Course: Human Development and Learning

Code: 8610
Assignment# 2

Question# 1
Q: Describe emotional characteristics of elementary level students.
Answer: Emotional Characteristics:
 Develop greater empathy
 Establish and maintain positive relationships and friendships
 Start developing a sense of morality
 Control impulsive behavior
 Identify and manage emotions
 Form a positive self-concept and self-esteem (identity formation has begun)
 Become resilient
 Begin to function more independently (from looking after personal
possessions to making decision without needing constant support)
 Form opinions about moral values and learn right and wrong
 Be able to express an opinion and negotiate
 Begin understanding different viewpoints
 Start making more sense of “who I am” ("Who am I like? Who likes me?)
 Develop a sense of family history (identity)
 Tackle questions about death
 Accept that parents are not all powerful
 Fit in and are accepted by peers (preoccupied with comparisons—Do I fit
in?)
 Have a best friend
 Strengthen cooperative skills
 Adjust to a sexually developing body and handle the agonies of feeling
awkward and self-conscious (What will I look like? Do I look normal?)
 Continue refining a sense of self (fluid and constantly changing)
 Work out values and beliefs and often passionately adopt an ethical stance
 Establish independence and individuality (intensely private, wanting alone
time, displays of noncompliance at school and home)
 Behave appropriately in a variety of social situations
 Refine communication skills
 Resolve interpersonal conflicts and understand the difference between
passive, assertive and aggressive responses
 Become more independent and responsible for actions
 Value and respect rules and authority
 Know how to act appropriately and safely in cyber social world
 Manage emotional changes accompanying puberty (torn between needing
the security of the familiar and craving the unknown)
 Develop more positive self-esteem and resilience by building strengths and
accepting limitations
 Acknowledge “who I am” through an optimistic lens
 Establish independence
 Adjust to a larger social world with greater expectations and demands
 Overcome the awkward and clumsy stage
 Find acceptance within a peer group
 Becoming more self-assured and able to say no
 Move further away from family and closer to friends for support
 Handle issues and growing concerns about sexuality and relationships
 Manage confusing and unexpected feelings, such as anger and rebellion
 Move toward self-acceptance
School-Age Children Emotional Development
As a school-age staff member, part of your role is to observe and assess the
children in your care. You will accomplish this using a variety of
developmental guidelines to support children and their families. Because
having a solid foundation of social-emotional development is crucial for a
child’s success in school and in life, it is important to observe children in
their learning environment.

When assessing a child’s emotional development, we will look at a variety

of components such as:

The Ability to Establish and Maintain Relationships

Relationships are the core of social-emotional development. A child’s ability
to establish and keep relationships is a very important aspect of their
development. This is primarily seen in a child’s ability to make and keep
friends. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, friendships allow
children to “broaden their horizons beyond the family unit, begin to
experience the outside world, form a self-image, and develop a social
support system.” Because relationships are so vital to a child’s social-
emotional development, a lesson will be dedicated to the topic later in this
course.

The Ability to Manage Emotions

As children grow, they learn how to regulate their emotions and feelings.
The emotional surges we see in young children, such as crying when
separating from their family or hitting when they become frustrated, will
begin to lessen as the children age. School-age children will begin to have a
better understanding of what emotions are and will be able to discuss how
they are feeling. Feeling of sympathy and empathy for others will also begin
to develop.

The Ability to Cope with Stress

As adults, we know that stress can come from a variety of circumstances
and can be overwhelming if we don’t find a way to cope with it. You might
cope with stress by going for a walk, spending some time with friends,
 exercising, or taking some time for your favorite hobby. Other ways adults
cope with stress are deep breathing, meditation exercises, or visiting a
therapist or counselor. As adults, we know when a situation is causing too
much stress and can decide to use one of these methods to help alleviate
the stressor. School-age children are just learning how to identify and deal
with stress in their lives.

