serial Card
 P a g e | 42

4) Parallel card

5) Graphics/VGA card
 P a g e | 43

PROCESSOR

It is also called as CPU(central processing unit).

It is main processing device of our computer.
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out
the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control
and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions

Major Brand of CPU for Desktop:

 Intel
 AMD-(Advanced micro Device)

Major Brand of CPU for smartphone and tablet :

 Apple,
 NVIDIA,
 Qualcomm

Main component of CPU

 P a g e | 44

CPU History

The CPU was first developed at Intel with the help

of Ted Hoff and others in the early 1970's. The first
processor released by Intel was the 4004.

Intel Processor Series

4 bits processor 32 bits processor 64 bits processor
4004 80386 Dual core
8 bits processor 80486 Core 2 Duo
8008 Pentium MMX Core 2 Quad
8080 Pentium pro Core i3
8085 Pentium II Core i5
16 bits processor Pentium III Core i7
8086 Pentium IV Xeon
8088 Pentium M Itanium
80186 Celeron processor
80286
Itanium

Some Facts about Intel processor

1) Laptop computing starts with Intel 80486 processor.
2) Intel celeron Processor : performance is often significantly low and this model targeted
at budget personal computers.
3) Xeon and Itanium processor is mainly used in server system.

Processor Architecture

1) 32 bit  X86
2) 64 bit  X64
 P a g e | 45

AMD (Advanced Micro Device) processor series

1) AMD K series
2) SEMPRON
3) AMD PHENON
4) AMD ATHLON
5) Opteron
6) Turion

Different types of bus:

 System bus:
 A system bus is a single computer bus that connects the major components of a
computer system.

 Data bus:
 A Data bus carry information.
 Connects all the internal components of a computer, such as CPU and memory, to
the motherboard.

 Address bus:
 Address bus to determine where it should be sent.
 Used to transfer data between devices that are identified by the hardware address of
the physical memory (the physical address).

 Control bus:
 A Control bus to determine its operation.
 Used by the CPU to communicate with devices that are contained within the
computer. This occurs through physical connections such as cables or printed
circuits.
 P a g e | 46

Clock rate

 The fundamental rate in cycles per second at which a computer performs its most basic
operations such as adding twonumbers or transfering a value fromone register to another.
 The clock rate of a computer is normally determined by the frequency of a crystal.
 For example:- A CPU with a clock rate of 1.8 GHz can perform 1,800,000,000 clock cycles
per second.

Hyper-Threading
 Hyper-Threading is a technology used by some Intel microprocessor s that allows a single
microprocessor to act like two separate processors to the operating system and the
application program s that use it.

Turbo Boost
 A feature in Intel's Core i7 CPUs and certain models of its i5 line. Turbo Boost enables
processor cores to run faster if power usage and temperatures are within limits.
 P a g e | 47

Pipelining :
 Pipelining is a process of arrangement of hardware elements of the CPU such that its overall
performance is increased.
 Simultaneous execution of more than one instruction takes place in a pipelined processor.

Architecture Set : CISC, RISC and MISC

MISC:
 Minimal Instruction Set
Computer (MISC) is a processor
architecture with a very small
number of basic instruction
operations and corresponding
opcodes.

 As a result of this is a smaller

instruction set, a smaller and
faster instruction set decode
unit, and faster operation of
individual instructions.

Processor Socket
CPU slot comprises one or more mechanical components providing mechanical and electrical
connections between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB).

This allows for placing and replacing the central processing unit (CPU) without soldering.

Types
1) DIP : Dual in-line package (Very old and obsolete)
2) PGA: Pin grid array (Available till pentium 4)
3) LGA: Land grid array (Modern)
 P a g e | 48

DIP Socket Processor

PGA Socket Processor

LGA Socket Processor

Transistor count
The transistor count is the number of transistors on an integrated circuit (IC).

Transistor count is the most common measure of IC complexity.

S.no Processor Transistor

1 Intel 4004 count
2,300
2 Intel 8080 4,500
3 Intel 8086 29,000
4 Intel 80286 134,000
 P a g e | 49

5 Pentium 4 42,000,000
6 Core 2 Duo 291,000,000
7 Quad-core + Core 1,750,000,000
i7
8 8-core Core i7 2,600,000,000
 P a g e | 50

Monitor
A computer monitor is an output device which displays the information in pictorial
form.

Monochrome Monitor:

• A monochrome monitor is a type of CRT computer display which was very

common in the early days of computing, from the 1960s through the 1980s,
before color monitors became popular.
• They are still widely used in applications such as computerized cash register
systems.
• Monochrome monitors actually display two colors, one for the background and
one for the foreground.
• The colors can be black and white, green and black, or amber and black.

Color Monitor:

• Color monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different

colors.
 P a g e | 51

• Color monitors are sometimes called RGB monitors because they accept three
separate signals --red, green, and blue.

Types of Monitor:

• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• Light-emitting Diode (LED)

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

•Large
•Heavy
•Produce heat
•Not expensive

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

•Less space
•Lighter
•Low power consumption
•Expensive
•Limited viewing angle

Light-emitting Diode (LED):

•Less space
•Lighter
•Very expensive
•Provide higher contrast and better viewing
angles than LCD monitor.
 P a g e | 52

Monitor Features:

Screen Size:

•The actual amount of screen space that is available to display a picture, video or
working space.
•Desktop screens are usually 14 -25 inches by diagonal measurement.

Aspect Ratio:

•The aspect ratio of a display is the fractional relation of the width of the display area
compared to its height.
•Two common aspect ratio:
–4:3
–16:9
Display Resolution:

•The resolution of a monitor indicates how densely packed the pixels are.
•In general, the more pixels (often expressed in dots per inch), the sharper the
image.
•Most modern monitors can display 1024 by 768 pixels, the SVGA standard.
•Some high-end models can display 1280 by 1024, or even 1600 by 1200.

Color Depth:

•Color depth describes how many colors that can be displayed on a monitor's screen.
•Common color depths used by monitor:
–4-bit (EGA) = 16 colors
 P a g e | 53

–8-bit (VGA) = 256 colors

–16-bit (High Color) = 65,536 colors
–24-bit (True Color) = 16 million colors

Brands of Monitor:

 L.G
 Samsung
 Sony
 AOC
 Asus
 BenQ
 ViewSonic.

Keyboard
A computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a computer .

Types Of Keyboard:

There are two major types of computer keyboards:

Basic Keyboard:- The Basic keyboard contains 104 keys and is enough to perform
all the functions that can be done on a Windows PC.
Extended keyboard:- The Extended keyboard may have additional keys, and the
design varies among the companies manufacturing them. These are usually
customized keyboards that are specific to certain operating systems or applications.
 P a g e | 54

Keyboard interface:

a) DIN connector

b) PS/2 connector
 P a g e | 55

c) USB connector

c) Wireless connector

Projection Keyboard

A projection keyboard is a form of computer input device whereby the image of

a virtual keyboard is projected onto a surface: when a user touches the surface
covered by an image of a key, the device records the corresponding keystroke.

Some connect to Bluetooth devices, including many of the latest smartphone, tablet,
and mini-PC devices with Android, iOS or Windows platform.
 P a g e | 56

Brands of keyboard:

 Microsoft
 L.G
 Intex
 i-ball
 Dell
 Logitech

Mouse
 A computer mouse is an input device that is most often used with a personal
computer.
 Moving a mouse along a flat surface can move the on-screen cursor to
different items on the screen. Items can be moved or selected by pressing the
mouse buttons (called clicking).
 P a g e | 57

Types of Mouse:
Wireless Mouse:

 The Mouse without wire or cord is called wireless mouse or cordless mouse.
 Most wireless mice use radiofrequency (RF) technology to communicate
information to your computer.

Gstick Mouse:
 Gordon Stewart designed the Stick to add a more authentic and natural feel to
artistic manipulations on both Macs and PCs.

Optical Mouse:

 An optical mouse is an computer pointing device that uses a light-emitting

diode an optical sensor, and digital signal processing ( DSP ).
 This mouse doesn’t have mouse ball and electromechanical transducer.
 Movement is detected by sensing changes in reflected light, instead of
interpreting the motion of a rolling sphere.

Trackball Mouse:

 A trackball mouse is a pointing device.

 It consists of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to detect a rotation of
the ball.
 The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to move
a pointer.

Mechanical Mouse (or) Ball Mouse:

 Mechanical mouse is a device integrated with an internal metal or rubber ball,

which can spin in all directions (left, right, up and down).
 Thus, the display cursor moves as the mouse detects the direction.
 The ball in the mechanical mouse spins when it comes in contact with surface
on which it is placed.
 P a g e | 58

Speakers
•A hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that outputs sounds
generated by the computer.
•Speakers can be used for various sounds meant to alert the user, as well as music
and spoken text.

Headphones:

•Headphones give sound output from the computer.

•They are similar to speakers, except they are worn on the ears so only one person
can hear the output at a time.
 P a g e | 59

Projector

•An output device that can take the display of a computer screen and project a large
version of it onto a flat surface.
•Projectors are often used in meetings and presentations so that everyone in the
room can view the presentation.

Types of projector:

•Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) projector

•Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector
•Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) projector:

•In the early days of projectors, CRT projectors were commonly used.
•They utilized three tubes, one for each of the primary colors.
•Due to their large size, low light output and the frequent need to converge and align
the images projected from each of the three tubes, they are no longer commonly
used.

•Long service life; CRT tubes maintain good brightness to 10,000 hours.
•CRT projectors are both considerably larger and heavier than comparable LCD and
DLP projectors.
•CRT projectors require far more time to set up and adjust than LCD and DLP based
projectors.
 P a g e | 60

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector:

•LCD projectors work by utilizing polarized mirrors that pass and reflect only certain
colors of light.
•This causes each channel of red, green and blue to be separated and later re-
converged via a prism after passing through an LCD panel that controls the intensity
and saturation of each color.

•An LCD projector can achieve greater brightness at a lower energy consumption
•Smaller than CRT projectors.

•An LCD projector can achieve greater brightness at a lower energy consumption
•Smaller than CRT projectors.
 P a g e | 61

Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector:

•DLP projectors can be classified as one-chip or three-chip.

•One-chip DLP projectors can produce more than 16 million colors while three-chip
models can produce more than 35 trillion colors.
•This allows DLP projectors to reproduce more natural and lifelike images.

PRINTER
•Printer is an external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and
generating a hard copy of that data.
•Printers are one of the most used peripherals on computers and are commonly used
to print text, images, and photos.
 P a g e | 62

Types of Printer:

Printers can be categorized into:

•Impact Printer
•Non-Impact Printer

Impact Printer:

•It strikes paper and ribbon together to form a character, like a typewriter.

Advantages Disadvantages

 Less expensive.  Noisy

 Can make multiple copies  Print quality lower in some
with multipart paper. types
 Poor graphics or none at all
 Slow
Eg: Dot Matrix Printer, Daisy wheel printer etc

Non-Impact Printer:

•It uses ink spray, toner powder or inkless

Advantages Disadvantages

•Quiet •More expensive

•Can handle graphics and often a •Occupies a lot of space
wider variety of fonts than •The cost of maintaining it is high
impact printers
•Fast

Eg: Ink jet printer, Laser printer, Desk jet printer, Thermal printer etc.

Daisy-wheel:

•Similar to a ball-head typewriter, this type of printer has a plastic or metal wheel on
which the shape of each character stands out in relief.
•A hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon, which in turn makes an ink stain in
the shape of the character on the paper.
•Daisy-wheel printers produce letter-quality print but cannot print graphics.
 P a g e | 63

Dot-Matrix:

•Creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon.

•Each pin makes a dot, and combinations of dots form characters and illustrations.

Laser Printer (Toner-based):

•A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.

•Laser printers are often used in corporate, school, and other environments that
require print jobs to be completed quickly and in large quantities.
 P a g e | 64

Multifunction Printer (Toner-based):

•An MFP is an office machine which incorporates the functionality of multiple

devices in one.
•A typical MFP may act as a combination of some or all of the following devices:

 Printer
 Scanner
 Photocopier
 Fax

Ink-jet Printer:

•Inkjet printer operates by

propelling variably-sized
droplets of liquid or molten
material (ink) onto almost any
sized page
 P a g e | 65

•They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers.

Thermal Printer (Inkless):

•Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper.

•These printers are commonly used in calculators and fax machines; and although
they are inexpensive and print relatively fast, they produce low resolution print jobs.

Printing Speed:

The printing speed is measured in:

•cps(characters per second)

•lpm(lines per minute)
•ppm(pages per minute)

PLOTTER
•The plotteris a computer printer for printing vector graphics
•Plotters are used in applications such as computer-aided design such as diagrams,
layouts, specification sheets and banners
•The plotter is capable of producing color drawings in a matter of minutes
•Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen
•Plotters are considerably more expensive than printers
 P a g e | 66

SCANNER
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters,
magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display.

Uses of scanner:

1. Store into computer memory.

2. To save lot of effort and time because if you type the whole text on printed
page, it will take effort as well as time).
3. Show image or text on computer screen or on a multimedia projector's screen.
4. In addition, you can send this scanned document or image to your friends all
over the world with the help of Internet & Email.
5. You can apply online and send the scanned images of your academic
documents in any part of the world within minutes.
 P a g e | 67

1. Flat Bed Scanner:

 P a g e | 68

 A flatbed scanner is the most common type of optical scanners used to scan
printed text and images and save into computer storage as a digital file.
 We pickup the cover of the scanner and place the printed page on the glass
surface of the scanner.
 It is widely used in offices, schools, colleges, universities and homes for
common scanning needs.

