Q.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:

Involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or answer the questions concerning the
current status of the subject of the study. A descriptive study determines and report the way
things are? Descriptive data are typically collected through a questionnaire survey, interview or
observation. In descriptive research we developed instrument for specific studies. Instruments
development requires time and skills
For example: How does secondary school teacher spend their time in classroom.

Experimental Research Descriptive Reserach

 The purpose of research is to discover 
the truth.
 Knower and known (or observer and
observed) must remain separate to limit
observer bias.
 Emphasis on control of extraneous
variables.
 Context is de-emphasized and
variations between contexts “controlled”
for to the greatest extent possible.
 Research participant are “objectified”
-- frequently referred to as research
subjects.
 Data is often quantified, even if it is
descriptive (i.e. interviews).
 Focus on generalization of research
findings
Realities are multiple, constructed, and
holistic. The purpose is to understand
meaning from the perspectives of the
participants.
 Knower and known are interactive,
inseparable.
 Researcher’s ability to control
extraneous variables is rejected, instead,
they must be described and their possible
influence accounted.
 Description and exploration of the
context of the research is critical.
 Participants are seen as involved in the
research. They are often asked for their
taken on the interpretation of the results.
 Data is often non-numeric. The focus is
on rich description of the event(s) and
context.
 Focus on unique aspects of the context,
generalization is downplayed.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
It is the type of research in which independent variable can be manipulated. In experimental
study the researcher manipulated at least one independent variable and observe the effect on one
or more dependent variables.

In other words the researcher determine “who gets what” which group of subject will get which
treatment; the groups are generally referred to as experimental or control groups. Manipulation
differentiate it from the other methods. This is the only type of research that can truly established
cause effect relationships

For Example:

The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward the schools.

What is an Experiment?
• Research method in which
– conditions are controlled
– so that 1 or more independent variables
– can be manipulated to test a hypothesis
– about a dependent variable.
• Allows
– evaluation of causal relationships among variables
– while all other variables are eliminated or controlled.
Some Definitions
• Dependent Variable
– Criterion by which the results of the experiment are judged.
– Variable that is expected to be dependent on the manipulation of the independent variable
• Independent Variable
– Any variable that can be manipulated, or altered, independently of any other variable
– Hypothesized to be the causal influence
• Experimental Treatments
 – Alternative manipulations of the independent variable being investigated
• Experimental Group
– Group of subjects exposed to the experimental treatment
• Control Group
– Group of subjects exposed to the control condition
– Not exposed to the experimental treatment
• Test Unit
– Entity whose responses to experimental treatments are being observed or measured
• Randomization
– Assignment of subjects and treatments to groups is based on chance
– Provides “control by chance”
– Random assignment allows the assumption that the groups are identical with respect to
all variables except the experimental treatment
Experimental Validity
• Internal Validity
– Indicates whether the independent variable was the sole cause of the change in the
dependent variable
• External Validity
– Indicates the extent to which the results of the experiment are applicable to the real world
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize Internal Validity
• History Effect
– Specific events in the external environment between the 1 st & 2nd measurements that are
beyond the experimenter’s control
– Common history effect occurs when competitors change their marketing strategies during
a test marketing experiment
• Cohort Effect
– Change in the dependent variable that occurs because members of one experimental
group experienced different historical situations than members of other experimental
groups
• Maturation Effect
– Effect on experimental results caused by experimental subjects maturing or changing
over time
– During a daylong experiment, subjects may grow hungry, tired, or bored
• Testing Effect
 – In before-and-after studies, pretesting may sensitize subjects when taking a test for the 2 nd
time.
– May cause subjects to act differently than they would have if no pretest measures were
taken
• Instrumentation Effect
– Caused by a change in the wording of questions, in interviewers, or in other procedures
used to measure the dependent variable.
• Selection Effect
– Sampling bias that results from differential selection of respondents for the comparison
groups.
• Mortality or Sample Attrition
– Results from the withdrawal of some subjects from the experiment before it is completed
– Effects randomization
– Especially troublesome if some withdraw from one treatment group and not from the
others (or at least at different rates)
Symbolism for Diagramming Experimental Designs
X = exposure of a group to an experimental treatment
O = observation or measurement of the dependent variable
If multiple observations or measurements are taken, subscripts indicate temporal order – I.e., O 1, O2, etc.
R= random assignment of test units; individuals selected as subjects for the experiment are randomly
assigned to the experimental groups
Pre-Experimental Designs
• Do not adequately control for the problems associated with loss of external or internal validity
• Cannot be classified as true experiments
• Often used in exploratory research
• Three Examples of Pre-Experimental Designs
– One-Shot Design
– One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
– Static Group Design
One-Shot Design
• After-only design
• A single measure is recorded after the treatment is administered
• Study lacks any comparison or control of extraneous influences
• No measure of test units not exposed to the experimental treatment
 • May be the only viable choice in taste tests
• Diagrammed as: X O1
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
• Subjects in the experimental group are measured before and after the treatment is administered.
• No control group
• Offers comparison of the same individuals before and after the treatment (e.g., training)
• If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is extended, may suffer maturation
• Can also suffer from history, mortality, and testing effects
• Diagrammed as O1 X O2
Static Group Design
• After-only design with control group
• Experimental group is measured after being exposed to the experimental treatment
• Control group is measured without having been exposed to the experimental treatment
• No pre-measure is taken
• Major weakness is lack of assurance that the groups were equal on variables of interest prior to
the treatment
• Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1
Control Group O2
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
• Before-After with Control
• True experimental design
• Experimental group tested before and after treatment exposure
• Control group tested at same two times without exposure to experimental treatment
• Includes random assignment to groups
• Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups
• Do run the risk of a testing effect
• Diagrammed as
– Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
– Control Group: R O3 O4
• Effect of the experimental treatment equals
(O2 – O1) -- (O4 – O3)
• Example
– 20% brand awareness among subjects before an advertising treatment
– 35% in experimental group & 22% in control group after the treatment
 – Treatment effect equals (0.35 – 0.20) – (0.22 – 0.20) = 13%