School-age children are learning how to recognize what causes stress and how it
affects their behavior. Some children may still openly act out their feelings,
whereas others will keep their stress to themselves. We want children to learn
how to manage their stress in a healthy and positive way. Keeping the lines of
communication open with families will help you be on alert if a child may be
experiencing a stressful situation at home or at school. As a school-age staff
member, it is important to watch for signs that a child may be overloaded with
stress so that you can help them cope with it in a healthy way. According to the
American Academy of Pediatrics, common signs of stress overload are when a
child:

 Develops physical symptoms such as headaches or stomach pains

 Appears restless, tired and agitated
 Appears depressed and is uncommunicative about emotions
 Becomes irritable, negative, and shows little excitement or pleasure in
activities
 Seems less interested in an activity that was once extremely important
 Grades at school begin to fall
 Has less interest than usual in attending classes and doing homework
 Exhibits antisocial behavior such as lying and stealing, forgets or refuses to
do chores/tasks and seems much more dependent on family members or
teachers than in the past.
Question# 2
Q: Suggest some activities which may promote moral development
at elementary school level.
Answer: Moral Development:
Moral development is the process through which children develop proper
attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and
cultural norms, rules, and laws.

Activities which promote Moral Development at elementary level:

Piaget believed that (1) children develop moral ideas in stages and (2) they do
this as they construct their idea of the world through interaction. He rejected
the notion that moral norms are the same as cultural norms, and thought that
they shouldn’t be taught through formal education.
Promote Morality Through Playful Activities
Children learn about morality by constructing an idea about the world through
social interactions. However, there are many activities through which you can
face children with moral challenges and opportunities where they can use that
experience to conclude what’s good and right and what’s bad or wrong. Here
are a couple of activities that you can easily implement in the classroom or at
home.
Play Group Games
Playing a group game where everyone has to follow specific rules is a great
opportunity to teach children about fairness, equal opportunities, and justice.
At first, they might see a benefit in cheating, but because they’re playing with
many other people, they’ll soon realize the consequences of someone else’s
cheating. Just be careful. Make sure you punish those who cheat, otherwise
children will think that cheating is acceptable.
 Role-playing a Story
Another great way to show the consequences of immoral behavior is by role-
playing a story that centers around a moral issue. Children involved in the
acting will have a first-hand experience, while the others will identify with the
characters.
When the play finishes, leave some room for discussion. Start with the children
who directly took part in the play and let them tell the whole classroom who they
felt. Afterward, try to encourage children to tell how would have they acted in
that kind of situation and why.

Individual Games
Children can also learn about individual's rights by participating apart from other
children. For instance, each child can have a brown paper bag full of crafts, with
different types of material including cloth, glue, crayons, markers, buttons, and
yarn. Instruct the children to make an inspirational work of art. They should spend
five minutes thinking about what inspiration means before beginning to make the
piece of art. Encourage them to create art that expresses their values. They
should not believe that their work is part of any type of competition. Avoid
rewarding the best art with a prize--you want the children to understand the
significance of working hard for the sake of bettering themselves.

Educational Games
You can also teach children moral development skills by introducing them to
educational games. Have them play a board game such as tic tac toe, or start a
game of hangman on the chalkboard. You can participate in the game to show
them that you are not the supreme authority They should begin to understand
that they have to answer to their conscience. When the students get confused
about what to do next during the game, ask them what they think. This shows
them that they have some control over their actions, and that everything they do
is not dictated by authority.
Make Rules
Have each student in the class write a list of five rules that are required for
playing fair, such as sharing books and telling the truth. When they finish,
compare each of their lists to find the five or 10 most common rules the students
agree on. Post the list on the wall for everyone to see.

Play Without Rules

Allow students to play a board game or something as simple as tic-tac-toe with a
partner. Ask the students to play the game without following any of the posted
rules or the rules of the game. For instance, they can take more than one turn at a
time or lie about how many spaces they jumped. When the game is over, or just
before anyone gets too frustrated to continue to play, have the students stop and
recount to you as a class if it is possible or fun to play without fairness.

Writing Assignment
Have students write down a situation in which they were not fair or someone was
not fair to them. Ask them to describe how the situation felt to them and what
they could do to keep themselves fair in the future.

Recognize Fairness
When children are being fair and treating people nicely, it is important that they
are positively recognized for such behavior to reinforce that behavior. Make a
poster on the wall with students' names on it who have been recognized by the
teacher or other students for being fair. Alternatively, choose one child per day
who showed fairness, and give them a spot on the wall that day in recognition.

Games for Teaching Morals to Kids

Childhood-development specialists name three criteria essential for group games
that assist in children’s moral development: the game has to have something
interesting and challenging to figure out; the game needs to be one where the
children themselves can assess their success; and all the children should be active
throughout the game.

Chess
A key moral goal for games that are competitive is that the child can learn the
distinction between competition and antagonism. Children learn how to compete,
but they do so within the constraints of rules. Internalizing the rules becomes a
model for internalizing more complex moral principles later in life. Ben Franklin
said as much in an essay entitled “The Morals of Chess.” Chess, said Franklin,
teaches youth about caution, circumspection and the “consequences of rash
action.”

Action Games
Younger children find several types of games simultaneously interesting,
challenging and active -- the three criteria that are essential to engage children for
the purpose of moral education. These types of games include aiming, races,
chasing, hiding, guessing, verbal commands, card games and board games.
Content matter in these games. Aiming a dart at a board is morally neutral.
Aiming a toy gun at another person is not. A board game that teaches children
about nature has one kind of moral content, while a game about business --
where success is gained at another's expense -- has a different moral subtext.
Video games can also be added to that list, though many video games include
elements of aiming, racing and guessing. Many video games, however, contain
elements that run counter to what most parents and educators would qualify as
moral.

Questioning Competition
Deciding on games that teach morals to children is more subtle than it may first
appear. It necessitates defining morality, and then determining what is right or
wrong. These are not uncontroversial issues. Morality is about more than values
and is more general than ethics. Values involve choices that may not suggest right
and wrong, like food preferences. Ethics are dilemma-resolution guidelines that
are specific to a particular practice. Morals, on the other hand, involve the
motivation to do a thing because it is right, or to avoid doing it because it is
wrong.

This being the case, some parents may be uncomfortable with competition as the
vehicle for learning morality, because competition tends to undermine empathy
and cooperation – the bases of a selfless moral code, which views winning and
conquest, even writ small, as antithetical to moral action. Parents and educators
in this category have some alternatives.

Competition Alternatives
Kind Book is a publisher that emphasizes the development of empathy as the
basis for developing children’s moral sensibilities. In its books on the virtues of
kindness, the company includes stories, exercises, picture coloring, writing
exercises and games. One such game involves asking moral questions, for
example, “Should we be proud if we are rich?” A ball is rolled toward each of the
circled children, and if the answer is "no," the child is to let the ball go; if the
answer is "yes," he must catch the ball. If a child gets the answer wrong, the
whole group stops for a discussion. One Thai Buddhist game developer has
introduced a video game that revolves around teaching children not to lie, steal,
kill, commit adultery or drink alcohol.
Question# 3
Q: What is language development? Explain the transitions and signs of
language development.
Answer: Language Development:
Language development refers to the process through which children acquire, or
learn language. This usually happens in a fairly consistent order, or sequence,
without requiring explicit teaching or effort from others. Typically, children will
learn by being surrounded by others speaking and communicating with them
socially.
This process is impacted on by a number of factors however, including both
internal and external forces. In other words, a child's genetic make-up may impact
on the way they develop language skills, as may the environment they grow up in
and the people they interact with.

The difference between language and speech is often misunderstood; however,

there is an important distinction to be made. When we talk about language we
are referring to "the set of symbols, usually words or signs that are organized by
convention to communicate ideas". This means that when a child uses the word
"star", for example, the child or adult listening to them knows that they are
referring to a sparkling entity seen up in the sky at night time. They know this
because the word "star" is part of a shared language.

Language can be thought of in two main categories: receptive and expressive.

Receptive refers to a child's ability to understand the communication of other
people, including spoken words, gestures and written words.
Expressive refers to a child's ability to express him/herself, through modes
including speech, gesture etc.
Transitions of Language Development
Several major transitions in language use take place during the first 5 years of life.
Each transition allows the child to move to a higher level of complexity of
expression and to accomplish communicative goals more flexibly and precisely
than was done at the previous level. At least three of these transitions appear to
be modulated to some degree by speech.

In the first transition, prelinguistic to early linguistic communication, babbling

provides the infant with a prelinguistic form of vocal behavior that is in many
ways analogous to language.
A second transition takes place in the movement from single words to multiword
combinations. In the process of this transition, word order becomes a means by
which children convey semantic role information, and transitional forms such as
successive one-word utterances help to facilitate the child's leap from single-word
speech to multiword sentences.
A third transition involves the development of phonological awareness, an
important basis for the acquisition of literacy, which builds on the foundation laid
by the phonological system for articulation.

Signs of Language Development

While every child learns to speak at his or her own pace, general milestones can
serve as a guide to normal speech and language development. These milestones
help doctors and other health care providers determine when a child might need
extra help.

By the end of 3 months

By the end of three months, your child might:
 Smile when you appear
 Make cooing sounds
 Quiet or smile when spoken to
  Seem to recognize your voice
 Cry differently for different needs

By the end of 6 months

By the end of six months, your child might:
 Make gurgling sounds when playing with you or left alone
 Babble and make a variety of sounds
 Use his or her voice to express pleasure and displeasure
 Move his or her eyes in the direction of sounds
 Move his or her eyes in the direction of sounds
 Respond to changes in the tone of your voice
 Notice that some toys make sounds
 Pay attention to music

By the end of 12 months

By the end of 12 months, your child might:
 Try imitating speech sounds
 Say a few words, such as "dada," "mama" and "uh-oh"
 Understand simple instructions, such as "Come here"
 Recognize words for common items, such as "shoe"
 Turn and look in the direction of sounds

By the end of 18 months

By the end of 18 months, your child might:
 Recognize names of familiar people, objects and body parts
 Follow simple directions accompanied by gestures
 Say as many as 10 words
By the end of 24 months
By the end of 24 months, your child might:
 Use simple phrases, such as "more milk"
 Ask one- to two-word questions, such as "Go bye-bye?"
 Follow simple commands and understand simple questions
 Speak about 50 or more words
 Speak well enough to be understood at least half the time by you or other
primary caregivers.

2-3 years
Your child most likely speaks in sentences of 3-4 words and is getting better at
saying words correctly. Your child might play and talk at the same time. Strangers
can probably understand about three-quarters of what your child says by the time
your child is three.

3-5 years
You can expect longer, more complex conversations about your child’s thoughts
and feelings. Your child might also ask about things, people and places that aren’t
in front of them. For example, ‘Is it raining at grandma’s house, too?’
Your child will probably also want to talk about a wide range of topics, and their
vocabulary will keep growing. Your child might show understanding of basic
grammar and start using sentences with words like ‘because’, ‘if’, ‘so’ or ‘when’.
And you can look forward to some entertaining stories too.
5-8 years
During the early school years, your child will learn more words and start to
understand how the sounds within language work together. Your child will also
become a better storyteller, as they learn to put words together in different ways
and build different types of sentences. These skills also let your child share ideas
and opinions. By eight years, your child will be able to have adult-like
conversations.
Question# 4
Q: Explain the associative theories of learning.
Answer: Associative Learning
Associative learning is a style of learning that happens when two unrelated
elements (for example, objects, sights, sounds, ideas, and/or behaviors) become
connected in our brains through a process known as conditioning.
Examples of associative learning include:
 If someone puts their hand on a hot stove and hurts themselves, they may
learn to associate hot stoves with pain, and have therefore been
conditioned not to put their hands on them.
 If someone eats a particular food, then develops a headache soon
afterwards, they may learn to associate that food with headaches (even if
the food didn’t cause the headache), and not want to eat it again.
 Every time a child cleans their room, their parent or cares gives them a
treat. The child starts associating cleaning their room with treats, making
them more inclined to clean their room more frequently.
 When a kitten is misbehaving, its mother will flick its ears. The kitten
eventually learns to associate misbehaving with ear flicking (which is painful
to them), so it stops.
Associative learning is something that all humans and animals do naturally. By
linking elements together and making a web of different connections, we build up
our memories and deepen our understanding of the world around us. If we did
not do this, we would not be able to recall even the most basic of things, such as
how to get to the local shops, or that we do not like certain foods.
As well as being something that humans and animals do naturally, associative
learning is also utilized by those who teach. Through using associative learning
techniques, teachers are better able to manage their classrooms, while parents
and cares are better able to encourage their children to behave well and
responsibly.
Associative Theories of Learning
In one of its senses, “associationism” refers to a theory of how organisms acquire
concepts, associative structures, response biases, and even propositional
knowledge. It is commonly acknowledged that associationism took hold after the
publishing of John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690/1975).
[3] However, Locke’s comments on associationism were terse (though fertile), and
did not address learning to any great degree. The first serious attempt to detail
associationism as a theory of learning was given by Hume in the Treatise of
Human Nature (1738/1975).[4] Hume’s associationism was, first and foremost, a
theory connecting how perceptions (“Impressions”) determined trains of thought
(successions of “Ideas”). Hume’s empiricism, as enshrined in the Copy Principle,
[5] demanded that there were no Ideas in the mind that were not first given in
experience. For Hume, the principles of association constrained the functional
role of Ideas once they were copied from Impressions: if Impressions IM1 and IM2
were associated in perception, then their corresponding Ideas, ID1 and ID2 would
also become associated. In other words, the ordering of Ideas was determined by
the ordering of the Impressions that caused the Ideas to arise.
Hume’s theory then needs to analyze what types of associative relations between
Impressions mattered for determining the ordering of Ideas. Hume’s analysis
consisted of three types of associative relations: cause and effect, contiguity, and
resemblance. If two Impressions instantiated one of these associative relations,
then their corresponding Ideas would mimic the same instantiation.[6] For
instance, if Impression IM1 was cotemporaneous with Impression IM2, then
(ceteris paribus) their corresponding Ideas, ID1 and ID2, would become
associated.

As stated, Hume’s associationism was mostly a way of determining the functional

profile of Ideas. But we have not yet said what it is for two Ideas to be associated
(for that see section 4). Instead, one can see Hume’s contribution as introducing a
very influential type of learning—associative learning—for Hume’s theory
purports to explain how we learn to associate certain Ideas. We can abstract away
from Hume’s framework of ideas and his account of the specific relations that
underlie associative learning, and state the theory of associative learning more
generally: if two contents of experiences, X and Y, instantiate some associative
relation, R, then those contents will become associated, so that future activations
of X will tend to bring about activations of Y. The associationist then has to explain
what relation R amounts to. The Humean form of associative learning (where R is
equated with cause and effect, contiguity, or resemblance) has been hugely
influential, informing the accounts of those such as Jeremy Bentham, J.S. Mill, and
Alexander Bain (see, e.g., the entries on John Stuart Mill and 19th Century
Scottish Philosophy).
Associative learning didn’t hit its stride until the work of Ivan Pavlov, which
spurred the subsequent rise of the behaviorist movement in psychology. Pavlov
introduced the concept of classical conditioning as a modernized version of
associative learning. For Pavlov, classical conditioning was in part an experimental
paradigm for teaching animals to learn new associations between stimuli. The
general method of learning was to pair an unconditioned stimulus (US) with a
novel stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus is just a stimulus that instinctively,
without training, provokes a response in an organism. Since this response is not
itself learned, the response is referred to as an “unconditioned response” (UR). In
Pavlov’s canonical experiment, the US was a meat powder, as the smell of meat
automatically brought about salivation (UR) in his canine subjects. The US is then
paired with a neutral stimulus, such as a bell. Over time, the contiguity between
the US and the neutral stimulus causes the neutral stimulus to provoke the same
response as the US. Once the bell starts to provoke salivation, the bell has
become a “conditioned stimulus” (CS) and the salivating, when prompted by the
bell alone, a “conditioned response” (CR). The associative learning here is learning
to form new stimulus-response pairs between the bell and the salivation.

Classical conditioning is a fairly circumscribed process. It is a “stimulus

substitution” paradigm where one stimulus can be swapped for another to
provoke a response.[9] However, the responses that are provoked are supposed
to remain unchanged; all that changes is the stimulus that gets associated with
the response. Thus, classical conditioning seemed to some to be too restrictive to
explain the panoply of novel behavior organisms appear to execute.
Edward Thorndike’s research with cats in puzzle boxes broadened the theory of
associative learning by introducing the notion of consequences to associative
learning. Thorndike expanded the notion of associative learning beyond
instinctual behaviors and sensory substitution to genuinely novel behaviors.
Thorndike’s experiments initially probed, e.g., how cats learned to lift a lever to
escape the “puzzle boxes” (the forbearer to “Skinner boxes”) that they were
trapped in. The cats’ behaviors, such as attempting to lift a lever, were not
themselves instinctual behaviors like the URs of Pavlov’s experiments.
Additionally, the cats’ behaviors were shaped by the consequences that they
brought on. For Thorndike it was because lifting the lever caused the door to
open that the cats learned the connection between the lever and the door. This
new view of learning, operant conditioning (for the organism is “operating” on its
environment), was not merely the passive learning of Pavlov, but a species-
nonspecific, general, active theory of learning.
Since the days of Skinner, associative learning has come in many different
variations. But what all varieties should share with their historical predecessors is
that associative learning is supposed to mirror the contingencies in the world
without adding additional structure to them (see section 9 for some examples of
when supposedly associative theories smuggle in extra structure). The question of
what contingencies associative learning detects (that is, one’s preferred analysis
of what the associative relation R is), is up for debate and changes between
theorists.
The final widely shared, though less central, property of associative learning
concerns the domain generality of associative learning. Domain generality’s
prevalence among associationists is due in large part to their traditional empiricist
allegiances: excising domain-specific learning mechanisms constrains the amount
of innate mental processes one has to posit. Thus, it is no surprise to find that
both Hume and Pavlov assumed that associative learning could be used to acquire
associations between any contents, regardless of the types of contents they were.
Question# 5
Q: What do you mean by individual differences?
Answer: Individual Differences:
Individual differences point out the reality of traits that distinguish individuals. For
example, The Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007)
defines individual differences in terms of enduring psychological characteristics.

Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics

that distinguish one person from another and thus help to define each person's
individuality. Among the most important kinds of individual differences are
intelligence, personality traits, and values. The study of individual differences is
called differential or trait psychology and is more commonly the concern of
personality psychologists than social psychologists. Individual differences are
neither a fiction nor a nuisance; they are enduring psychological features that
contribute to the shaping of behavior and to each individual's sense of self. Both
social and applied psychology can benefit by taking these enduring dispositions
into account.

According to Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any

measurable aspect of the total personality.” It is clear from this definition of
individual differences that it comprehends every aspect of human personality
which is in some manner measurable.

“The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group differences.

This study classifies individuals by age, traits, sex, race, social class and so on, and
observes the differences within and between those groups. Physical, mental,
social and cultural differences etc. are being studied, under individual
differences.”
Types of Individual Differences:
These are the types of individual differences:

Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion, fatness,
thinness, or weakness are various physical individual differences.

Differences in intelligence:
There are differences in intelligence level among different individuals. We can
classify the individuals from super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50
I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.

Differences in attitudes:
Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people, objects, institutions
and authority.

Differences in achievement:
It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their
achievement abilities. These differences are very much visible in reading, writing
and in learning mathematics.

These differences in achievement are even visible among the children who are at
the same level of intelligence. These differences are on account of the differences
in the various factors of intelligence and the differences in the various
experiences, interests and educational background.
Differences in motor ability:
There are differences in motor ability. These differences are visible at different
ages. Some people can perform mechanical tasks easily, while others, even
though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing these tasks.

Differences on account of sex:

McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and
women, on the basis of some studies:
 Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
 Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and
logic.
 Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch
and smell etc., while men show greater reaction and conscious of size-
weight illusion.
 Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in
physics and chemistry.
 Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men
were found to be three times of such faults in women.
 Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as
many color-blind men as there are women.
 Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school
and home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the
other-hand boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting,
stories of games and sports, stories and games of occupation and skill.

Racial differences:
There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of environment is a
normal factor in causing these differences. Karl Brigham has composed a list on
the basis of differences in levels of intelligence among people who have migrated
to United States from other countries.
On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental age of a
particular individual cannot be calculated since this difference is based on
environment.

Differences due to nationality:

Individuals of different nations differ in respect of physical and mental
differences, interests and personality etc. ‘Russians are tall and stout’; ‘Ceylonese
are short and slim’; ‘Germans have no sense of humor’; ‘Yellow races are cruel
and revengeful’; ‘Americans are hearty and frank’; Indians are timid and peace-
loving’ and the like observations enter into our common talk.

Differences due to economic status:

Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and character are caused by
economic differences.

Differences in interests:
Factors such as sex, family background level of development, differences of race
and nationality etc., cause differences in interests.