2. Sheet Fed Scanner:

A sheet fed scanner works like a fax machine mechanism. In a sheet fed scanner,
pages are entered into scanner like a fax machine.

Advantages of Sheet Fed Scanner:

1. A feet shed scanner is relatively smaller in size.

2. It is more portable.
3. It takes less space.

Disadvantages Of Sheet Fed Scanner:

1. It requires separate pages to scan. But, it cannot scan a book because of its
binding.
2. It can scan normal papers with normal thickness only.
 P a g e | 69

3. Hand Held Scanner:

 Hand Held scanner is a small, light weight scanner and portable scanner.

 It is used to scan small amount of data like short articles from news papers.

 It is held in hand and is moved over the text page or image slowly and
smoothly from start to end.

 Its scan quality may be lower than flat bed or sheet fed scanner but it can used
to capture small amounts of text or small images, quickly.

4) SkyPix Hand held Scanner:

 P a g e | 70

 This is a portable, cordless hand held scanner that is used to scan and save
important documents, letters, or pictures.
 It records scanned documents in its memory card. you can transfer these
scanned documents on your computer for later use.

4. Drum Scanners:

 Drum scanners are used by the Publishers to scan images with details.
 Drum scanners use photomultiplier tube technology.
 In drum scanners, the document to be scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder.
 P a g e | 71

 At the center of the cylinder is a sensor that splits light bounced from the
document into three beams.
 Each beam is sent through a color filter into a photomultiplier tube where the
light is changed into an electrical signal.
 And in this way a complete image with immense details can be obtained.
 Drum scanners are widely used in publishing industry.

SMPS

Switched-mode power supply

The role of a power supply is convert the mains voltage into a lower DC voltage
which the components can run on.

The importance of power supply in a PC:

 The SMPS unit in PCs in responsible for converting the standard AC utility
power into a form that the computer can use.
 It is responsible for powering every device in the computer.
 P a g e | 72

PC power Supply Functions:

Delivers Required DC Power:

 In a PC power supply converts the AC main supply voltage to a set of lower and
smooth DC voltage +/-5V,+/-12V(and +3.3V in modern ATX system)which are
required to operate the electronic components and circuits in the system.

Cooling of the system inside:

 Modern SMPS units used in PCs are small, highly efficient and are equipped
with fans to cool the system inside.

Protection of system components:
 The SMPS also protects the pc by not switching on the PC of the power supply
cannot deliver enough electrical power to the PC.

The SMPS essentially has

1. Input rectifier
2. Inverter
3. Voltage converter
4. Output regulator
 P a g e | 73

Input rectifier:
The AC input from mains is first rectified in the SMPS using a rectifier to convert it
into DC.
The rectifier consisting of a full wave diode bridge or module that produces an
unregulated DC voltage to the Smoothing capacitor.
The input AC passing into the rectifier has AC voltage pulses that may reduce the
power factor.
So control techniques are used to force the average input current to follow the sine
wave.

Inverter:
This stage converts the rectified DC into AC using a power oscillator. The power
oscillator has a small output transformer with a few windings at the frequency
20-100 kHz. Switching is controlled by MOSFET amplifier. The output AC voltage
is usually isolated optically from the input AC by using an Optocoupler IC for
safety reasons.

Pin Detail View:

 P a g e | 74

UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

 A device that provides battery backup when the electrical power fails or drops
to an unacceptable voltage level.
 Small UPS systems provide power for a few minutes; enough to power down
the computer in an orderly manner, while larger systems have enough
battery for several hours.

OFF line UPS and ON Line UPS:

OFF line UPS:-

 Off line UPS passes the AC Mains Supply directly to the output load if the AC
Mains Supply is present.Only in the case of power failure, it switches to
inverter within few miliseconds to give power to load until mains supply
returns.
 P a g e | 75

ON Line UPS:-

 On the other hand On Line UPS always charges battery from incoming AC
mains supply and supplies power to load via the inverter.Even if the mains
supply fails, there is no interruption to the output load at all.
 Generally On Line UPS unlike off line UPS are expensive and inefficient as
Inverter is continuously in operation. However it provides greater quality of
power as compared to offline UPS.

Manufacturing brand of UPS:

a) APC b) Emerson c)Exide d)Microtech e)Siemens

 P a g e | 76

Basic Hardware Troubleshooting

Problem 1: Desktop System do not start ?

Solution:
a) Check Power board first ( power source).

b) Check the Power Cable ( loose or no connection or replace cable and check
)

c) Open cabinet---- de assemble all the connector of SMPS ---clean all slots
and assemble again.
 P a g e | 77

d) Check power button of cabinet.

e) Check SMPS ( sorting green and black wire) or by replace SMPS

 P a g e | 78

f) Repair or replace Motherboard.

Problem 2: System Start but do not appear display in monitor?

Solution:
a) Check VGA cable between CPU and Monitor (loose or no connection or
replace cable and check)

b) Check the monitor with other CPU.

 P a g e | 79

c) Open cabinet –open RAM ---clean it ---clean the slot--- insert RAM again
and check

d) Change RAM slot

e) Change RAM
f) Check SMPS (Symptoms: Processor fan run slowly).
g) Clean motherboard with hot air or through alcohol.
 P a g e | 80

h) Repair or replace Motherboard.

P a g e | 81
 P a g e | 82

Problem 3: System restarted or shutdown automatically?

a) Check power connector ( may be loose).

b) Check Virus Problem.

c) Check processor fan heat sink contact with processor---thermal paste may be
dry.
 P a g e | 83

c) Check Task scheduler: May be someone has added shutdown script.

d) Repair SMPS or replace it.

 P a g e | 84

e) Repair or replace Motherboard.

Problem 4: System hanging or slow processing problem?
Solution:
a) Check Virus Problem.

b) Check hardware capacity according to software installed.

c) Check available free space in Operating System Drive (at least 20% free).

d) Desktop should not have heavy data.

 P a g e | 85

e) Check task manager to see memory usage per process.

d) Check RAM by Cleaning and Replacing it.

e) Reinstall operating system
f) Check the Motherboard.
 P a g e | 86

Problem 5: System start with an error Message “Please select proper boot
Media”?
Solution:
a) Restart the PC-- Press Ctrl+Alt+Delete and go to “ BIOS” Setup and check
boot device --hard disk is Connected or not.

b) Open the Cabinet and check hard disk “SATA” connector and power
connector is properly connector or not.

c) If hard disk is connected-----then confirm operating system is installed or

not.
 P a g e | 87

d) Try to replace SATA or PATA connector------ then hard disk

e) Sometimes USB storage media create problem---if connected remove and

restart PC

Problem 6: System sound problem

Solution:
a) Check speaker and connector.
 P a g e | 88

b) Check sound driver in the system.

c) Check enables or disables options

regarding sound.
 P a g e | 89

d) Try to change sound card.

 P a g e | 90

Problem 7: Printer problem (no printing)?

Solution:
a) Check printer is properly on or not (green LED must blink)

b) Check printer cable

 P a g e | 91

c) Check printer driver in the system.

d) Check printer cartridge properly on or not (and also check page setup).
d) In display board of printer, check error message.
 P a g e | 92

Problem 8: System do not boot properly

Solution:
a) Restart the PC –press F8 at the initial of booting –Select “ Last known
good configuration”

b) Restart the PC –press F8 at the initial of booting – select safe mode ---
Log on with admin user -- and restore the PC to earlier time.

c) Last case re-install Operating system.

 P a g e | 93

Problem 9: System Restore

Definition : It is the process to bring the system state in earlier condition.
(bring system setting to back date)
When to do : When system shows abnormal behavior suddenly .
How to do ?
In Windows Xp:
a) At the initial of booting Press F8 next > Safe Mode > Log on with admin user
> Start >All Programs >System Tools > System Restore > Restore My
Computer to earlier Time > Next > Choose back date > Next > Next
………………….> System Restore > Ok.

In Windows 7:
a) At the initial of booting Press F8 next > Safe Mode > Log on with admin user >
Start >System Restore > Restore My Computer to earlier Time > Next > Choose
back date > Next > Next ………………….> System Restore > Ok.
or boot system with Windows 7 bootable media -----next --repair your
computer –
P a g e | 94
P a g e | 95
 P a g e | 96

Problem 10: Very Slow booting ?

Solution:

 Check virus problem.

 Restore the PC
 Reinstall operating system.
 Try other operating system.
 Check RAM
 Check Hard drive
 Check motherboard problem.
 P a g e | 97

Problem 11: Blue screen problem or Blue Screen of Death

Solution:
a) Boot Into Safe Mode:

b) Uninstall any recently installed driver software.

c) Use System restore

d) Check Virus Problem and update antivirus.

e) Check processor heat sink is properly connected or not.

f) Reinstall Operating System

g) Check Faulty hardware like Ram , hard Disk or motherboard

P a g e | 98
 P a g e | 99

Operating System
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs,
excluding firmware, require an operating system to function.

O.S (Operating Systems) Family

1) Windows
2) Linux
3) Netware
4) MAC OS
5) Android
6) BSD

WINDOWS
CLIENT O.S SERVER O.S LINUX O.S
MS-DOS (1980s) Windows NT Server Redhat Linux
Windows 1.0 Windows Server 2000 Fedora
Windows 3.0 Windows Server 2003 Centos
Windows 95 Windows Server 2008 Ubuntu
Windows 98 Windows Server 2012 Mandriva
Windows ME Windows Server 2016 Kalilinux
Windows NT Slackware Linux
Windows 2000 Free linux
Windows XP (2000)
Windows Vista
Windows 7
Windows 8/8.1
Windows 10 (25thjuly 15)

Operating System Installation

 Before starting the installation we should make sure that the computer meets all the
Hardware requirements for installing Windows .

Minimum Hardware requirements:

 P a g e | 100

Windows 7 Windows 8/8.1 Windows 10

Windows 7 Starter Windows 8/8.1 Pro Windows 10 Home

Windows 7 Home Basic Windows 10 Pro

Windows 8/8.1 Enterprise
Windows 7 Home Premium Windows 8/8.1 RT Windows 10 Educational

Windows 7 Professional Windows 10 Enterprise

Windows 7 Enterprise Windows 10 Mobile

Windows 7 Ultimate Windows 10 Mobile Enterprise

Installing Using a Windows installation DVD:

Clean Installation:
A clean install is intended for users who want to freshly install Windows on their computer (by deleting all
of the data on the hard disk and then installing Windows) or computers that do not have an operating system
yet.

1) Enter your computer's BIOS.

Turn off the computer that you want to install Windows on then turn it back on. When the BIOS screen
appears or you are prompted to do so, press Del, Esc, F2, F10, or F9 (depending on your computer‟s
motherboard) to enter the system BIOS. The key to enter the BIOS is usually shown on the screen.

2) Find your BIOS's boot options

menu.
The boot options menu of your BIOS may vary
in location or name from the illustration, but
you may eventually find it if you search around.
If you can't find the boot options menu, search
the name of your BIOS (most likely located in
the BIOS menu) online for help.

3) Select the CD-ROM drive as the first

boot device of your computer.
Although this method may vary among computers,
the boot options menu is typically a menu of
movable device names where you should set your
CD-ROM drive as the first boot device. It can also be
a list of devices that you can set the order of their
 P a g e | 101

boot on. Consult a manual or the internet for help if you're stuck.

4) Save the changes of the settings.

Press the button indicated on the screen or
select the save option from the BIOS menu to
save your configuration.

5) Insert the Windows 7 disc into

your CD/DVD drive and Restart the PC.
When the computer starts, press a key if you are asked
if you would like to boot from the disc by pressing any
key. After you choose to start from the disc, Windows
Setup will begin loading.
If you are not asked to boot from the disc, you may
have done something wrong. Retry the previous steps
to solve the problem.

6) Choose your Windows Setup

options.
Once Windows Setup loads, you'll be presented
with a window. Select your preferred language,
keyboard type, and time/currency format, then
click Next.

7) Click the Install Now button.

 P a g e | 102

7) Accept the License Terms.

Read over the Microsoft Software License
Terms, check I accept the license terms, and
click Next.

8) Select the Custom installation.

9) Decide on which hard drive and partition you want to install Windows on.
 A hard drive is a physical part
of your computer that stores
data, and partitions "divide"
hard drives into separate parts.
 If the hard drive has data on it,
delete the data off of it,
or format it.
 Select the hard drive from the
list of hard drives.
 Click Drive options
(advanced).
 Click Format from Drive
options.
 If your computer doesn't have
any partitions yet, create one to
install Windows on it.
 Select the hard drive from the
list of hard drives.
 Click Drive options (advanced).
 Select New from Drive options.
 Select the size, and click OK.
 P a g e | 103

10) Install Windows on your

preferred hard drive and
partition.
Once you've decided on where to install
Windows, select it and click Next,
Windows will begin.

Installation will finish with creating user name, computer name, selecting time zone etc.
After Installation necessary work:
1) Start – Control Panel- Windows update- check or uncheck windows update depend on your
licence.
2) Install motherboard driver. ( VGA or graphics, Audio or sound, LAN, WLAN, Bluetooth etc.)
3) Customize desktop icon.
4) Install Basic Software :
a) MS office
b) Adobe Reader
c) Google chrome
d) VLC media player
e) Winrar
f) Any good antivirus.