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

• After-Only with Control
• True experimental design
• Experimental group tested after treatment exposure
• Control group tested at same time without exposure to experimental treatment
• Includes random assignment to groups
• Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups
• Do not run the risk of a testing effect
• Use in situations when cannot pretest
• Diagrammed as
– Experimental Group: R X O1
– Control Group: R O2
• Effect of the experimental treatment equals = (O2 – O1)
• Example
– Assume you manufacture an athlete’s foot remedy
– Want to demonstrate your product is better than the competition
– Can’t really pretest the effectiveness of the remedy

Solomon Four-Group Design

• True experimental design
• Combines pretest-posttest with control group design and the posttest-only with control group
design
• Provides means for controlling the interactive testing effect and other sources of extraneous
variation
• Does include random assignment
• Diagrammed as
• Experimental Group 1: R O1 X O2
• Control Group 1: R O3 O4
• Experimental Group 2: R X O5
• Control Group 2: R O6
• Effect of independent variable (O2 – O4) & (O5 – O6)
• Effect of pretesting (O4 – O6)
 • Effect of pretesting & measuring (O2 – O5)
• Effect of random assignment (O1 – O3)
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• More realistic than true experiments
• Researchers lacks full control over the scheduling of experimental treatments or
• They are unable to randomize
• Includes
– Time Series Design
– Multiple Time Series Design
• Same as Time Series Design except that a control group is added
Time Series Design
• Involves periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units
• After multiple measurements, experimental treatment is administered (or occurs naturally)
• After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued in order to determine the treatment
effect
• Diagrammed as:
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Q.3 RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• A research proposal is a document that provides a detailed description of the intended
program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader a summary
of the information discussed in a project.
• Document that is typically written by a scientist or academic which describes the ideas
for an investigation on a certain topic. The research proposal outlines the process from
beginning to end and may be used to request financing for the project, certification for
performing certain parts of research of the experiment, or as a required task before
beginning a college dissertation.
Elements of a Research Proposal
• Introduction ( Rationale)
• Statement of the Research Problem
• Objectives of the Study
• Hypotheses/ Research questions
• Delimitation
• Significance of the study ( Beneficiaries of the Study)
• Literature review
• Procedure
• Population for the Study
• Sampling and Sampling Techniques (Participants for study)
• Development of Data Collection Tools
• Data-collection methods
• Data Analysis and Interpretation
• References