Problem: I wanted to install Windows 7 professional but by mistake I installed

Windows 7 Home premium. Is it possible to upgrade it without re installing?

Upgrading Windows 7 Home Premium to Professsional

1. Open System Properties by right-clicking

on Computer icon and then selecting
Properties option. You can also launch
System Properties by
pressing Windows + Pause/Break hotkey
.
 P a g e | 104

2. In the System Properties, click on the

option named Get more features
with a new edition of Windows 7to
launch Windows Anytime Upgrade
wizard.

3. In the window, you will have two

options:

# Go online to choose the edition of Windows

that’s best for you

# Enter an upgrade key

22TDK-F8XX6-YG69F-9M66D-PMJBM

The first option displays the upgrade price for

Professional and Ultimate editions with their features.
You can also purchase the upgrade license here. Use
the second option if you own an upgrade license for
Professional or Ultimate edition.
In this guide, we choose the second option (Enter an
upgrade key) as we have an upgrade key for Windows
7 Professional edition. If you have Ultimate
edition upgrade license, simply enter the key
to upgrade to Ultimate edition.
Please note that Windows Anytime Upgrade
key is different from product key.

4. Click Next button to allow Windows

Anytime Upgrade to verify the entered
key. Verification should be done within a
few seconds.
 P a g e | 105

5. If the key is genuine, you will be asked to accept the license agreement. Click on I accept button
and then Upgrade button to continue. If you have any running applications you will be asked to
save your work and close all running programs.

6. Wait for a while and let the Windows complete the upgrade process. You are done! You have
just upgraded Windows 7 Home Premium edition to Professional.
 P a g e | 106

OS Upgradation
Changing OS version without deleting data and system setting as well as without uninstalling
application software.

Upgrading condition: Step by step

Existing OS ( Old OS) Upgraded to ( New OS)

Windows 95 Windows 98
Windows 98 Windows NT
Windows NT Windows 2000
Windows 2000 Windows XP
Windows XP Windows Vista
Windows Vista Windows 7
Windows 7 Windows 8
Windows 8 Windows 10

OS Upgrading process: Offline and Online

Offline upgradation

1) How to Upgrade Windows Vista to Windows 7 ?

Ans:
1) My current PC have Windows Vista OS.
2) Insert windows 7 dvd or bootable pen drive in PC.
3) Open My computer  double click on dvd drive  Install now 
Next ……………………select “Upgrade” option…………………..

Note: Before upgradation consider three points ?

1) Hardware requirement of new OS.

2) Check Software Compatibility.
3) Only same platform up gradation possible ( 32 to 32 bits or 64 to 64 bits).
 P a g e | 107

Upgarding Win 7 to Windows 8

Same Process as above only different line will come in place of „upgrade’

Online upgradation

Step 1 Preparation:
Please run Windows Update first before install the upgrade. (This step will require a connection
to the Internet)
1
1.1 . Press Start → All
Programs.
1 When the program list
shows,1find ―Windows
Update‖
. and click to execute.
1
 P a g e | 108

1 1.2 Click ―Check for updates‖ to download

. the necessary updates.
2

1.3 Windows Update is checking updates…

1.4 Install updates for your system.

1Some of the updates will require you to restart the computer. Please follow the instruction and re-
.start your computer. Repeat step 1.1-1.4 to obtain all essential updates until no new important
4updates are available.

1
.
 P a g e | 109

5
Installing Windows 8 or Windows 10 .
Ans: Same process as Windows 7 but you have to give online email ID to create a user.
If you want to create a local user then disconnect internet connection while installing Windows 8
or 10.

File System

File system is the way to organizing and keeping track of data that is stored in hard disk.
 P a g e | 110

Types of File System:

 Windows
1) FAT
2) FAT32
3) NTFS
4) REFS
 Linux
1) FAT
2) EXT3
3) EXT4
4) XFS

1) FAT (File Allocation Table)

 Introduced with DOS
 Very week file & folder security
 Support maximum of 2GB hard disk partition

2) FAT32
 Introduce with Windows 95
 Also have week file & folder security
 Support maximum 32 GB hard disk partition

3) NTFS (New Technology File System)

 Introduce with Windows NT
 Very strong file & folder security
 Support maximum of 2 TB hard disk partition
 Some special features:- File security
Disk Quota
Disk compression
File Encryption

4) REFS (Re-silent File System)

 Introduce with Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012
 Support maximum of 1 YB(Yotta byte)
 Maximum one file size 16 EB (Exabyte)
 It will use checksum to ensure that corrupt data is easily found and repaired.

NTFS File Security

This is used when one window having multiple users we

want to protect data or block some data to other users.
Process:- R.C. on any folder or drive –Properties-
security – edit –add – advanced-find now-select required
user – ok –ok –select required permissions-ok-apply-ok
 P a g e | 111

File Encryption
Same as file security but it takes text file only.

Process:-

 In system create two user and logon with 1st user.

 Open ―D‖ drive  Create a notepad file then write some information and save it.
 Right click on this file  Properties  Advanced  Select encrypt contents to secure data
 Ok  Apply  Ok.
 Logon with 2nd user  Open ―D‖ drive and try to open encrypted file, (File will not open)
 The file will open only when the 1st user will logon.

File Quota
It is used to give the limited access of drive space to the different users.

Process:-

 Right click on drive  Properties  Quota  Quota entries  Quota  New Quota entry 
Advance  Find now  Select users  Ok  Ok  Select limit disc space to (eg. 100 Gb)
 Set warning level to (eg. 80 Gb )  Ok
 Also select all options of Quota  Apply  Ok
 P a g e | 112

Disc Compression
It is used to compress the data storage capacity of Drive.
Process:-
Right click on Drive  Properties  Select compress this drive to save disk space  Select allow
files on this device to have contents indexed in addition to file properties.

Basic DOS Commands

To change Directory:
Open cmd  d: Press enter
To make a folder:
Open cmd  md songs
To enter the folder:
Open cmd  cd songs
To get out from folder:
Open cmd  cd..
To create multiple folder at a time:
Open cmd mkdir delhi Chennai mumbai
To delete a folder:
Open cmd  rd delhi (folder name)
 P a g e | 113

To create a file inside a folder:

Open cmd  cd songs
Copy con abc ( file name )
Type file content
To save the file in Dos:
Open cmd  Ctrl + z
To check the contents of file:
Open cmd  type abc (file name )
To delete a file:
Open cmd  erase abc (file name ) or del abc
To delete all .mp3 file at a time:
Open cmd  erase *.mp3
To check the content of folder:
Open cmd  dir abc (folder name)
To check the content of folder or drive in hierarchical order:
Open cmd  tree abc (folder name) or tree d:
To copy file from one folder to another folder:
Open cmd  copy avi (file name ) d:\avinash\bb (destination folder name)
Eg. Copy c:\avi (file) d:\avinash (folder)
To move file from one folder to other folder:
Open cmd  move c:\avi (file) d:\avinash (folder)
To rename file:
Open cmd  ren avi (filename) raj (new filename)
To hide a file:
Open cmd  attrib +h d:\avi (file name)
To unhide a file:
Open cmd  attrib –h d:\avi (file name)
To securely hide a file:
Open cmd  attrib +s +h d:\avi (file name)
To securely unhide a file:
Open cmd  attrib -s -h d:\avi (file name)
To clear screen: Open cmd  cls
To play video file:
 P a g e | 114

Open cmd  start abc.mp4 (video file name)

To play audio file:
Open cmd  start cde.mp3 (video file name)
To open document file:
Open cmd  start resume.docx (video file name)
To change the display color of cmd screen:
Open cmd  color ?
Open cmd  Color 25
Note :- 2 for background color
5 for font color

Batch File
Command written in Batch file will be executed if you double click on it.

Q. How to create Batch File?

Ans:-

Open Notepad  type command  Go to file  Save as  mybatchfile.bat ( File name )  Save as
type ( all type )

Q. How to delete other file by using batch file?

Ans:-

Create a file named Rekha.txt

Command  ( del rekha.txt ) if both file in same place

( del d:\movie\rekha.txt ) if both file in different place

Q. How to open a .pptx file?

Ans:- Command  ( start vlan.pptx ) or ( start e:\vlan.pptx )

 P a g e | 115

Q. How to delete only .jpg file from folder picture?

Ans:-

Command  ( del d:\picture\*.jpg )

Q. How to Execute multiple command at a time?

Ans:-

Command  start resume.docx

Del d:\song\*.mp3

Copy e:\movie\bahu.mp4 f:\songs

Start d:\movie\tubelight.avi

or

Q. How to start two batch file at the same time?

Ans:-

Command  File name ( aa.bat ) , Type command : Start bb.bat

File name ( bb.bat ) , Type command : Start aa.bat

Q. How to securely hide a folder?

Ans:- File name ( lock.bat )

Command : Attrib +s +h d:\movie

Q. How to securely unhide a folder?

Ans:- File name ( lock.bat )

Command : Attrib -s -h d:\movie

 P a g e | 116

Q. How to ruin (crash) the RAM memory?

Ans:-

Command  @ echo

: top

mkdir %random%

goto top

VIRUS
Vital Information Resources Under Seize

What is VIRUS ?

 Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one
computer to another and to interfere with computer operation.

 A computer virus is a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without
your knowledge and runs against your wishes.

What do computer viruses do?

Viruses spread by reproducing and inserting themselves into programs, documents, or e-mail
attachments.
In the process a virus has the potential to cause unexpected or damaging effects, such as harming
the system software by corrupting or destroying data.

How Do Computer Viruses Spread?

Viruses can be spread through:

1 ) Infected removable media: Pen drive, Pirated CD/DVD, Memory card , external hard
drive etc.
2) Web activity : Opening spam email or an email attachment, Internet file downloads, social
media scam links, visiting an infected Web site, downloading free games, toolbars and other
system utilities.

3) Other Way : Bluetooth, Infected LAN

 P a g e | 117

Types of Computer Infections

1) Malware 2) Viruses 3) Worms 4) Spyware

History of Computer Viruses

Year Technical Name Activity

1971 The Creeper A message displayed that ―I’m the creeper, catch me if you can!‖.

1974 Wabbit (Rabbit) Make multiple copies of itself on a computer clogging the system
reducing the performance of the computer.

1981 Elk Cloner Created to infect Apple DOS 3.3 . spread through files and folders
that are transferred to other computers by floppy disk.

1984 Brain Affecting boot sector area of operating System. Developed by two
Pakistani brothers named ―Farooq Alvi brothers‖.

1990 Symantec launched one of the first antivirus programs called the
Norton Antivirus, to fight against the infectious viruses.

Year Technical Name Activity

1995 Concept Created to spread and attack Microsoft Word documents.

1999 Happy99 Developed to attach itself to emails with a

message
2000 ILOVEYOU Happy New
Capable Year files in JPEGs, MP2, or MP3 formats.
of deleting

2004 MyDoom Developed to share files and permits hackers

to access to infected computers.

2010 Kenzero Virus that spreads online between sites through

browsing history.
2013 Cryptolocker This is trojan horse encrypts the files infected
machine and demands a ransom to unlock
the files.
 P a g e | 118

Common Types of Viruses

Virus operates based on the code written. Different viruses function differently.

Boot Sector Viruses Directory Virus Stealth Viruses

Trojan Horses Polymorphic Virus E-mail Viruses:

Resident Viruses Nonresident Viruses Direct Action Viruses

Macro virus Encrypted Viruses File Infectors

Why do People Create Viruses?

1) Causing problems and trouble

2) Stealing account information
3) To generate money
4)To prove ones skill or for revenge purposes
5) To take control of a computer and use it for specific tasks.

Symptoms of virus infected computer

1) Computer slows down without any reason. 8) Unable to install new antivirus

2) Computer restarts in unusual ways. 09) Very Slow booting

3) Strange messages, displays, music or sounds. 10)Unexpected Computer Behavior

4) Changed Hard Drive name or Volume name.
5) Slower Internet and Processing
6) Hardware and Accessory Problems
11) Unknown programs or files are being
created.
12) Social networking Profiles, or Your Email
account automatically send messages With
the virus to your contacts.
.
13) Automatic files deleting

7) Applications won’t start. 14) Missing or Extra Files

 P a g e | 119

Prevention from Virus

1) Install Anti-Virus/Malware Software and Update it regularly.

2) Run regularly scheduled scanning of PC and scan external drive before using.
3) Avoid websites that provide pirated material.

4) Don’t Use Open Wi-Fi in public place

5) Don't open unknown attachments in emails or do a virus scan after opening them.
 P a g e | 120

How to get Antivirus

1) Download free antivirus from Internet : This will give normal security .
2) Buy registered antivirus from computer shop or through online : This will give
very high security.

Registered antivirus validity available as

 1 PC 1 year or
 1 PC 3 year or
 Multiple PC 1 year or 3 year
 P a g e | 121

Group Policy
Group Policy allows administrators to define options for what users can do on a
network – including what files, folders and applications they can access.
The collections of user and computer settings are referred to as Group Policy Objects .
We can apply GP for users and computers only

Exercise
1) Block “Task manager” option for all users of Account department OU.
Start -Run - gpedit.msc -ok
User configuration Policies  Administrative Templates  system  Ctrl
+Alt + Del options --Double click  “Remove Task manager” Select
“enable”  Apply  ok.
Start  Run  gpupdate  OK

2) To Remove Desktop icons icon:

Start -Run - gpedit.msc -ok
User configuration  Administrative templates  Desktop  Select “Remove all
desktop items”  select Enable apply  ok.

3) To Remove All Programs list from start menu:

Start -Run - gpedit.msc -ok

User configuration  Admin templates  Start menu & Task bar  select “Remove all
programs list from the start menu  select “Enable”  Apply  Ok

Start  Run  Gp update  ok

4) Disable Pen-drive access for all User of sales department:

Start -Run - gpedit.msc -ok

User configurationpolicies  Admin templates  System  Select “Removable Storage

Access” Double click on “Removable Storage access”  Select Removable Disks: Deny
read access  Double click  select “Enable” Apply Ok.

Start  run gpupdate  Ok.

5) Fix Desktop Wallpaper of Account Department:

1) 1st Select a image to set wallpaper.

 P a g e | 122

2) Keep the image in a folder

3) Start -Run - gpedit.msc -ok

User configuration  policies  Admin templates Desktop  Desktop Select

“Desktop wallpaper”.  select enable  Wallpaper Name:

d:\wallpaper\poster.jpg

Wallpaper Style: stretch  Apply ok

Start  Run  gpupdate ok.

6) Enable or disable right-click context menus in Explorer

User Configuration > Administrative Templates > Windows Components > File
Explorer-> double-click on Remove File Explorer‟s default context menu to open its
settings box.-> Select enabled > Apply -ok
 P a g e | 123

Networking
 P a g e | 124

Networking Introduction
Definition: Networking is the interconnection of two or more devices that makes inter
communication among them to share the resource.

Advantages

1) Hardware Sharing: eg – Printer, scanner, web cam, speaker etc.

2) Folder Sharing.
3) Application software sharing.
4) Entertainment: Chatting, video conferencing, etc
5) Increasing Storage capacity.
6) Remote devices access.

Disadvantages

1) Unauthorised access ( hacking problem).

2) Virus can spread easily in network.

Classification of Network
On the basis of distance

 PAN : Personal Area Network (one to one)

 LAN : Within a room to a office to a building.
 P a g e | 125

 CAN: Within the campus

 MAN : Within the city
 WAN : All over the world( min two city)

On the basis of use

 Peer to peer network (Workgroup)

 Client-server model ( Domain)
 P a g e | 126

On the basis of connection

 Intranet: Accessing server within the organization

 Extranet: Accessing server of partner organization
 Internet: Accessing server of all over the world

 P a g e | 127

On the basis of Processing

 P a g e | 128

Requirement to create network

1) Computers
2) Operating System that support networking
3) NIC (Network Interface Card) or LAN Card
4) Transmission media
5) Networking Devices
6) Topology
7) Networking Protocol

COMPUTERS
1) Laptops 2)Desktops 3)Palmtops

Any types of computers can be connected in network.

O.S (Operating Systems) Family

8) Windows 2)Linux 3)Netware 4)MAC OS 5) BSD

WINDOWS
CLIENT O.S SERVER O.S LINUX O.S
DOS (1980s) Windows NT Server Redhat Linux
Windows 1.0 Windows Server 2000 Fedora
Windows 3.0 Windows Server 2003 Centos
Windows 95 Windows Server 2008 Ubuntu
Windows 98 Windows Server 2012 Mandriva
Windows ME Windows Server 2016 Kali linux
Windows NT Debian
Windows 2000 Arch Linux
Windows XP (2000) Free Linux
Windows Vista Scientific Linux
Windows 7 Mint Linux
Windows 8/8.1
Windows 10
 P a g e | 129

Client computers:

 End devices that users use to access the shared resources.

 Usually they run desktop version of OS such as Window 10, Window 7 etc.
 Client computers are also known as workstations.

Server computers:

 Computers that provide shared resources.

 Usually they run sever version of OS such as Window Server 2008, Linux etc.
 Server computers run many specialized services to control the shared resources.

Server Type

1) Tower Server 2) Rack Server 3) Blade Server

NIC : Network Interface

Card
 NIC is an interface that enables the computer to communicate over the network.
 Every computer must have a NIC in order to connect with the network.
 In earlier time it was a separate card and need to be installed on motherboard.
 All modern computers have it as the integral part of motherboard.

Physical Address or MAC address

 Fixed address . We can't change it.

 P a g e | 130

 It is already present in NIC Card.

 Given by INTERNIC Organization to manufacturer.
 48 bits address divided into 24 bits and 24 bits.
 The 1st 24 bits is manufacturer ID and 2nd is unique ID.

Logical Address or IP address

 It can be changed as you like.

 Used for assigning a IP address
 Two types: IPv4 and IPv6
 IPv4 : 32 bits and IPv6 :bits

Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable

Two Types

UTP STP
(Unshielded Twisted Pair) (Sheilded Twisted Pair)
 Less cost  Costly
 Normally used everywhere  Used in sensitive places only
 Having 8 wires of different colours  same
 Only one outer shield  Outer shield as well as separate shield in
each pair
 To protect from electromagnetic
disturbance in common wiring STP will be
used.
 P a g e | 131

Twisted pair categories

Connector used : RJ45 ( Resistered jack)

 P a g e | 132

Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable is an electrical cable consisting of a round conducting wire, surrounded by an
insulating spacer, surrounded by a cylindrical conducting sheath, and usually surrounded
by a final insulating layer.

 Most common use of coaxial cable today is in standard cable TV. A copper conductor lies in
the center of the cable, which is surrounded by insulation. A braided or mesh outer covering
surrounds the insulation. This is also a conductor.

Two Types : Thicknet and Thinnnet

1) ThickNet, or RG-6:
It is older and one of the first types of coaxial cable used in networks. Its thick shielding, very
rigid and difficult to work with.

2) ThinNet or RG-59:
It is far more flexible than ThickNet and much easier to work with.
 P a g e | 133

Advantages :

 Sufficient frequency range to support multiple channel, which allows for

much greater throughput.
 Lower error rates. because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield

Disadvantages:

 More expensive to install compare to twisted pair cable.

 The thicker the cable, the more difficult to work with.

Connector used : BNC (Bayonet Neill Concelman).

Fiber Optic Cable

 A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data.

 Fiber optic cables provide higher bandwidth and can transmit data over longer distances.
 Fiber optic cables support much of the world's internet, cable television and telephone
systems.
 Fiber cables rated at 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps and even 100 Gbps are standard.
 Fiber optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of light generated by small
lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 Speed of light 3 x 10^8 m/s , 30000 km/s.
 P a g e | 134

 In sender side Electrical signal is converted in light signal by the help of transducer and at
receiver side light signal is again converted into electrical signal by using transducer.

Types of fiber cables

1.) Single Mode:

Single mode fiber is optical fiber that is designed for the transmission of a single ray
or mode of light as a carrier and is used for long-distance signal transmission.

2.) Multimode:
Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for communication over
short distances, such as within a building or on a campus. Typical multi-mode links have
data rates of 10 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s over link lengths of up to 600 meters (2000 feet).
 P a g e | 135

Optical fiber cable under sea

 P a g e | 136

Optical fibre Cable Connectors

Wireless Media
Microwaves:
Microwave link. A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in
the microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations, which can
be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart.

Microwaves travel by line-of-sight;

 P a g e | 137

Radio wave:
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as
3 kHz.

A wireless network uses radio waves, just like cell phones, televisions and radios.

Infrared wave:
Method of transferring data without the use of wires. A common example of an
infrared (Ir) device is a TV remote. However, infrared is also used with computers and devices like
a cordless keyboard or mouse, wifi
routers.

Infrared technology allowed

computing devices to communicate
via short-range wireless signals in
the 1990s. Using IR, computers
could transfer files and other digital
data bi directionally. The infrared
transmission technology used in
computers was similar to that used
in consumer product remote control
units. Infrared was replaced in
modern computers by the much
faster Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
technologies.
 P a g e | 138

Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-
wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile
devices, and building personal area networks(PANs).

Bluetooth refers to a wireless technology which allows digital devices to easily transfer files at high
speed. Bluetooth is common in many portable devices such as laptops, PDAs, mobile phones,
smartphones and tablets.
 P a g e | 139

Networking devices
1. Repeater: This is used to convert weak signals into strong signals.

2.Hub: It is used to connect multi devices.

3.Switch: It is same as hub but it is smarter and faster.

Two types : Manageable and Non Manageable Switch

 P a g e | 140

Differences between Hub and Switch:

HUB SWITCH
1. It is layer 1 device of OSI mode. 1. It is layer 2 device of OSI mode. Some
switch are layer 3 devices.

2. Max speed 10mbps. 2. Speed = 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps, 40

Gbps.

3. Works in half duplex mode. 3. Works in full duplex mode.

4. It broadcast the packet to all its ports. 4.Unicast the packet to its destination(one
time broadcast only)

Transmission Modes:
1) Simplex:- In this mode, the communication between sender and receiver occur only in one
direction.

That means only the sender can transmit the data to receiver but receive can’t.

2) Half- Duplex:- In this mode, the communication between sender and receiver occurs in both
the directions but, one at a time.

The sender and receiver both can transmit and receive the information but, only one is allowed
to transmit at a time.

3) Full-Duplex:- In this mode, the communication between sender and receiver can occur
simultaneously.
Sender and receiver both can transmit and receive simultaneously at the same time.

4. Bridge:
 P a g e | 141

It is same as switch but have two or three port only.

5. Router:
It is used to connect from two different networks.

Two types: Home or Office use router and Enterprise router

6. Brouter:
 P a g e | 142

7. Gateway:

8. MAU (Multistation Access Unit)

 P a g e | 143

Networking Topology
It is the physical arrangement of networking devices to make a network.

Types of Topology:-
1) Bus 2) Star 3)Ring 4)Mesh 5)Tree 6)Wireless

BUS TOPOLOGY:

1. Coaxial cable is used.

2. Now it is absolute.

Advantages of Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.

 P a g e | 144

Star Topology:
Twisted pair cable is used.

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and configure.

 No disruptions to the network when adding or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or switch fails the entire network goes down.

Ring Topology
Here we require separate NIC card which supports Ring Topology.
 P a g e | 145

Advantages of Ring Topology

1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it receives
an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.

2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
5) Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination.
This makes it slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
4) MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.

Mesh Topology
A network setup where each computer
and network device is interconnected
with one another, allowing for most
transmissions to be distributed, even if
one of the connections go down.

Two types: Full Mesh and Partial Mesh

Full mesh topology: Each network

 P a g e | 146

node (workstation or other device) is connected directly to each of the others.

Partial mesh topology: Some nodes are connected to all the others, but others are only
connected to those nodes with which they exchange the most data.

Advantages of mesh topology:

 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 Data transfer rate is high.
 A fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of mesh topology:

 Installation and configuration are difficult if the connectivity gets more.

 Very very costly.
 Bulk wiring is required.

Tree Topology
It is the combination of multiple topologies.

Advantages of tree topology:

 Scalable as leaf nodes can accommodate more nodes in the hierarchical chain.
 A point to point wiring to the central hub as each intermediate node of a tree topology
represents a node in the bus topology
 Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them gets damaged.
 Easier maintenance and fault finding.

Disadvantages of tree topology:

 Huge cabling is needed.

 A lot of maintenance is needed.
 Backbone forms the point of failure.
 P a g e | 147

Wireless Topology

 Wireless network topology is a logical topology.

 It shows how the computers connect and interact each other when there is no physical
connection, no cables connecting the computers.

 The computers communicate each other directly, using the wireless devices.

 Wireless networks can have infrastructure or ad hoc topology.

Ad hoc network

 The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such
as routers in wired networks or access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless
networks.

 Wireless mobile ad hoc networks are self-configuring, dynamic networks in which nodes are
free to move.
 P a g e | 148

Media Connector

RJ-11 (Registered Jack):

 Standard telephone cable connectors.
 RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6 wires).
 A four or six-wire connector primarily used to connect telephone equipment.

RJ-11 Pin Signal Name

1 VCC (5 volts regulated)
2 Power Ground
3 One Wire Data
4 One Wire Ground

RJ-45 (Registered Jack):

 The RJ-45 connector is an eight-wire connector that is commonly used to

connect computers to a local area network (LAN).

ST (Straight Tip) :

 ST stands for Straight Tip.

 ST Connectors are among the most commonly used Fiber optic connectors in networking
applications.

SC (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector):

 P a g e | 149

 A fiber-optic cable connector that uses a push-pull latching mechanism similar to common
audio and video cables.
 For bi-directional transmission, two fiber cables and two SC connectors (Dual SC) are used.

SC connector ST connector

BNC Connector:
 The BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connector is a quick connect/disconnect radio
frequency connector used for coaxial cable.
 BNC connector commonly used plug and socket for audio, video and networking
applications that provides a tight connection.

BNC Tee connector:

 A Tee connector is an electrical connector that
connects three cables together.
 It is usually in the shape of a capital T.
 It is usually used for coax cables and the three
connector points can be either female or male
gender, and could be different or the same
standard.
AUI Connector (Attachment Unit
Interface):
 P a g e | 150

 A 15 pin connector found on Ethernet cards that can be used for attaching coaxial, fiber
optic, or twisted pair cable.

Types of cables used for networking: cabling

1) STRAIGHT CABLES:

Straight cable is used to connect different type of devices. This type of cable will be used most of
the time and can be used to:

1) Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.

2) Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
3) Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
4) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding
network)
5) Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one
using normal port.

If you need to check how straight cable looks like, it's easy. Both side (side A and side B) of
cable have wire arrangement with same color.
 P a g e | 151

2) Crossover Cable:

Crossover cable is used to connect same type of devices.

1) Connect 2 computers directly.

2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port. (normally used for expanding
network)
3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs.

If you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both side (side A and side B) of cable
have wire arrangement with following different color .
 P a g e | 152

In case you need to make a crossover cable yourself! You can use crimper to do it.

Note: If there is auto MDI/MDI-X feature support on the switch, hub, network card or other
network devices, you don't have to use crossover cable in the situation. This is because crossover
function would be enabled automatically when it's needed.

3) Rollover Cable:

 A rollover cable is a network cable that connects a computer terminal to a network router’s
console port to make programming changes to the device.
 It is also referred to as a Cisco console cable and is normally flat and light blue so as to
distinguish it from other network cable types.
 Rollover cables are also known as Yost cables or Yost Serial Device Wiring Standard
connectors.
 Pin 1 of connector A would be connected to Pin 8 of connector B.
 Pin 2 of connector A would be connected to Pin 7 of connector B and so on.
 P a g e | 153

OSI Layer
 Open System Interconnect (OSI) developed by ISO in 1970.
 Defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven layers.
 Communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
 OSI having 7 layers and each layers has its own responsibilities.
 Hardware and software work together.
 Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.

Known as Layer OSI layer Format NW devices

n0. of Data used
Upper Layer Layer-7 Application Layer
or Layer-6 Presentation Layer
User access Layer-5 Session Layer Data
Layer
Heart/Core Layer-4 Transport layer Segment
of OSI
Lower Layer Layer-3 Network layer Packet Router,
or Layer-2 Data Link Layer Frame Switch, Bridge
NW access Layer-1 Physical Layer Bits Hub, Repeater,
Layer Networking
cable
 P a g e | 154

OSI Layer
Protocol:-
 A protocol protocol is a set of rules in which computers communicate with each other.
 The protocol says what part of the conversation comes at which time.
 It also says how to end the communication.

OSI Layers Associated Protocol

WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP
Application

ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI

Presentation

NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL

Session

SPX, TCP, UDP.

Transport

AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

Network

PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.3, HDLC, Frame Relay.

Data Link

Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

Physical

Physical Layer responsibilities

 Type of connection : Physical or Wireless
 Type of signal : Electrical, Light or Radio signal
 Types of communication mode : Simplex, Half duplex or Full duplex
 Transmit a bit over the electrical Signals.

Data Link Layer Responsibilities

 Receive bits from physical layer.
 Controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
 Have two sublayer : LLC and MAC
 Logical Link Control (LLC) For IEEE 802, flow control, error control, and part of the
framing duties are all brought together in this LLC sub-layer.
 MAC layer is responsible for moving data packets to and from one Network Interface Card
(NIC) to another across a shared channel.
 P a g e | 155

 MAC address adding( Physical addressing).

Framing : Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.

Header Data Trailor

Source Address andDest.Address Parity bits and checksum

 Data - The packet from the Network layer

 Header - Contains control information, such as addressing, and is located at the beginning
of the PDU.
 Trailer - Contains control information added to the end of the PDU.
 PDU -Protocol Data Unit.
 Parity bits are used as the simplest form of error detecting code.
 Checksum is a method of checking for errors in a communications system.

Network Layer responsibilities

 Receive frame from data link layer
 Provides routing and switching
 Error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
 Do logical addressing ( IP addressing)

Transport Layer responsibilities

 Responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
 It ensures complete data transfer.
 Two main Protocol : TCP and UDP
 Data segmentation is done here

Session Layer responsibilities

 Establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications.
 It deals with session and connection coordination.
 Dialogue control and session management.

Presentation Layer responsibilities

 Encoding-decoding
 Encryption-decryption
 Compression-decompression
 Changing file format: jpeg, gif, midi, mpe4
 P a g e | 156

Application Layer responsibilities

The layer provides an interface for the user interact with the application such as Email, HTTP,
FTP, Remote file access.

 Authentication, File access, Management etc.

Networking Protocol
 A protocol is set of rules that must be followed while communicating two networking
devices.
 A protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use
when they communicate.
 Protocols specify interactions between the communicating entities.

Operating System Network protocol

Windows TCP/IP
Linux TCP/IP
Netware IPX/SPX
Mac os Apple talk
 P a g e | 157

TCP/IP ( Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet protocol )

 It is the collection of protocols and also called TCP/IP protocol suite.
 These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or the
internet.
 It consist of 4 layers and each layer having some protocols. Each protocol works
independently but some protocol works together depend on the requirement.


 It consist of 4 layers and each layer having some protocols.

 Each protocol works independently but some protocol works together depend on the
requirement.

Application Layer Protocols

FTP:File Transfer Protocol

 Organizations use FTP to allow employees to share files across different locations and
branch offices.
 Employees use FTP to securely share files with coworkers and external business partners.
 P a g e | 158

 IT teams use FTP to transfer data back to

DR (disaster recovery) sites.

TFTP: Trivial File Transfer Protocol

TFTP stands for Trivial File Transfer Protocol. It's a technology for transferring files between
network devices, and is a simplified version of FTP (File Transfer Protocol).

TFTP is implemented using UDP, it generally works only on local area networks (LANs).

HTTP:Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

 HTTP means Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
 HTTP is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web and this protocol defines how
messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should
take in response to various commands.
 When we enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web
server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
 P a g e | 159

HTTPS:Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure

It is more secure than HTTP.

SMTP:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol. SMTP is used when email is delivered
from an email client, such as Outlook Express,
to an email server or when email is delivered
from one email server to another.

POP:Post Office Protocol

POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol.

POP3 allows an email client to download an email from an email server.

The POP3 protocol is simple and does not offer many features except for download.

Its design assumes that the email client downloads all available email from the server, deletes
them from the server and then disconnects.

We can use only one computer to check your email (no other devices).

IMAP:Internet Message Access Protocol

IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol.

IMAP includes many more features than POP3.

The IMAP protocol is designed to let users keep their email on the server.

IMAP requires more disk space on the server and more CPU resources than POP3, as all emails are
stored on the server
 P a g e | 160

We can use multiple computers and devices to check your email.

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

It is used to assign automatic IP address to client PC.

Dynamic Host

DNS:Domain Name System

It resolve name to IP and IP to name (host name).

 P a g e | 161

NFS:Network File Service

Sharing Directory from one place to another in Linux environment

WDS:Windows Deployment Service

Installing OS in multiple client pc at a time through network .

RIS: Remote Installation Services

Same as WDS but used with windows server 2003.
 P a g e | 162

Telnet:Terminal Network
It is used to access remote device through
command mode.

SSH:Secured Shell
Same as Telnet but it is a Secured Communication.

Transport layer

Protocols using TCP: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP etc.

Protocol using UDP: DHCP, TFTP, VOIP etc

Which protocol use both TCP and UDP: DNS

 P a g e | 163

INTERNET PROTOCOL
IP: Internet protocol
 It is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another on the
internet.
 Each Computer (known as host) on the internet has at least one IP address that uniquely
identifies it from all other Computers on the internet.

ARP:Address Revolution Protocol

To collect Physical Address from the given Logical address.

RARP: Reversed Address Resolution Protocol

ICMP:Internet Control Message

Protocol
Behind Ping Command ICMP Protocol
works to check connectivity.
 P a g e | 164

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

(CSMA/CA).Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance
In CSMA/CA, as soon as a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be sure the channel
is clear (no other node is transmitting at the time). If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent. If
the channel is not clear, the node waits for a randomly chosen period of time, and then checks
again to see if the channel is clear.

FRAME DELAY
Frame relay is a data link layer, digital packet switching network protocol technology
designed to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and transfer data across Wide Area Networks
(WANs).

It also supports variable-length packet sizes for more efficient utilization of network
bandwidth.

Frame Relay operates over fiber optic or ISDN lines and can support different higher level
network protocols including Internet Protocol (IP).

Two types of connections:

1.Permanent Virtual Circuits(PVC): For persistent connections intended to be maintained for long
periods of time even if no data is actively being transferred.

2.Switched Virtual Circuits(SVC): For temporary connections that last only for the duration of a
single session.
 P a g e | 165

FDDI:Fiber Distributed Data Interface

 A Higher Speed Backbone technology.
 Optical fiber transmission.
 Dual ring LAN.
 Thousand stations of network Security.
 100Mbps token passing.
 Connect Equipment to the ring over long distance.

IP ADDRESSING
It is a unique address used to identify a device (like computer, smart phone, router, IP based
phone, network printer etc) in network.

IP Address

IP v4 IP v6

Decimal Format Hexadecimal Format

32 Bits address 128 Bits address

What happened to IPv1, IPv2, IPv3 and IPv5 ?

 IPv1, 2, & 3 would actually be part of the TCP/IP protocols, of which there were 3 versions.
 P a g e | 166

 IPv5 is an experimental TCP/IP protocol called the Internet Stream Protocol that never
really went anywhere because increases in bandwith made streaming over IPv4 feasible. So
IPv5 was never finalized and they skipped to IPv6.

IP V4

• It is 32 bits address divided into 4 octet.

• This 32 bits address is having Network ID and Host ID.

Example:-

192 . 168 . 1. 1
11 00 00 00 .10 10 10 00 .00 00 00 01 . 00 00 00 01
8 8 8 8
32 bits

Network ID Host ID
8 bits = 28= 256

Therefore the value we can write in each octet is from 0 – 255 only.

32-bits = 232 = Around 4.2 billions numbers.

IP v4

Classful Classless

1) Class A – Used for large network Subnetting

2) Class B – Used for medium network and

3) Class C – Used for small network Supernetting

4) Class D – Used for multicasting

5) Class E – Reserved for Research and Development

Q: Where we can assign the IP Address?

Ans: NIC card
Q: Which organization is responsible for managing IP addresses ?
IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority) : IANA created some range to distribute the IP bsed on use.
 P a g e | 167

Range of IPv4

Class Starting Ending

A 1.0.0.0 126.255.255.255
B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
E 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

Note : 127.0.0.1 is reserved for local host and called loopback address.
Range: 127.0.0.1 – 127.255.255.254

To Remember
Class Range
A 1 - 126
B 128 – 191
C 192 – 223
D 224 – 239
E 240 – 255

Network bits and Host bits

Class A: Network bits: 08, Host bits: 24

Subnet Mask

Class B: Network bits : 16, Host bits: 16

Subnet Mask

Class C: Network bits : 24, Host bits: 08

 P a g e | 168

Subnet Mask

Types of IP Address:
 Unicast Address
 Multicast Address
 Broadcast Address

 Unicast is communication between One to One receiver.[A, B, C – Unicasting]

 Multicast is communication between one-to-many
[D, E – Multicasting]
 Broadcast is Communication between one-to-all.

Loop-back Address:
It is a special class A IP address (127.0.0.1-127 255.255.255.0),reserved for
loopback or diagnostic functions.
Link-Local Address:
DHCP is automatically assign the IP Address to a computer.

Condition for Pinging / Communicating:

Class PC-1 PC-2

Class - A A B C D A X Y Z
Class - B A B C D A B X Y
Class - C A B C D A B C X

Note:- To communicate two PC the network ID must be same in both PC.

Calculation of IP Address:

Formula:-

No. of Network = 2n-r No. of Host Network = 2h-2

Where, n = Network bits r = Reserved bits h = Host bits

 P a g e | 169

Reserved bits :

Class Reserved bits No of bits

A 0 1
B 10 2
C 110 3

1) Class - A :
n = 8, h = 24 , r = 1
No. of network = 2n-r = 28-1 = 27 = 128
No. of host network = 2h-2 = 224-2 = 16,777,214

2) Class – B :
n = 16, h = 16 , r = 2
No. of network = 2n-r = 216-2 = 214 = 16384
No. of host network = 2h-2 = 216-2 = 65,536-2 = 65,534

3) Class – C :
n = 24, h = 8 , r = 3
No. of network = 2n-r = 224-3 = 221 = 2,097,152
No. of host network = 2h-2 = 28-2 = 256-2 = 254

How to configure Class-C IP address for 600 Computers ?

Ans:
192.168.1.0 Network ID
192.168.1.1
192.168.1.2
. Valid host = 254
.
192.168.1.254
192.168.1.255 Broadcast ID
 P a g e | 170

192.168.2.0 Network ID
192.168.2.1
192.168.2.2
. Valid host = 254
.
192.168.2.254
192.168.2.255 Broadcast ID
192.168.3.0 Network ID
192.168.3.1
192.168.3.2
. Valid host = 92
.
192.168.3.92
192.168.2.255 Broadcast ID

Therefore total valid host (Computers) = 254+254+92 = 600

Two router require to communicate all systems here.

Public IP and Private IP:

 P a g e | 171

Differences between Public IP and Private IP:

Public IP Private IP
Assinged by ISP Assigned by user from a given range

Used to Connect Internet Used to Share Internet Connection

It can be directly accessed through It cannot be accessed through Internet

Internet

Private IP Range:

Note:- Total IP Address = 232 = 4.2 Billions

3.7 billions used by Public IP

0.5 billions used by Private IP, Lookback address and APIPA address.

SUBNETTING
 Subnetting enables the network administrator to further divide the host part of the
address into two or more subnets.

 Subnet mask is a mask used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to.

 The subnetting process allows the administrator to divide a single Class A, Class B,
or Class C network number into smaller portions. The subnets can be subnetted again
into sub-subnets.

Subnetting advantages
 Reduces the network traffic by reducing the volume of broadcasts
 Saving unused IP addresses
 Enables users to access shared data within their network.
 Security can be maintained
 Easy to troubleshoot network problems.
 P a g e | 172

The default subnet mask is as follows:

Class Subnet mask CIDR notation

A 255.0.0.0 X.X.X.X/8
B 255.255.0.0 X.X.X.X/16
C 255.255.255.0 X.X.X.X./24

Subnetting is the process of Dividing a Single Network into Multiple Networks.

Converting Host bits into Network Bits i.e. Converting 0‟s into 1‟s

Subnetting can be perform in two ways.

1. FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask)
2. VLSM (Variable Length subnet mask)

Subnetting can be done based on requirement .

Requirement of Hosts ? 2h - 2 >= requirement

Requirement of Networks ? 2n >= requirement

What is Supernetting or CIDR?

 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) merges or combine network addresses of same class into
one single address to reduce the size of the routing table.
 It is done on core router to reduce the size of routing table.
 It is implemented by ISP (internet service providers).

For subnetting calculation number of bits is borrowed from host ID

No of Bits No of No of n/w or host

networks
1 2 128
2 4 64
3 8 32
4 16 16
5 32 8
6 64 4
7 128 2
 P a g e | 173

FLSM : Example-- 1
Req = 40 hosts using C-class address network 192.168.1.0/24
1. 2h - 2 >= req
26 – 2 >= 40
64 – 2 >= 40
62 >= 40
Host bits required (h) = 6
2.Converted network Bits (n) = Total. H. Bits -- req. H. Bits
= 8 --- 6 = 2 (n)
4.Total . Network Bits =total network bits + converted bits = 24 + 2 = /26
subnet mask = (/26)= 255.255.255.192
5.Blocksize = 2h = 26 = 64
6.Subnets = 2n = 22 = 4 Subnets
7.Range :
Network ID --- Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0/26 ----- 192.168.1.63/26
192.168.1.64/26 ----- 192.168.1.127/26
192.168.1.128/26 ----- 192.168.1.191/26
192.168.1.192/26 ----- 192.168.1.255/26

FLSM : Example-- 2
1.Req = 500 hosts using B-class address network 172.16.0.0/16
2h - 2 >= req
29 – 2 >= 500
512 – 2 >= 500
510 >= 500
2.Host bits required (h)= 9
3. Converted network Bits (n) = Total. H. Bits -- req. H. Bits
= 16 --- 9 = 7 (n)
3. Total . Network Bits = total network bits + converted bits = 16 + 7 = /23
subnet mask = (/23)= 255.255.254.0
6. Blocksize = = 2h = 29 = 512
7.Subnets = 2n = 27 = 128 Subnets
Range
Network ID --- Broadcast ID
172.16.0.0/23 ---- 172.16.1.255/23
172.16.2.0/23 ---- 172.16.3.255/23
 P a g e | 174

172.16.4.0/23 ---- 172.16.5.255/23

172.16.6.0/23 ---- 172.16.7.255/23
FLSM : Example-- 3
1.Req = 2000 hosts using A-class address network 10.0.0.0/8
2h - 2 >= req
211 – 2 >= 2000
2048 – 2 >= 2000
2046 >= 2000
2.Host bits required (h)= 11
3.Converted network Bits (n) = Total. H. Bits -- req. H. Bits
= 24 --- 11 = 13 (n)
4. Converted network Bits (n)= 13
5.Total . N. Bits = 8+ 13 = /21
subnet mask = (/21) = 255.255.248.0
6.blocksize = 2h = 211 = 2048
7.Subnets = 2n = 213 = 8192 Subnets
8.Range:
Network ID --- Broadcast ID
10.0.0.0/21 … 10.0.7.255/21
10.0.8.0/21 … 10.0.15.255/21
10.0.16.0/21 … 10.0.23.255/21
…
…
10.0.248.0/21 … 10.0.255.255/21
10.1.0.0/21 --- 10.1.7.255/21
10.1.8.0/21 --- 10.1.15.255/21
10.1.16.0/21 --- 10.1.23.255/21
10.1.248.0/21 … 10.1.255.255/21
10.2.0.0/21 --- 10.2.7.255/21
10.2.8.0/21 --- 10.2.15.255/21
10.2.16.0/21 --- 10.2.23.255/21
…
…
10.2.248.0/21 … 10.2.255.255/21
….
…
….
10.255.0.0/21 --- 10.0.7.255/21
10.255.8.0/21 --- 10.0.15.255/21
10.255.16.0/21 --- 10.0.23.255/21
….
…
10.255.248.0/21 … 10.255.255.255/21
 P a g e | 175

WIRELESS NETWORK
 Wireless network allows to a communication between 2 or many computers without
using physical wire.

Wireless Network Categories

PAN LAN MAN WAN
Coverage Reach within a Reach within a Reach within a Reach within a
person Building or city world wide
campus
Performance Moderate high high Low
Standard IEEE 802.15 802.11 wifi Preparatory Cellular,
Bluetooth IEEE 802.16, broadband,
Wimax 2G, 3G, 4G

What is IEEE ?

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

 Its objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic
engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering and allied disciplines.

IEEE 802 : IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and
metropolitan area networks.

IEEE 802 Standard

802.1–Higher layer LAN protocol

802.2– LLC Link Local Control
802.3 –Ethernet
802.4 –Token bus
802.5 –Token Ring
802.6 –MAN
802.11 –Wi-Fi
802.15 –PAN
802.16 –MAN [Wimax]

IEEE 802.11 Standard

STANDARD FREQUENCY SPEED RANGE-METER

802.11 2.4 GHz 2 Mbps 20/100
802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps 35/120
802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps 35/140
802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps 38/140
802.11n 2.4/5 GHz 150 Mbps 70/250
802.11 ac 5 GHz 1 Gbps 35/........
802.11 ad 60 GHz 7 Gbps 60/100
 P a g e | 176

Mobile Network Generation

Full Form
NMT - Nordic Mobile Telephone

AMPS - Advance Mobile Phone System

GPRS – General Packet Radio Service

GSM – Global System for Mobile communication

CDMA– Code Division Multiple Access

TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access

WCDMA – Wide Band Code Division Multiple Access

EDGE – Enhanced Data for Global Evolution

UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service

HSDPA – High-Speed Downlink Packet Access

LTE – Long Term Evolution

 P a g e | 177

Wireless LAN Security

Wireless security is the prevention of unauthorized access or damage to computers

using wireless networks.

1) WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy):

 WEP is a weak security standard.

 The password it uses can often be cracked in a few minutes with a basic laptop
computer and widely available software tools.

2) WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access):

 WPA was a quick alternative to improve security over WEP.

3) WPA2

 The current standard is WPA 2, some hardware cannot support WPA2 without
firmware upgrade or replacement.
 WPA 2 uses an encryption device that encrypts the network with a 256-bit key, the
longer key length improves security over WEP.

Encryption and authentication

1) WPA2-TKIP
 TKIP is actually an older encryption protocol introduced with WPA to replace the very-
insecure WEP encryption at the time.
 TKIP is actually quite similar to WEP encryption.
 TKIP is no longer considered secure, and is now deprecated.
2) WPA2-AES
 AES is a more secure encryption protocol introduced with WPA2.
 AES isn’t some creaky standard developed specifically for Wi-Fi networks, either.
 It’s a serious worldwide encryption standard that’s even been adopted by the US
government

How to configure new wi-fi router

1) See the back side of router

IP = 192.168.1.1

User = admin , Password =admin

 P a g e | 178

2) Connect router to PC directly through network cable

3) In PC configure IP address to obtain automatically

4) Check IP in PC (specially gateway address)

5) Open any web browser in PC and type -- 192.168.1.1

User =admin, Password = admin

 P a g e | 179

A) Internet setup : Static IP or Dynamic IP or User/Password or Bridged

B) Wireless Security

SSID = RTS

Mode: 802.11n

Security option = WPA2

Encryption = AES

Pre shared key = 123456

C) LAN setting

IP = 192.168.1.1

SM= 255.255.255.0

DHCP mode Enabled

DHCP IP Pool : 192.168.1.2 - 192.168.1.254

Lease time = 3600 sec

D) MAC Address filtering: To fix specific system to access Internet

 P a g e | 180

E) Parental Control

-Blocking web sites

- Blocking services( like http, https, ftp etc)

F) Change router login password -- This is one time work

 P a g e | 181

Firewall
A firewall is a network security system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network.

Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.

Hardware Firewall Software Firewall

The firewall is a dedicated hardware appliance Software firewalls are installed on your
protecting all your computers, also reffered to as computer and you can customize it; allowing
a network or gateway firewall. you some control over its function and
protection features.
A hardware firewall is more secure, can protect A software firewall will protect your computer
more computers and runs on its own processing from outside attempts to control or gain access
power and so does not affect a computer's your computer, and, depending on your choice
performance. of software firewall.

Windows Firewall Rule

1) Inbound Rule
2) Outbound Rule

Inbound rules: These are to do with other things accessing your computer. If you are
running a Web Server or RD server on your computer then you will have to tell the Firewall
that outsiders are allowed to connect to it.
Outbound rules: These are so that you can let some programs use the Internet, and Block
others. You will want to let your Web Browser (Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Chrome,
Opera...) have access to the Internet, so you will tell Windows Firewall that it's allowed.

Some Firewall Software

1) Zone Alarm
2) Comodo free firewall 3) Peer Block 4)Tiny wall
 P a g e | 182

Internet connection Management

A proxy server, also known as a "proxy" or "application-level gateway", is a computer that
acts as a gateway between a local network and a larger-scale network such as the Internet.
A proxy server works by intercepting connections between sender and receiver.
A proxy server is a computer that offers a computer network service to allow clients to make
indirect network connections to other network services.
Proxy servers provide
increased performance and
security. All incoming data
enters through one port and
is forwarded to the rest of the
network via another port.

How to Configure Proxy Server to manage Internet Connection ?

a) In Proxy Software install Internet connection management proxy server

b) Available Softwares :CCProxy, Interguard, Verioto 360, iMonitor Soft etc.

CCProxy Software advantages:

a) Different method to give authorization.

b) Web Site ,URL, Web Content Filtering
c) Time Setting to use Internet
d) Data Usage setting based on per user.
e) Download and upload speed setting

Here we are configuring CCProxy Software:

1) Install this Software Normally and add users one by one and configure it.
 P a g e | 183

Select permit category and Auth Type then click on new to add new user

Restrict to use facebook and youtube

Set time to use Internet in that time only

 P a g e | 184

How to add or configure Client PC to get Internet through Proxy Server ?

Sol:- Open Internet Explorer – Go to tools – Internet options—Connection—LAN Setting--- Select
― Use a Proxy Server for Your LAN‖ and put Proxy Server address here as well as Port no-808
then Apply –OK

This configuration will work with Chrome browser also.

TCP/IP UTILITY

1) Ping:

 The PING utility tests connectivity between two hosts.

 PING uses a special protocol called the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)to determine
whether the remote machine (website, server, etc.) can receive the test packet and reply.
 Pinging the loopback address (127.0.0.1) to verify that TCP/IP is installed and configured
correctly on the local computer.
 Open cmd mode  ping 127.0.0.1 or ping espn.com ( any pc IP )

2) Tracert:

 Tracert is very similar to Ping, except that Tracert identifies pathways taken along each hop,
rather than the time it takes for each packet to return (ping).
 If we have trouble connecting to a remote host we will use Tracert to see where that
connection fails.
 P a g e | 185

 Open cmd mode  tracert espn.com (or any IP of PC).

3) ARP:

 The ARP utility helps diagnose problems associated with the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP).
 TCP/IP hosts use ARP to determine the physical (MAC) address that corresponds with a
specific IP address. Type arp with the – a option to display IP addresses that have been
resolved to MAC addresses recently.
 Open cmd mode arp -a

4) Netstat:

 Netstat (Network Statistics) displays network connections (both incoming and outgoing),
routing tables, and a number of network interface statistics.
 It is a helpful tool in finding problems and determining the amount of traffic on the network as
a performance measurement.
 Open cmd mode netstat ( it shows connection ) or netstat –s ( it shows traffic )

5) Nbtstat:

 Nbtstat (NetBios over TCP/IP) enables you to check information about NetBios names.
 It helps us view the NetBios name cache (nbtstat -c) which shows the NetBios names and the
corresponding IP address that has been resolved (nbtstat -r) by a particular host as well as the
names that have been registered by the local system (nbtstat –n).
 Open cmd mode nbstat

6) NSLookup:

 NSLookup provides a command-line utility for diagnosing DNS problems. In its most basic
usage, NSLookup returns the IP address with the matching host name.
 Open cmd mode nslookup
 P a g e | 186

7) IPConfig:

 Not part of the TCP/IP utilities but it is useful to show current TCP/IP settings.
 The IPConfig command line utility will show detailed information about the network you are
connected to. It also helps with reconfiguration of your IP address through release and renew.
 Open cmd mode ipconfig or ipconfig /all

CRYPTOGRAPHY

Cryptography is a method of storing and transmitting data in a particular form so that only those
for whom it is intended can read and process it.

There are five primary functions of cryptography :

1. Privacy/confidentiality: Ensuring that no one can read the message except the intended
receiver.
2. Authentication: The process of proving one's identity.
3. Integrity: Assuring the receiver that the received message has not been altered in any way
from the original.
4. Non-repudiation: A mechanism to prove that the sender really sent this message.
5. Key exchange: The method by which crypto keys are shared between sender and receiver.

Plain Text:

The unencrypted data, referred to as plaintext.

Ciphertext:

Plaintext is encrypted into ciphertext.

P a g e | 187
 P a g e | 188

TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS

1) Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both encryption and
decryption; also called symmetric encryption. Primarily used for privacy and
confidentiality.

2) Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and another for
decryption; also called asymmetric encryption. Primarily used for authentication, non-
repudiation, and key exchange.

3) Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly "encrypt"

information, providing a digital fingerprint. Primarily used for message integrity.

FIGURE 1: Three types of cryptography: secret key, public key,

and hash function.

Windows OS Networking Practical

1. IP address configuration:-

PC 1 PC 2
1. Open network setting 1. Open network setting
Local area connection Local area connection
tcp/Ipv4 tcp/Ipv4
IP= 192.168.2.1 IP= 192.168.2.2
S.M= 255.255.255.0 S.M= 255.255.255.0

2. Turn off firewall 2 . Turn off firewall

3. Start  Run  ping 3 Start  Run  ping
192.168.2.2 ok 192.168.2.1  ok
 P a g e | 189

2. Remote Desktop:-

PC1 PC2
Right click on my computer Start - Remote Desktop connection:
Properties  Remote setting  Type PC1 IP --connect --then type
Allow connection from computer user and password of PC1
running any version of remote
desktop  Apply  Ok.
User must have password on PC.
Windows firewall must be off.

3. Folder Sharing:-

PC1 PC2
Right click on folder  Properties  Start  Run
Sharing  Advance sharing  Select \\192.168.2.1(IPaddress of PC1).
share this folder  Permissions 
Select full control  Apply  Ok 
Apply  Ok.
Security Edit  Add  Advanced We can get the share folder of PC1.
 Find now  Select Everyone 
Ok  Ok  Apply  Ok  Close.
Open to advance Network Sharing
Turn all options  only turn off
password protected option.

4. Drive Mapping:-

It will create shortcut drive to access share folder.

PC1 PC2 PC3
Share the folder(song) Right click on computer Right click on computer
normally.  Map network drive  Map network drive
\\PC1 IP \\PC1 IP
address\song address\song
Open my computer you Open my computer you
get shortcut folder get shortcut folder
drive. drive.
 P a g e | 190

5. Remote Assistance:-

Same as remote desktop but has three extra features.

1. We can set time duration for session.
2. Both user can see the desktop.
3. Both user can chat through remote assistance.

PC1 PC2
Start Type Remote  Windows Open the share folder  Double
remote assistance Invite someone click on invitation file  Enter the
your trust to help you  Save this password.
invitation as a file in a folder 
share the folder.
Note down the password. Click on request control.
Right click on computer
Properties  Remote setting
allow remote assistance 
Advance  Set time duration  Ok.

Note:- To open remote assistance in windows 8, 10 use (msra.exe) command in run

option.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

It used to share our data to all other users in same network.

Any user can download the shared data by using web browser.

IIS (Internet Information Services) Installation:

Process:-

 Create a folder and store data.

 Open programs and features  turn windows features on or off  Internet information
services (IIS)  Expand IIS and Select all options Ok.
 Start  Control panel Administrative tool  IIS Manager  double click PC Name
Right click on sites  Add ftp sites give ftp site name  Select Physical path of created
folder  Next  Give server IP Address  Select No SSL  Next  Authentication (select
Anonymous)  Allow access to (All users)  Permission (Read)  Finish.
 Now right click on created FTP link  Edit permission  Security  Edit  Add 
Advanced  Find now  Everyone  OK OK Full control  Apply  OK.

 In other PC open any browser and type ftp://192.168.5.2/

 P a g e | 191

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

1) Install IIS
2) After Installing IIS . It create a default path in ―c:/‖ drive.
(c:/inetpub/wwwroot), keep your html web page here.
3) Open IIS manager  Right click on sites  Add website  site name (Test 1)
 Physical path (C:\inetpub\wwwroot)  IP address (192.168.5.1 or server
IP address)  Ok.
4) Now in client PC open any web browser and write http://192.168.5.1 (server
IP).

Internet connection Sharing

Windows 7 Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) feature on computer (host computer) in order to
share Internet connection with other computers.

The benefit of this approach is no router is required to share Internet, but the drawback is this host
computer needs to be on for other computers to access Internet.

1) Open Network and Sharing Center will appear, click on Change adapter settings.

2) Right click on the network adapter that has Internet connection and click Properties.
 P a g e | 192

3) Click on Sharing tab and then tick on Allow other network users to connect through this
computer’s internet connection.

4) You will see there is a Shared wording on that network adapter after the sharing.

5) After enabling Windows 7 Internet

connection sharing feature, the network card
connected to the home network (wired or
wireless) would be assigned a static IP
address 192.168.137.1 with netmask
255.255.255.0 (It would be that wireless
adapter in this case). This ICS host will act as a
DHCP server and assign other IP addresses in
the 192.168.137.x/24 range to other client
computers.

6) In order to access Internet, other client

computers (Windows Vista, XP, 2000, etc)
should configure TCP/IP on their local area
connection to obtain an IP address
 P a g e | 193

automatically. Then those computers will be assigned IP address in the 192.168.137.x range and able
to access Internet through this ICS host computer. Good luck!

ACTIVE DIRECTORY
1) Active directory is the directory Service provided by Microsoft.
2) It is the centralize data base used to manage and control the users and computers of whole
organization.
3) It is the collection of objects ( users, computers, group, OU, printers, contact etc)
4) It authenticates users to log on in network PC.

Elements of AD
Logical Elements Physical Elements
Domain Domain Controller
Users Sites
Organizational Unit
Forest

Q : What is Active Directory Database File

Ans: C:\Windows\NTDS\ntds.dit

Ntds.dit = New Technology Directory Service. Directory Information Tree

Q: What is AD Partitions ?

Ans: Directory partition is where the AD information is segregated and logically stored.
Schema information Configuration information
Domain information Application Partition.

ACTIVE DIRECTORY STRUCTURE

a. Domain: It a logical group of network objects (computers, users, devices) that share the
same Active Directory database.

b. Domain Controller: a) A Machine which hold AD Database.

b) A machine where AD is installed.

c. Parent Domain Controller (PDC): Main Server or root server

d. Child Domain Controller (CDC): Branch Server
e. Additional Domain Controller (ADC): Backup Server
f. Tree : Domain trees are collections of domains that are grouped together in hierarchical
structures.
g. Forest :A group of Active Directory trees is known as a forest.
 P a g e | 194

h. Sites : It is a collection of Subnets.

i. Objects : It is the main resource which need to manage or control. Eg: users, computers,
group, Organisational unit, Printer, contact etc.

Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) Functional Levels

 Functional levels determine the available Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) domain or
forest capabilities.
 They also determine which Windows Server operating systems you can run on domain controllers in
the domain or forest.
 The functional level of a domain or forest controls which advanced features are available in the
domain or forest.
 If W.S. 2003 is selected as domain or forest functional level then all higher version of server 2003
will be supported.

Active Directory Installation

Prerequisite

1) System must have user friendly name.

2) System must have Static IP with DNS IP configured.
3) NIC port must be connected to network cable.

Installation Process

Start Rundcpromo
ok nextSelect ― Create a
new domain in new forest -
………………………………………
………………Finish

How to uninstall AD ?

Ans: Start
 P a g e | 195

Rundcpromo ok next select ― delete this

domain controller‖ --------------finish

How to perform Unattended AD installation

?

Ans: 1) Download the AD unattended scrip from

google and edit it according to requirement.

2) Save this file( ad.txt) in c drive or in any location

3) Start - Run - dcpromo /unattend:c:\ad.txt

How to add Client PC to Server.( Adding workstation to domain )

Ans: 1) Check proper connectivity with server and having same DNS address as server.

2) Right Click on Computer – Properties – Change setting – change – select domain and type
domain name – ok – Type Server user name ( administrator) and password – ok – ok --------

Restart the PC
 P a g e | 196

Now restart the PC and Log on with

domain user

Working with Active directory Users and Computers(ADU and C)

Active Directory Users

1) AD user is created for employ names, branch office name etc.
2) AD users can log on in any machine in the entire network accept domain controller(server).
3) AD user having limited access or power only.
4) After logon in client pc the user can save his data but it will be saved in his local machine.

A) Creating User

Ans: Open AD U and C

-- R.C. on Users - New-
User - .

Now we can log on in

client PC with this user

B) Modifying User
properties

 How to set time

limitation for user to logon in PC.

Ans: Right click user(e.g. prabhas)  proprerties  account  logon  hour  set time
hourok
 P a g e | 197

Note:- By default an user can logon at any pc of the network.

 How to fix a user to logon in one machine only ?
Ans:-Right click on userpropertiesaccountlogon toselect the following computer and
fix the IP address.
 How to reset any user password from server ?
Ans: Right click on userreset passwordgive passwordok.
 How to disable any user in case he has gone for long leave or he left the company ?
Ans: Right click on user disable account.
 How to auto disable any account after a fix time ?
Ans: Right clickon userpropertiesaccountaccount expireselect end offgive the
timeok.

User Profile Types

 Local profile
 Roaming profile
 Mandatory profile

1) Local profile:

a) All users created in AD is having local profile only.

b) His created data and desktop setting will be saved in local machine only.
c) This is good for the user who always use same PC.

2) Roaming profile:

a) We can create roaming profile from the local profile.

b) The user can logon in any machine of network and everywhere , he will get same desktop
setting and his created data also.
c) This is good for user who always uses different machines.

3) Mandatory Profile:

Mandatory user logon in client PC and can do any changes with the local PC data and
settings , when he Logoff , all changes will be restored(previous state).

Now log on in client PC – Do any changes with settings and data and log off
 P a g e | 198

ACTIVE DIRECTORY GROUPS

1) It is the collection of same types of objects(users).

2) Some user can be connected in a group and some permissions and restrictions can be
given to the group. All users of that group will get the same permission or restrictions.

GROUPS
TYPE SCOPE
Security (Full access of network resource) Domain
Distribution(Limited access) Global
Universal
How to create Group ?

Ans: - Open active directory user and computers Expand domain nameRight click on
created usersNewGroupgive group name(e.g. ―Technical‖) OK.

How to add users in a group ?

Ans:-Right click on created groupPropertiesMembersAddAdvancedFind

nowSelected required usersOKOKApplyOK.

Builtin Group:-

These groups are already created with active directory, each group have its own power.

Some special Built-in group (Powerful group):

a) Administrator
b) Domain Admin
c) Enterprise Admin

Domain User:

Limited access. All A.D users are by default member of this group.

Remote Desktop Users:

 P a g e | 199

The users of this group can take remote desktop connection of server.

How to give full power to any A.D user (to make admin user) ?

Ans: Add the required users to any powerful group.

Right click on required user propertiesmember ofaddadvancedfind nowselect

administrators and domain adminokokapplyok.

Now with this user logon to any client PC and do some system setting changes.

In the same way we can add our created group to built-in group to give special permissions.

Organizational Unit (OU)

 This is the collection of multiple type of object.
 It is mainly created for department name and office branch name.
Domain  RTS.COM
O.U.  TRAINING MARKETING SALES
User User User
OBJECTS  Group Group Group
Computer Computer Computer
Printer Printer Printer

OU creation way
How to Create O.U ?

Open AD users and computersright click on domain

nameorganisational unit.

Create some users and groups in each O.U.

How to move a user from one O.U to other O.U

?

Ans: Right click on required usermoveselect

destination O.Uok.

How to delete any O.U ?

Ans: 1) Open AD user and computerviewclick advanced features.

2) Right click on required O.Upropertiesobjectuncheck protect object from accidental

deletionapplyok.

3) Delete the O.U normally.

 P a g e | 200

Li-Fi

 The LiFi is the short form of Light Fidelity.

This technology is based on visible light communication (VLC).
 Li-Fi is a bidirectional, high-speed and fully networked wireless communication technology
similar to Wi-Fi.
 LiFi comprises of multiple light bulbs that form a wireless network, offering a
substantially similar user experience to Wi-Fi except using the light spectrum.
P a g e | 201
 P a g e | 202

Advantages of LiFi

1) The data transfer rate for internet application is higher.

2) It provides high amount of security as data communication is line of sight (LOS). Moreover lifi signal
covers low region does not pass through the walls. This will avoid unwanted access of lifi signal by
unauthorized persons.
3) The lifi devices consume low power for operation and hence used in IoT applications.
4) It uses optical spectrum and hence avoids already crowded RF spectrum.
5) As it operates on optical bands which are not harmful like RF spectrum. Hence there is no health concerns
in LiFi based system.
6) There is great amount of energy reduction in lighting industry which uses LiFi based devices.
7) It is easy to install.
 P a g e | 203

Disadvantages of LiFi

1) Internet can be used only where light of source device is available. Moreover light can not penetrate from

walls and it works only in line of sight path. This limits access of internet whereever one requires. Moreover
its range is limited.
2) It cannot be used in outdoor environment like RF signal. This is because of interference caused by
sunlight and other optical sources present nearby. Moreover it can be intercepted by the unwanted people if
used outdoors.
3) Though the installation is simple, Lifi system requires whole new infrastructure. This will add cost to the
companies/people wanting to take LiFi Internet service.
4) Though it draws low power, in order to avail lifi internet services, lights need to be kept ON throughout
day and night. As internet is need of the hour, this will waste energy more than any other internet system.
5) One cannot watch games and videos on internet in the dark during night before sleeping on the bed.
 P a g e | 204

Port Number
Network ports are provided by the TCP or UDP protocols at the Transport layer.

They are used by protocols in the upper layers of the OSI model.

Port numbers are used to determine what protocol incoming traffic should be directed to.

Port use is regulated by the Internet Corporation for Assigning Names and Numbers (ICANN).
By ICANN there are three categories for ports:

 From 0 to 1023 – well known ports assigned to common protocols and services
 From 1024 to 49151 – registered ports assigned by ICANN to a specific service
 From 49152 to 65 535 – dynamic (private, high) ports range from 49,152 to 65,535. Can
be used by any service on an ad hoc basis. Ports are assigned when a session is
established, and released when the session ends.

Port Service name Transport protocol

20, 21 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) TCP

22 Secure Shell (SSH) TCP and UDP

23 Telnet TCP

25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) TCP

50, 51 IPSec

53 Domain Name Server (DNS) TCP and UDP

67, 68 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) UDP

69 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) UDP

80 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) TCP

110 Post Office Protocol (POP3) TCP

 P a g e | 205

123 Network Time Protocol (NTP) UDP

135-
NetBIOS TCP and UDP
139

143 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP4) TCP and UDP

389 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol TCP and UDP

443 HTTP with Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) TCP and UDP

IPv4 vs IPv6

IPv4 Address IPv6 Address

x.x.x.x xxxx: xxxx: xxxx: xxxx: xxxx: xxxx: xxxx: xxxx: xxxx.
A set of 4 octet. 1 octet contain 8 bits . 8x4 A set of 8 octet. 1 octet contain 16 bits. 8x16 = 128
= 32 bits bits

Multicast addresses (224.0.0.0/4) IPv6 multicast addresses (FF00::/8)

Broadcast addresses Not applicable in IPv6

Unspecified address is 0.0.0.0 Unspecified address is ::

Loopback address is 127.0.0.1 Loopback address is ::1

Public IP addresses Aggregatable global unicast addresses

Private IP addresses (10.0.0.0/8,

Site-local addresses (FEC0::/48)
172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16)

APIPA addresses (169.254.0.0/16) Link-local addresses (FE80::/64)

Dotted decimal notation Colon hexadecimal format

 P a g e | 206

 IPv6 addresses use eight sets of four hexadecimal addresses (16 bits in each set),
separated by a colon (:),like this: xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx (x would
be a hexadecimal value). This notation is commonly called string notation.

 Hexadecimal values can be displayed in either lower- or upper-case for the numbers A–F.

 A leading zero in a set of numbers can be omitted;

for example, you could either enter 0012 or 12 in one of the eight fields—both are correct.

 If you have successive fields of zeroes in an IPv6 address, you can represent them as two
colons (::). For example, 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:5could be represented as ::5;
and ABC:567:0:0:8888:9999:1111:0 could be represented
as ABC:567::8888:9999:1111:0

Dual Stack Transition Mechanism (DSTM) : Used to make communication between IPv4
to IPv6

Q: How to get IPv4 Address of any hostname ?

Ans: open cmd and type : nslookup www.google.com

For tracing : tracert www.google.com

For pinging : ping www.google.com

Q: How to get IPv6 Address of any hostname ?

Ans: open cmd and type : nslookup www.google.com

For tracing : tracert -6 ipv6.google.com

For pinging : ping -6 ipv6.google.com

Q: How can you view all of the ipv4 and ipv6 addresses of your workstation from cmd ?

Ans: netsh interface ipv6 show address

netsh interface ipv4 show address

 P a g e | 207

OSI QUESTIONS

1. How many OSI layers are there?

A.5 B.6 C.7 D. 8 E. 9

2. At which layer do router devices operate?

A. Data Link Layer B. Network Layer C. Transport Layer D. Physical Layer

3. The Session layer communicates with which other layers?

A. None B. Application and Transport

C. Transport and Network D. Transport and Presentation

4. What devices operate at the Data Link Layer?

A. Hubs B. Switches C. Repeaters D. Hubs and Repeaters

5.The OSI reference model is a seven-layer reference model that originated from the

A. ISO standards committee B. ITU standards committee

C. IEEE standards committee D. ANSI standards committee

6.What are the seven-layers of the OSI reference model?

A. Application, presentation, dialog, transport, network, datalink, bit

B. Application, data format, dialog, transport, network,datalink, bit

C. Application, data format, dialog, end-to-end connection, network, datalink, bit

D. Application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, physical

7. What is the function of the Application Layer as described by the OSI reference model?

A. Provides network services to user applications B. Provides desktop connectivity to the LAN

C. Provides desktop connectivity to the WAN D. None of the above

8. Data is referred to as _________ at the Application Layer?

A. Data B. Packets C. Segments D. Bits

9. What are some of the common standards that are implemented at the Application Layer?

A. SMTP, TELNET, FTP, CMIP B. NetBIOS, LAT, DDP, SNA

C. IP, IPX, DDP D. SDLC, LAT, NETBIOS

10. What is the function of the Presentation Layer, as described by the OSI reference model?
 P a g e | 208

A. Provides data representation and format to the Application Layer

B. Provides presentation services to the Presentation Layer.

C. Converts application data to binary.

D. Converts application data to EBCDIC.

11. The upper layers of the OSI model are, in correct order -

A. Session, application, presentation B. Session, presentation, application

C. session, application, presentation, physical D. Application, presentation, session, physical

12. True or False: The network layer uses physical addresses to route data to destination hosts.

A. True B. False

13. Application layer provides basis for

A. Email services B) Directory services. C)File transfer, access, and management.

2) Network virtual terminal.

14. Segmentation and reassembly is responsibility of

A. 7th Layer B)6th Layer C)5th Layer D)4th layer

15. Layer that are used to deal with mechanical and electrical specifications are

A. Physical Layer B)Data Link Layer C)Network Layer D)Transport Layer

16. Network layer is responsible for the

A. Node to node communication B)Source to destination

B. Hop to hop communication D) Both b and c

17.TCP/IP model does not have ______ layer but OSI model have this layer.
a) Session layer b) presentation layer
c) Application layer d) both (a) and (b)

18. Which layer links the network support layers and user support layers

a) session layer b) data link layer c) transport layer d) network layer

19.Which address is used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols?

a) physical address and logical address b) port address
c) specific address d) all of the mentioned
 P a g e | 209

20.Which layer is responsible for process to process delivery?

a) network layer b) transport layer c) session layer d) data link layer

21. Which layer provides the services to user?

a) application layer b) session layer c) presentation layer d) none of the
mentioned

22. Transmission data rate is decided by

a) network layer b) physical layer c) data link layer d) transport layer

23. On _______ layer every device has a logical address know as IP address.

a) Network layer b) Physical layer c) Data link layer d) Application layer

24. _______ defines the protocol to set up and terminate a connection between two directly
connected nodes over a link/medium.

a) Network layer b) Physical layer c) Data link layer d) Presentation layer

25. OSI model was introduced by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in

a) 2001 b) 1985 c) 1999 d)1970

26.________ provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation.

a) Network layer b) Session layer c)Data link layer d) Presentation layer

27. Switch is ______ Layer device.

a) Transport b) Datalink (layer-2) c) Physical layer (layer-1) d) Network layer

28.______ layer establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote application.

A)Network b) Session layer C)Data link layer d) Transport layer

29. The addresses use for communication on data-link layer is _________

a) MAC b) IP Address c) Frames d) Bits

30. The layer deals with electrical and specifications of the data connection is

a) Network layer b) Physical layer C)Data link layer d) Presentation layer

31. On which layer of OSI model, information/data is form of bits?

a) Network layer b) Physical layer C)Data link layer d) Presentation layer

 P a g e | 210

32. The network layer protocol of internet is

a) Ethernet b) internet protocol c) hypertext transfer protocol d) none of the
mentioned

33.The network layer concerns with

a) bits b) frames c) packets d) none of the mentioned

34. Transport layer protocols deals with

a) application to application communication b) process to process communication
c) node to node communication d) none of the mentioned

35. Which one of the following is a transport layer protocol?

a) stream control transmission protocol b) internet control message protocol
c) neighbor discovery protocol d) dynamic host configuration protocol
 P a g e | 211

TCP/IP QUESTIONS

1) What is the basic unit of data transfer across an IP internetwork?

A.The Data Link Layer frame B. The IP Layer Packet

C. The TCP Layer Packet D. The Application layer Packet

2. Which of the following components of the TCP/IP protocol stack are end to end layers (also
know as host to host layers) ?

A.ARP B. IP C. TCP and UDP D. All the above

3. Which of the following does not describe the IP packet delivery layer?

A. Connectionless B. Best Effort C. Unreliable D. Streaming

4. Which of the following fields in the header of an IP packet will be decremented by one at each
router?

A. The Header Checksum B. The Type of Service (TOS)

C. The Time to Live (TTL) D. The Protocol Number

5. Which of the following fields in the IP header identifies the type of data (payload) that the IP
packet is carrying?

A. The Header Checksum B. The Type of Service (TOS

C. The Time to Live (TTL) D. The Protocol Number

6. Which of the following is not true about an IP address?

A. An IP address is a logical address B. An IP address is globally unique in an internetwork

C. An IP address can be considered to consist of a Network Part and a Host Part

D. An IP address is usually represented in Hex Format for the user

7. Which of the following IP addresses is a class A number?

A. 126.1.1.1 B. 128.1.1.1 C. 191.1.1.1 D. 192.1.1.1

8. Which of the following default masks for the major class numbers is incorrect?

A. Class A mask 255.0.0.0 or /8 B. Class B mask 255.255.0.0 or /16

C. Class C mask 255.255.255.0 or /24 D. Class D mask 255.255.255.255 or /32

 P a g e | 212

9) Given the IP address 199.74.239.1 /24, what is the network number?

A. 199.0.0.0 B. 199.74.0.0 C. 199.174.239.0 D. 199.74.239.1

10. What does the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) do?

A. Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses B. Resolves MAC addresses to IP addresses

C. Resolves the TYPE field to the MAC address D. Resolves the MAC address to the TYPE field

11. Which of the following services use TCP?

1.DHCP 2)SMTP 3)HTTP 4)TFTP 5)FTP
A. 1 and 2

B. 2, 3 and 5

C. 1, 2 and 4

D. 1, 3 and 4
12.What layer in the TCP/IP stack is equivalent to the Transport layer of the OSI model?
A. Application
B. Host-to-Host
C. Internet
D. Network Access

13.You want to implement a mechanism that automates the IP configuration, including IP address,
subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS information. Which protocol will you use to accomplish
this?
A. SMTP

B. SNMP

C. DHCP

D. ARP
14. Which of the following is private IP address?
A. 12.0.0.1
B. 168.172.19.39
C. 172.15.14.36
D. 192.168.24.43
15.Which of the following allows a router to respond to an ARP request that is intended for a
remote host?
A. Gateway DP
B. Reverse ARP (RARP)
 P a g e | 213

C. Proxy ARP
D. Inverse ARP (IARP)
15.The DoD model (also called the TCP/IP stack) has four layers. Which layer of the DoD model is
equivalent to the Network layer of the OSI model?
A. Application
B. Host-to-Host
C. Internet
D. Network Access
16.Which class of IP address provides a maximum of only 254 host addresses per network ID?
A. Class A
B. Class B
C. Class C
D. Class D

17.If you use either Telnet or FTP, which is the highest layer you are using to transmit data?
A. Application
B. Presentation
C. Session
D. Transport

18.Which of the following is the decimal and hexadecimal equivalents of the binary number
10011101?
A. 155, 0x9B
B. 157, 0x9D
C. 159, 0x9F
D. 185, 0xB9
19.Which statements are true regarding ICMP packets?
1. 1.They acknowledge receipt of a TCP segment.
2. 2.They guarantee datagram delivery.
3. 3.They can provide hosts with information about network problems.
4. 4.They are encapsulated within IP datagrams.
A. 1 only

B. 2 and 3

C. 3 and 4

D. 2, 3 and 4
 P a g e | 214

20.Which of the following are layers in the TCP/IP model?

1. 1.Application
2. 2.Session
3. 3.Transport
4. 4.Internet
5. 5.Data Link
6. 6.Physical
A. 1 and 2
B. 1, 3 and 4
C. 2, 3 and 5
D. 3, 4 and 5
21.Which layer 4 protocol is used for a Telnet connection?
A. IP
B. TCP
C. TCP/IP
D. UDP

Although Telnet does use TCP and IP (TCP/IP), the question specifically asks about layer 4, and IP
works at layer3. Telnet uses TCP at layer 4

23.What protocol is used to find the hardware address of a local device?

A. RARP
B. ARP
C. IP
D. ICMP
24.Which of the following protocols uses both TCP and UDP?
A. FTP
B. SMTP
C. Telnet
D. DNS
 P a g e | 215

---------------------------------- Finish -------------------------------

P a g e | 216