Research Tools
• Questionnaire
• Interview schedule
• observation
Interview schedule
Meaning of Interview schedule
• One to one direct communication between researcher and subject for collection of data.
 • Series of questions to be asked in an interview is called interview schedule.
Types of Interview schedule
• Structured (for research)
• Semi-structured ( flexible but structured)
• Non-directive ( free talk on issues)
• Focused ( in depth talk on an issue ) (Media)
How to conduct an Interview
• Interview schedule should as per objectives.
• Planning of time, duration, place, mode of recording.
• Follow Formalities.
• Respect not to answer right of subject.
• Use of appropriate Language.
• Positive body language.
• Directing the interview.
• Questioning – proper stress and tone, use of sub questions if required.
Limitations
• Hesitation to express
• Vague
• Time restrictions
• Less time for thinking
• Subjective
• Researcher’s influence
• Consciousness
• Manipulated/polished/sophisticated/socially accepted responses may be preferred.

Questionnaire
Meaning
• Series of questions in written form.
• Indirect interview
• Widely used tool
When to use
• Objective tool
• Factual data required
 • Large sample
• Minimum cost & time
• Crossing Geographical limitations
Types
• Open , Close , Mixed , E-mail , Web based , Live , Distance
Development of Questionnaire
• Objectives
• Content analysis
• Combination of Types of questions.
• Sequence of questions.
• Statistical techniques.
• Questions- clear, correct, to the point, appropriate nos.,
Administration of Questionnaire
• Appointment
• Take in to confidence
• Instructions and expectation
• Tackling queries
• Postage
• Formalities
Advantages of Questionnaire
• Objectivity
• Freedom to think
• Flexibility of time
• Free to answer.
Limitations of Questionnaire
• Difficult to analyze.
• Environmental effects.
• Collection is a challenge
• Ambiguous
Qualities of Good Questionnaire
• EXTERNAL INTERNAL
• Instructions • Clarity and simplicity of questions
• Primary Information • Validity and reliability
• Font style and Type • As per age of subjects.
• Grammar • Divisions as per Objectives.
 • Quality, colour and size of Paper. • Pilot study
• Proper space for response.
• Postage

Interview schedule vs questionnaire

Interview
• Live / Real time
• Direct questionnaire
• More subjective.
• Useful for experts,
Illiterate people, parents etc.
• To know views.
• More time per subject.
• Variety of data from a person.
• Informal way.
• Not easy to analyze
• Flexible
• One to one interaction
• Researcher note responses.
Questionnaire
• Own time of subject.
• Indirect interview.
• More objectives.
• Useful for subjects, teacher, students etc.
• To collect factual data
• Min time more info.
• Specific data from more subjects.
• Formal way.
• Comparatively easier to analyze.
• Rigid
• One to many reaction.
• Subject notes responses.

Observation
Types of Observation
• Overt – subject are aware
• Covert - unaware
• Participant
• Non-participant
Precautions in Observation
• Appropriate tools
• Field notes
• Informal approach
• Building rapport
 • What to observe
• Use of audio visual devices
Advantages
• Natural response
• Real collection of a data
• All round data
• Self experience
• Understanding the subject.
• Useful for sociological research.
• Useful for linear research.
Limitations
• Subjectivity
• Temporary form of data is acquired.
• Difficult to analyze the data.
• Time consumable.
• Practical difficulties.

Research Report
Format of Research Report
A. Preliminary Section 
1. Title Page 
2. Acknowledgments (if any) 
3. Table of Contents 
4. List of Tables (if any) 
5. List of Figures (if any) 
6. Abstract
B. Main Body 
1. Introduction 
a. Statement of the Problem 
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background) 
c. Purpose 
d. Statement of Hypothesis 
e. Assumptions 
f. Limitations 
g. Definition of Terms
2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)
3. Design of the Study
a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used 
b. Sources of Data 
c. Sampling Procedures 
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering 
e. Statistical Treatment
4. Analysis of Data
contains:
a. text with appropriate 
b. tables and 
c. figures
5. Summary and Conclusions
a. Restatement of the Problem 
b. Description of Procedures 
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject H o) 
d. Conclusions 
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation