STRUCTURE, LAYOUT AND ORGANISATION AN ARCHITECT’S OFFICE:

An Architect’s Office is an important aspect of his practice and as such it should be planned in a way that it is
methodically functional. The Architect should bear the following points regarding his office:
His office should be located in a prominent and convenient place.
His cabin should bear the evidence of his professional status.
He must possess a good Library with his catalogues and samples arranged properly.
He should be ready for discussion with his clients on the appointed date with all information ready and the
meetings shall be arranged such that the client does not have to wait for long.
He should be devoted to his staff and make sure that sufficient light and ventilation is available to his staff
members and that no overcrowding takes place.

Organizational Structure of an Architect’s Office:

1. Organizational Structure of Small Firms: Small firms with fewer than 10-12 people usually have no
formal organizational structure, depending on the personal relationships of the principals and employees
to organize the work. However, roughly the small firms are structured by the following personnel:
(a) Principal Architect and/or his Partner: the principal architect is usually the founder of the firm and
has the following roles/duties:
Financing the office and keeping a steady flow of work so as to maintain high standard of his office
by attending to contracts, cost planning and time limit for the completion of the works.
Properly distributing work among the staff members and coordinating the works of various
consultants so as to obtain the desired result without any delay.
Ideation and conceptualization of design problems and execution of the same through drawings;
Responsible for final approval of all drawings and documents required for the General Correspondence.
(b) Assistant Architect, Architectural Assistants/Interns: they are qualified architects or student interns
who assist the principal in carrying out tasks related to the project. Their duties include:
Supporting and helping the architects in finding the best solutions for complex technical problems and
for complex challenges coming from the site constraints.

• Preliminary assessment of design data and development of the principal architect’s ideas through
preparation and development of drawings under his supervision; and pre-finalization of presentation
drawings and working drawings under the designer’s supervision.
Communicating with the client about all architectural matters
(c) Office Manager and Coordinator: he is responsible for managing the day to day jobs of the office
related to the project, his duties include:
Coordination with clients, consultants and engineers via e-mails and phone calls.
Scheduling and attending meetings; approval of project presentations and supervising the same.
Preparation of tender drawings and working drawings; and updating & finalizing drawings and
documents for the principal architect's nod.
(d) Quantity Surveyor: he is responsible for taking care of the construction cost estimates, quantities and
contracts. His main duties are:
 Prepare quantity and cost estimation documents.
Working to keep the project on time and within the budget.
Managing the finances for any kind of construction project - making sure that construction costs and
production are managed as efficiently as possible.
(e) Accounts Clerk: he is responsible for maintaining accounting records by entering data into the
computer; processing backups, making copies; filing documents. Other duties include:
Verifying financial reports by running performance analysis and determining value of depreciable
assets by running depreciation analysis. .
He protects organization's value by keeping information confidential.
He accomplishes accounting and organization mission by completing related results as needed.
(f) Peon: he helps in assisting the office staff for day to day chores related to the office like:
To carry files, letters, official papers, drawings and books, etc. as and when required by the office staff
and principal architect; and to take delivery of official parcels & posts in office.
Assist in photocopies and filing of official documents apart from management of drawing sheets from
time to time including sheet folding and stacking
To take attendance register from office to officer and back.
2. Organizational Structure of Small Firms: Medium or large firms with 5 to 50 employees or more are
often organized departmentally, regionally, or in studios specializing in project types. Some departments
formed in large firms are:
(a) Administration Department
(b) Architectural Programming Department
(c) Design and Concept Development Department
(d) Business Development Department
(e) Model Making Department
(f) Execution Department
(g) Project Management Department
(h) Engineering Services Department
(i) Site Department
(j) IT Department
(k) Legal Department
(l) Documentation Department

(a) Administration Department: It takes care of the day-to-day activities of the office related to financial planning,
billing and recordkeeping, personnel, and physical distribution and logistics, within the organization. The person
that undertakes these activities called an office manager.
(a) Architectural Programming Department: The design problem is thoroughly analyzed – Functional, Structural,
Climatic, Site Characteristics etc. are studied and optimized. This analysis is then sent to the Design Department
for the development of a concept and hence the design.
(b) Design and Concept Development Section: Design Concepts are derived and spatial analysis leads to
development of forms. Plans and Elevations emerge, alternatives are prepared and evaluated and the final scheme
is projected as a set of presentation drawings. They also maintain the record of meetings with clients and the
review of work according to his comments.
(c) Business Development Department: it takes care of a number of tasks and processes generally aiming at
developing and promoting the growth of the architect’s business and services and creating a long-term value for
the organization from clients, markets, and relationships. They are responsible for designing and preparing
promotional material likes brochures, pamphlets, videos etc.
(d) Model Making Department: this department converts the architect’s design from 2D graphics and drawings
into physical 3D models at suitable scales, depending on the client’s demand; to make the design process
interesting and effective.
(e) Execution Department: Detailed Working Drawings are prepared for clarity, ready for execution with
specifications and quantities as provided by estimation department. At this stage structural design inputs and
service consultants (electrical, plumbing, HVAC etc.) are either prepared within office or obtained from outside
depending on the size of project and time available. Tender preparation and selection of contractor also occur at
this stage.
(f) Project Management Department: it consists various project managers and coordinators who are responsible
for the planning, scheduling, controlling execution, coordination, and closing of any project; taking directions
from the architect as well as clients.

(g) Engineering Services Department: this department takes care of all the engineering services of the building
including structural design through civil engineering services, electrical design and mechanical design etc.
(h) Site Department: Later, the site architects and related personnel coordinate between the contractor’s work and
office work to ensure work progress according to finalized design. This coordination is recorded in specially
prepared site manuals.
(i) IT Department: It takes care of electronic communications of all kinds. The people involved are experts in
understanding and analyzing the forms of electronic data, visual, and audio communication available and then
evaluate which services and vendors can provide the best equipment and service support for the company.
(j) Legal Department: this department has the responsibility of preparation and management of all kinds of legal
documents like contracts and tenders, various certificates and approval documents. They also become more active
in case of legal procedures like arbitration and litigation.
(k) Documentation Department: After the completion of the project, it is documented right from the concept stage
to the completion stage in the form of drawings, photographs, filed site reports and professional documents etc. for
future reference or records. These are stored in the form of sheet rolls with tags bearing the name of the project
and files bearing all the important related documents in respective storage cabinets.

A. OFFICE AUTOMATION, INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL

Office automation refers to the computer machinery and software used to digitally create, collect, store,
manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks and goals. It is intended to provide
elements which make it possible to simplify, improve, and automate the activities of an office like management of
administrative data, synchronization of meetings etc.
Office Automation Systems (OAS):
Office automation systems are configurations of networked computer hardware and software. A variety of office
automation systems are applied to business and communication functions including architecture that used to be
performed manually. In addition, functions that once required coordinating the expertise of outside specialists in
typesetting, printing, or electronic recording can now be integrated into the everyday work of an organization,
saving both time and money. The basic objectives of an OAS are:
(a) Raw Information Storage and Retrieval in a computer or a computer like system.
(b) Electronic Transfer/Exchange of Information through some type of communication hardware.
(c) Management of Electronic Information to organize and maintain data using specific software tools.

Backbone of Office Automation Systems – LAN (Internet):

The most dramatic shift for business in communication technology has been the internet. Increasing use of
internet in the form of e-mails and websites is transforming the work environment. The internet has broken down
traditional geographic barriers to communication, information, opening up markets and created an environment of
almost instantaneous feedback of information.
At the heart of the functions performed by OAS is often a local area network (LAN). The LAN which is form of
local internet connection, allows users to transmit data, voice, mail, and images across the network to any
destination, whether that destination is in the local office or in another country or continent, through a connecting
network.

Functions of Office Automation Systems:

An OAS integrates the following 5 basic functions:
(a) Electronic Publishing: Electronic publishing systems include:
(i) Word Processing Software: software like ‘Microsoft Word’ allow users to create, edit, revise, store, and print
documents such as letters, memos, reports, and manuscripts.
(ii) Desktop Publishing Software: software like Adobe PageMaker enables users to integrate text, images,
photographs, and graphics to produce high-quality printable output for professional publications like newsletters,
brochures, magazines, or books.
(b) Electronic Collaboration: Electronic collaboration is made possible through electronic meeting and
teleconferencing that allow teams of coworkers to use networks of microcomputers to share information, update
schedules and plans, and cooperate on projects regardless of geographic distance.
(c) Electronic Communication: Electronic communication systems include electronic mail (e-mail), voice mail,
facsimile (fax), and desktop videoconferencing which have now become common forms of information storage
and retrieval.
(i) Electronic Mail: E-mail is a software that allows users, via their computer keyboards, to create, send, and
receive messages and files to or from anywhere in the world. E-mail is very popular because it is easy to use,
offers fast delivery, and is inexpensive.

Voice Mail: Voice mail is a sophisticated telephone answering machine that digitizes incoming voice messages
and stores them on disk. When the recipient is ready to listen, the message is converted from its digitized version
back to audio, or sound.
(iii) Facsimile: A facsimile transmission machine (FAX) scans a document and sends it as electronic signals over
ordinary telephone lines to a receiving fax machine. This receiving fax recreates the image on paper.
(iv) Desktop Videoconferencing: it simulates face-to-face meetings of individuals and requires a network and a
desktop computer with special application software as well as a small camera installed on top of the monitor.
Images of a computer user from the desktop computer are captured and sent across the network to the other
computers and users.
(d) Image Processing: Image processing systems include presentation graphics and multimedia systems that
convert text, drawings, and photographs into digital form that can be stored in a computer, manipulated, printed,
or sent to another computer. Image processing systems may use scanners, digital cameras, video capture cards, or
advanced graphic computers.
(e) Office Management: Office management systems include electronic scheduling, and task management systems
that provide an electronic means of organizing people, projects, and data. Business dates, appointments, notes, and
client contact information can be created, edited, stored, and retrieved. Additionally, automatic reminders about
crucial dates and appointments can be programmed.
Advantages of Office Automation Systems in Architecture
Office Automation greatly alters the work environment in an architectural office and even the concept of work by
increasing the efficiency and productivity of work.
It replaces human operations in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous works and eliminates fatigue
arising from performing repetitive jobs manually.
It helps to create and maintain larger databases of invaluable information with reduced dependence on paper
records and filing, thus also reducing storage space and wastage of paper.
It performs tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed and leads to faster processing and
delivery of information and accurate analysis of facts and figures which gives a boost to the efficiency and
economic feasibility of projects.
It reduces the operation & work handling time & also frees up the worker to take other high level tasks.
It helps to correlate, update and synchronize information across computers via the internet that helps to enable
and streamline 24 hour work cycles.
It simplifies financial accounting, billing and future projection tasks such as budgeting through e-banking and e-
commerce websites and applications for instant and no-restrains financial transactions thus improving the
economy of the firm.

Disadvantages of Office Automation Systems

Office automation can be expensive for investment in software and equipment. A professional office suite or a
machine that scans, duplicates and binds documents, for example, can be quite expensive.
Older or less-skilled employees who are used to manual methods might find it difficult to operate and adjust to
automatic processes. This could require additional and time-consuming training.
If the automated system does not function when power is interrupted, for example one might not be able to use
manual methods to continue business.

The architect shall, after taking instructions from the client, render the services in following stages:
Stage 1- Concept Design:
Ascertain client's requirements and prepare a design brief for client's approval.
Examine site constraints & potentials and prepare a report on site evaluation and analysis; and impact of
existing or proposed development on its immediate environs.
Carry out Environment Impact assessment and furnish report on measures required to be taken to mitigate
adverse impact, if any.
Prepare drawings and documents to enable the client to get done the detailed survey and soil investigation at the
site of the project.
Prepare conceptual designs with reference to requirements given by the client and prepare rough estimate of
cost on area basis.

Stage 2- Preliminary Design and Drawings:

Modify the conceptual designs, incorporating required changes and prepare the preliminary drawings, sketches,
study model, etc. for the client's approval along with preliminary estimate of cost on area basis.
Stage 3- Drawings for Client's Statuary Approval:
Prepare drawings necessary for statutory approvals, ensuring compliance with codes, standards and legislation;
and assist the client in obtaining the statutory approvals thereof, if required.
Stage 4- Working Drawings and Tender Documents:
Prepare working drawings, specifications and schedule of quantities sufficient to prepare estimate of cost and
tender documents covering aspects like mode of measurement, method of payments, quality control procedures on
materials & works and other conditions of contract.
Preparation of Tender Paper: inviting tender on behalf of the client, sale of the tender paper after investigating
the soundness of contractor, preparation of comparative statement and advising the client regarding acceptability
of tender.

Stage 5- Appointment of Contractors: advise the client on appointment of contractors after analyzing them. If the
architect enters into the contract on behalf of the client he shall make it clear that he is acting for the client and he
shall not exceed his authority. Before accepting the tender and selecting contractor, the architect must consider
following aspects:
Contractors who have quoted rates very low, as compared to the estimated cost of project should be rejected
after detailed scrutiny.
Contractor’s financial stability must be given importance and his intelligence, his capacity to organize and
credit in the market should be judged.
Previous works executed by him and their certificates from previous architects should be inspected.
General behavior and temperament of the contractor should be observed.

Stage 6- Construction:
Prepare and issue working drawings and details to the contractor for proper execution of works during
construction. These drawings should be supplied free of cost upto 6 sets of drawings at different stages.
Check & approve samples of elements, components & drawings submitted by the contractor.
Visit the site of work at different intervals, to inspect and evaluate the construction works and where necessary
clarify any decision, offer interpretation of the drawings/specifications, attend conferences

and meetings to ensure that the project proceeds generally in accordance with the conditions of contract and keep
the client informed about the same.
The architect is not liable for losses of the contractor for his own action. He shall see that the contractor has
removed rejected materials and rectified the defect made by him.
Appoint specialized consultants on client's demand and be responsible for the direction and integration of the
consultants work.
If a contractor fails to show proportionate progress if work as per the time of completion, it is the responsibility
of an architect to bring to the notice of the owner and advise him to terminate the contract according to terms and
conditions.
In case of disputes or arbitration between the client and contractor, the architect shall help to settle the dispute
by technical analysis.
Stage 7- Completion:
Prepare and submit completion reports and drawings for the project and assist the client in obtaining
‘Completion Certificate’ from the statutory authorities.
Issue two sets of as built drawings including services and structures.
To ensure that no damages are being made on any part of the completed work at the time handling over the
same to the client.

Scope of Work of an Architect:

The architect shall provide services in respect of the following works:
1. Site Evaluation & Analysis with Environmental Impact Assessment.
2. Architectural Work & Site development including Structural Engineering works.
3. Sanitary, Plumbing, Drainage, Water Supply & Sewerage work.
4. Electrical, HVAC, Acoustical and Landscape work.
5. Interior designing and Graphic signage

Architectural Drawing: The drawings made and submitted by the architect for his scope of services, should
necessarily consist of the following (unless otherwise stated):
(a) Site Plan showing all major site features, building location, levels, surrounding road, demolition required,
north point (Scale 1:200)
(b) All floor and roof plans, Elevations and Sections through major spaces (Scale 1:100).
(c) Larger details of all typical and special areas including stairs, ramps and lifts (Scale 1:50).
(d) Large scale plans, elevations and sections of toilets, kitchen, pantries; showing fixtures, counters, tiles and
flooring (Scale 1:50).
(e) Schedule of doors and windows and grills schedule of hardware.
(f) Interior Layouts and Elevations if required including details of fixed furniture (Scale 1:25).
(g) Landscape plans and details including paving, planters, roads, site drainage, sewerage and lighting.

Note: It is necessary that drawings made by the architect must be complete and adequate for all purposes regarding
the construction and completion of project keeping in mind the following aspects:
(a) Standard size of drawing bearing a standard format with consistent lettering and dimensioning.
(b) All required information should be given, without unnecessary repetition or hidden ambiguities and irrelevant
information should be excluded.
(c) Adequate cross reference and interrelation between drawings.

PROJECT COORDINATION
For effective management and timely completion of a project without any short-comings, proper coordination
among all the personnel related to the project like the architect and his staff, associated architects, client
committee, consultants, contractors, engineers, managers, site staff etc. at different stages of the project is
necessary. Usually this coordination is required all throughout the project from its conception to completion, but
it is the most important once during the programming stage and once during the execution stage; unless called
upon otherwise.

Role and Responsibilities of Project Coordinators:

The Project coordinator maintains a link between the architect, clients and the site engineers and helps them
communicate and coordinate with each other effectively during design and construction phases
He maintains a record of the clients name, contact details and their demands with respect to designs, materials,
furnishing, etc. and also fixes up appointments with clients to help the architect finalize on the architectural and
contractual aspects.
He assembles all the documents related to bids and construction of the project, manages project related
deadlines and issue construction drawings as required.
He coordinates with the material suppliers and contractors to arrange for construction, designing and decoration
materials.
He plays a key role in coordinating between the onsite and offsite construction activities and ensuring the
construction work proceeds as per the planned architectural designs
Crucial Differences between Freehold & Leasehold
Property

The main difference between freehold property and leasehold property is the land ownership
and control of the property. With your property, as an owner you have all rights to whatever you
wish by following the local regulations. In the case of leasehold property, the ownership is
provided by the government for a tenure of 99 years you can extend the leasehold to 999 years
if the owner of the property wishes to extend the lease, you will have to pay a price for the
lease extension.
Freehold Property:
Freehold property can be defined as any estate of any entity that is “free from hold” besides the
owner. The owner of such properties can enjoy free ownership (sell, renovate or transfer) of the
property and can reuse the property for any purpose according to the local regulations. If the
owner wants to resell the property, it won’t require any legal concern and it will require very
less paperwork. Considerably, freehold properties are more expensive than leasehold
properties. There are no restrictions on the right of the property. The owner of the freehold
property might just have to pay a maintenance charges. This type of property can be
transferred by sale deed registration.
Advantages:
• Complete ownership and owners can make changes to the structures of their house
• It can be transferred through generations.
Disadvantages:
• Responsibilities of maintenance.
• Availability is designated to certain areas only
Leasehold Property:
Leasehold property means, if you have purchased a leasehold property, you have the right
only to stay for a particular period of time. In this case, the buyer is not the owner of the
property. You must pay the ground rent to the owner or the leaseholder of the property, once
the lease period is expired, the property rights will go back to the owner. It is necessary to
know that the tenure of the lease will influence the value of the property. It is possible to extend
the leasehold according to your comfort.
Advantage:
• It can be renewed at the end of the term, you can continue to live in the property if you
want to extend.
• Mostly the landowner is responsible for maintenance of the property.
Disadvantage:
• To make changes in renovation or remodelling you have to make the permission from the
landowner.
What kind of property cannot be freehold?
 Apartments or flats can never be freehold because they are constructed on the same land that
belongs to the same land owned by the builder or developer, and each apartment the owner
will be a shareholder.
What type of properties are preferred by buyers?
Buyers usually prefer freehold properties to invest because of the chances of capital growth
associated with the property and stability. Freehold property will give the entire ownership to
the owner instead of the temporary ownership title provided by leasehold property. No matter
which option you choose, it is important to understand the responsibilities and legal rights of
each type of ownership. If you are looking for a house, you choose a freehold property instead
of leasing it. But if you are a seasoned investor with short term goals then you can choose
leasehold property.
Differences between a freehold and a leasehold property:

Freehold Property Leasehold Property

Land belongs to the leased owner for a certain number of
The land belongs to the owner years
At the end of the lease period, the owner must pay to end
Ownership is indefinite the lease.
In order to transfer the ownership it is required state consent
Not required to transfer the ownership obtained at the land office
If the banks the lease period is less than 30 years, most of
Banks will finance easily the banks will not finance easily.

Converting a leasehold property into a freehold property:

You can easily convert a leasehold property into a freehold property if you have a clear sale
deed, a NOC and General Power of Attorney (GPA). You must pay the conversion charges to
the authorities. In the case of non-sanctioned building plan, you can get the property converted
on the basis of proof of permanent electricity connection or house tax assessment.
Name Leasehold Freehold
Lease duration will usually be 30,60,99 or
Tenure 999 years No time duration
Lease transfers require state or its
Approvals Required equivalent approval Few limitations on to transfer the property
You just have a lease from the freeholder or
the landlord to use the property for ‘N’ You will own the building and the land it stands
Ownership Rights number of years on, in perpetuity.

Latest developments:
• In Chandigarh, owners of around 50,000 leasehold properties can become sole owners of
the houses and the rates of the properties have been finalized too.
• People staying in rented properties, leased properties or those who are running
businesses for decades in Delhi can now but 11 of 27 posh markets that are under New
Delhi Municipal Council’s ambit.
Points to remember:
 • Share of freehold property is when the freeholder divides his responsibility and the
leaseholder become directors of their leasehold.
• A service charge is usual but is not essential in case of leasehold properties.
• The lease length will be extended by agreement with the freeholder at a specified cost.
• The lease includes, rights of way and access, repairing and maintenance covenants,
details of ground rent, enforcement covenants.
• Mortgage lenders like there to be at least 50 years left at the end of the mortgage term
(1.e. 75 years in total)

b. Depreciation as decrease in worth:

The term depreciation is used to convey decrease or decline or lessening in
worth. It is quite evident that cost is not value. The value of an asset
depends upon its capacity to render satisfying services during its estimated
or expected future life. The present worth of these expected satisfying
services in tangible or intangible form of returns may be monetary or
satisfactions or enjoyments or sentiments.

Hence, decrease or decline in value is reduction in its present worth of

expected probable future satisfying service. This measurement of decrease
in value at a particular time is not necessarily the quantum of satisfying
services already rendered during this lifetime although it is during this time
its value has been depleted.

The basic measure of decrease in value will be the difference between the
present worth of assets for two distinct times or two distinct service
conditions.
Causes of Depreciation:
The three main causes responsible for depreciation, as
understood by decrease in worth are:
i. Physical conditions,

ii. Functional obsolescence, and

iii. Economic obsolescence.

i. Physical conditions:
Following are the conditions for such type of decrease in worth:
i. Due to general wear and tear.

ii. Due to elements of nature such as heat, cold and wind, and

iii. Due to structural deterioration.

ii. Functional obsolescence:

Functional obsolescence means the mode by which the purpose was to be
fulfilled has gone out of use or out of date at a particular time. This may be
due to inadequacy, lacking in unity, obsolete necessities, outmoded design,
out of way or odd design.

iii. Economic obsolescence:

Physical/functional depreciations are curable to some extent, while the
economic obsolescence is incurable.

Economic obsolescence is due to the following causes:

Changes in the character and use change in laws, nearness to nuisances,
over-supply, social changes, etc.
Estimating Cost of Depreciation:
There are various methods for calculating the cost of depreciation of a
property, with whose help the cost of depreciation could be evaluated. After
allowing for cost of depreciation of a building, the present value may
approach nil. In that case, the depreciated value of the building is nothing
but its demolition value or scrap value.

In calculating the depreciation, it becomes necessary to assume the cost of

construction or the prime cost unit. In case of buildings, the depreciated
replacement cost is indicated by the difference between the prime cost and
depreciation. The replacement cost of the buildings on the material date of
valuation is worked out by suitable method and then the depreciation is
calculated accordingly.

Thus, the original cost of construction does not form the base of
depreciation in valuation except when there is very short gap between the
period of original cost and material date of valuation.

For example, building was constructed in 1965 its depreciated replacement

cost is required to be calculated in 1985.

The cost of the building as of to be constructed in 1985 is worked out and

from this amount, the depreciation for the age of the building, i.e., 20 years,
is deducted to arrive at the depreciated replacement cost of the building in
the year 1985.

This is sometimes referred to as ‘back depreciation’ and, in practice, it is

found that the depreciated replacement cost of the building, actually goes on
appreciating every year because of various reasons such as rapid erosion of
money value, inflation, sharp escalation of prices, shortage in supply, etc.
There are three recognised methods of calculating cost of construction of a
building for the purpose of valuation.

They are:
i. Plinth area rate or square metre method,

ii. Cubic rate or cubic metre method, and

iii. Approximate quantities or bill method.

B. DESIGN AUDIT AND BUILDING EFFICIENCY STUDIES
Design Audit:
Design Audit is an integrated system of tools and performance standards designed to help building designers
assess and improve the performance of whole building portfolios. The Building Design Audit measures and
documents the design and performance metrics of building systems, identifying areas for improvement, and
enabling better performance. Areas covered include:
(a) Site Planning (optimizing form and orientation).
(b) Microclimate Analysis and Natural Ventilation.
(c) Energy Efficiency and Solar Analysis (sun path analysis and shading devices).
(d) Building Envelope and External Shading.
(e) Optimum Window Ratio and Day lighting.
The results are benchmarked against all other anonymous results from completed Building Performance Audits.
This provides best practice standards, which can be used by building owners to direct the designers of new
buildings and retrofit projects.

List of Software Available for Design Audits:

The following software can be easily used for design audits depending on the areas to be covered:
(a) Microsoft Visio: Used for preparation of office plans and layouts including electrical diagrams.
(b) E-Quest 3-5: To perform building energy use simulation techniques.
(c) E-VALUator: Analyses the financial benefits from buildings that reduce energy cost, raise employee
productivity, enhance tenant satisfaction.
(d) Calculux: for advanced lighting study and energy efficiency of mechanical lighting.
(e) ECOTECT: for unique approach to conceptual building design.

ECOTECT
ECOTECT is a software with a unique approach to conceptual building design that couples a 3-D design interface
with a comprehensive set of performance analysis functions and interactive information displays. Fundamentally,
there are three main reasons to consider ECOTECT as part of analysis workflow:
(a) Modelling and Visualization: As a conceptual design tool, ECOTECT provides its own fast and intuitive
modelling interface for generating even the most complex building geometry.
(b) One Central Repository for All Building Data: Each material in the software can store a wide range of
information like basic thermal properties, acoustics responses, environmental impact data etc.
(c) External Analysis Function: the software offers a wide range of internal analysis functions which can be used
at any time while modeling; like thermal performance and internal light levels.

Building Efficiency Studies:

Building Efficiency is the Percentage proportion of a building’s rentable area, not counting the area occupied by
elevators, equipment, hallways, lobby, restrooms, etc.
Efficiency Ratio = Net assignable area/Gross area

This is used to determine the efficiency ratio of an existing plan.

Principle Uses of Building Efficiency Studies:

(a) Programming Phase: The client and the architect are interested in the total cost of the project which depends
on the total size of the building and is estimated by multiplying the gross square footage by an estimated cost per
square foot.
(b) Design Phase: The proposed design is analyzed to determine how well it responds to the program and how it
compares with similar buildings.
(c) Post Construction: After construction, cost analysis and efficiency studies are used to aid the designer in future
projects.

Efficiency Studies of Programming Phase:

1. Building Efficiency Take Offs:

It is a method to select efficiency ratios during the programming stage in which the existing buildings of the same
typology are analyzed and the information is compared to arrive at a ratio. Such studies are an important part of
the database that allow the architect to arrive at reasonable sizes for new facilities. The development of such
database may be time consuming but in many instances two or three case studies of a single building type are
enough. For various typologies of buildings, there are varied expected efficiencies:
(a) Office building – 0.75 to 0.8
(b) Apartment building – 0.67 to 0.8
(c) Hotel – 0.62 to 0.7
(d) School – 0.55 to 0.7
(e) Hospital – 0.55 to 0.67

2. Determining the Total Building Cost:

The total building cost is found out through the building efficiency ratio which is determined by the comparative
analysis of similar projects. An understanding of the efficiency studies, can help the client put his project into
perspective depending on the financial situation:
For example assume that the total net assignable area for an elementary school if 35000 square feet. Assume that
the analysis of other elementary schools found them to run between 62% and 66% efficient that is 62 to 66% of
total gross area is net assignable space. Taking an average of we get - 35000 sq ft/0.64 = 54688 sq ft. Clients who
have not been through a building process before are dismayed to see that they have to pay for so much gross
square footage in order to get the net assignable square footage they needed.
3. Selecting an Efficiency Ratio:

A reasonable efficiency ratio must be selected carefully:

If a low ratio is selected, representing a building that is not very efficient, the gross area may become too large
for the client to afford.
If a high ratio is selected, the building will have to be so efficient that the designer may be left with no
flexibility in the arrangement of spaces. The quality of design may have to be sacrificed.

Clients will like to go with larger ratios and smaller gross area, hence lesser building cost, not realizing the

restrictions that it places on design is an important qualitative issue.

Easement Act: The Right To Use Another’s

Property Legally
By default a property owners attains the right of way, the right to air or right
to light, the right to build, the right to the uninterrupted flow of water. All
these are known as the examples of a property owner's easement
rights. The Indian Easement Act says that if a person has enjoyed these
over a period of time, they have a valid right without any restriction, almost
as though it were a privilege.

Sample this.

Ravish Menon built an independent house in the 1990s on a 1,200 square

foot (sqft) of plot. Being one of the early ones to invest and construct in this
particular area, Menon’s family enjoyed uninterrupted natural sunlight and
air. In 2011, Kapil Singh and family moved to the adjacent plot and built a
bigger house. Consequently, the construction blocked the light and air. Is
there a legal remedy that Menon could turn to?

At a time when going vertical is the norm, such issues are common and this
is exactly where the easement right comes into the picture.
What does the Easement Act say?

“An easement is a right which the owner or occupier of certain land

possesses, as such, for the beneficial enjoyment of that land, to do and
continue to do something, or to prevent and continue to prevent something
being done, in or upon, or in respect of, certain other land not his own,”
reads the Indian Easements Act, 1882.

The Act mentions four typical scenarios that qualify as easements:

1) For example, A as the owner of a certain house, has a right of way over
his neighbour B's land for purposes connected with the beneficial
enjoyment of the house. This is an easement.
2) A, as the owner of a certain house, has the right to go on his
neighbour B's land, and to take water for the purposes of his household out
of a spring therein.This is an easement.
3) A, as the owner of a certain house, has the right to conduct water
from B's stream to supply the fountains in the garden attached to the house.
This is an easement.
4) A, as the owner of a certain house and farm, has the right to graze a
certain number of his own cattle on B's field, or to take, for the purpose of
being used in the house, by himself, his family, guests, lodgers and
servants, water or fish out of C's tank, or timber out of D's wood, or to use,
for the purpose of manuring his land, the leaves which have fallen from the
trees on E's land. These are easements.
Owner is not bound to provide easement
The Act also mentions that a scenario where A is bound to cleanse a
watercourse running through his land and keep it free from obstruction for
the benefit of B, is not easement.

An owner is also not bound to keep his land open for public use stating the
right to occupy for purpose of passing and repassing. This doesn’t qualify as
easement either.

An easement is in no way a transfer of property. It could be made, altered or

released as well and should always be in a written form, except when it has
been enjoyed for a very long time without restrictions. A written document
helps either party to challenge it in a court of law.
FINANCE MANAGEMENT:
It essentially deals with efforts made to increase income and control expenditure thereby earning as reasonable
profit. It is managed by one or more chartered accountants or an accounts department as a whole depending on the
size of the office. However, An Architect is required to learn basic features of accounting in order to manage his
finances.
(a) For every expense made there must be a cash memo, a voucher or a stamped receipt.
(b) An Architect is required to maintain a separate account of the money he receives as deposits from his clients,
contractors or other agencies. For every payment received whether by way of professional fees, reimbursement of
traveling, or others, a proper record of receipts issued is essential.
(c) All the bills prepared for any service need to be properly numbered.
(d) At the end of every financial year (which is fixed by Central Board of Direct Taxes as 1st April to 31st March
of next year) the Income and Expenditure Account, Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet should be
prepared and written down in cash book and ledger.

Office Expenditure
(a) Regular Expenditure Includes: Employee’s Salaries and Bonuses; Office Stationary Consumables, Postage,
Printing and Xerox of Documents; Water, Electricity, Internet and Telephone Bills; Income Tax, Professional Tax,
Sales Tax etc.
(b) Additional Expenditure Incudes: Gifts to employees and clients, expenses on annual office parties and on
entertaining clients.

Office Accounting and Bills

1. Balance Sheet: It is a sheet of balance which shows a true and fair view of the state of affairs of a business. It
has got two columns:
(a) Fixed Assets (Tangible Assets): Land, Building, Plants and Machineries, Furnitures and Fittings and Vehicles
etc.
(b) Liabilities: It shows the obligations of an enterprise to various parties including the owners who have financed
the project. The obligations may be: actual or potentials, compulsory or voluntary, foreseen or unforeseen.
2. Profit and Loss Account: It shows the result of operations of an enterprise at the end of every financial year. It
has also two column viz. Debit and Credit:
Debit is what comes in and Credit is what goes out.
Debit the receiver and Credit the giver.
Debit is all expenses and losses and credit is all incomes and gains.
3. Petty Cash Book: Record of cash transactions of small value. The account clerk is usually given a small sum of
Rs. 200 to Rs. 300 per month and he will spend as same as directed on petty purchases. E.g. binding charges of a
book, money paid to mazdoor, cost of stamps etc.
4. Cash Book: It records all transactions of income as well as expenses.
5. Ledger: It contains a summary of all the items of cash book and other book if any.

Globalization has been defined as the process of rapid integration of countries and
happenings through greater foreign trade and foreign investment. It is the process of
international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas
and other aspects of culture.

What are the factors aiding globalisation?

1) Technology: has reduced the speed of communication manifolds. The
phenomenon of social media in the recent world has made distance insignificant.

The integration of technology in India has transformed jobs which required

specialized skills and lacked decision-making skills to extensively-defined jobs with
higher accountability that require new skills, such as numerical, analytical,
communication and interactive skills. As a result of this, more job opportunities are
created for people.

2) LPG Reforms: The 1991 reforms in India have led to greater economic
liberalisation which has in turn increased India’s interaction with the rest of the world.
3) Faster Transportation: Improved transport, making global travel easier. For
example, there has been a rapid growth in air-travel, enabling greater movement of
people and goods across the globe.

4) Rise of WTO: The formation of WTO in 1994 led to reduction in tariffs and non-
tariff barriers across the world. It also led to the increase in the free trade
agreements among various countries.

5) Improved mobility of capital: In the past few decades there has been a general
reduction in capital barriers, making it easier for capital to flow between different
economies. This has increased the ability for firms to receive finance. It has also
increased the global interconnectedness of global financial markets.

6) Rise of MNCs: Multinational corporations operating in different geographies have

led to a diffusion of best practices. MNCs source resources from around the globe
and sell their products in global markets leading to greater local interaction.

These factors have helped in economic liberalization and globalization and have
facilitated the world in becoming a “global village”. Increasing interaction between
people of different countries has led to internationalization of food habits, dress
habits, lifestyle and views.

Globalization and India:

Developed countries have been trying to pursue developing countries to liberalize
the trade and allow more flexibility in business policies to provide equal opportunities
to multinational firms in their domestic market. International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and World Bank helped them in this endeavour. Liberalization began to hold
its foot on barren lands of developing countries like India by means of reduction in
excise duties on electronic goods in a fixed time frame.

Indian government did the same and liberalized the trade and investment due to the
pressure from World Trade Organization. Import duties were cut down phase-wise to
allow MNC’s operate in India on equality basis. As a result globalization has brought
to India new technologies, new products and also the economic opportunities.

Despite bureaucracy, lack of infrastructure, and an ambiguous policy framework that

adversely impact MNCs operating in India, MNCs are looking at India in a big way,
and are making huge investments to set up R&D centers in the country. India has
made a lead over other growing economies for IT, business processing, and R&D
investments. There have been both positive and negative impacts of globalization on
social and cultural values in India.

IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION IN INDIA

Economic Impact:
1. Greater Number of Jobs: The advent of foreign companies and growth in economy
has led to job creation. However, these jobs are concentrated more in the services
sector and this has led to rapid growth of service sector creating problems for
individuals with low level of education. The last decade came to be known for its
jobless growth as job creation was not proportionate to the level of economic growth.
2. More choice to consumers: Globalisation has led to a boom in consumer products
market. We have a range of choice in selecting goods unlike the times where there
were just a couple of manufacturers.
3. Higher Disposable Incomes: People in cities working in high paying jobs have
greater income to spend on lifestyle goods. There has been an increase in the
demand of products like meat, egg, pulses, organic food as a result. It has also led
to protein inflation.

Protein food inflation contributes a large part to the food inflation in India. It is
evident from the rising prices of pulses and animal proteins in the form of eggs, milk
and meat.

With an improvement in standard of living and rising income level, the food habits of
people change. People tend toward taking more protein intensive foods. This shift in
dietary pattern, along with rising population results in an overwhelming demand for
protein rich food, which the supply side could not meet. Thus resulting in a demand
supply mismatch thereby, causing inflation.

In India, the Green Revolution and other technological advancements have primarily
focused on enhancing cereals productivity and pulses and oilseeds have traditionally
been neglected.

• Shrinking Agricultural Sector: Agriculture now contributes only about 15% to

GDP. The international norms imposed by WTO and other multilateral organizations
have reduced government support to agriculture. Greater integration of global
commodities markets leads to constant fluctuation in prices.
• This has increased the vulnerability of Indian farmers. Farmers are also increasingly
dependent on seeds and fertilizers sold by the MNCs.
• Globalization does not have any positive impact on agriculture. On the contrary, it
has few detrimental effects as government is always willing to import food grains,
sugar etc. Whenever there is a price increase of these commodities.
• Government never thinks to pay more to farmers so that they produce more food
grains but resorts to imports. On the other hand, subsidies are declining so cost of
production is increasing. Even farms producing fertilizers have to suffer due to
imports. There are also threats like introduction of GM crops, herbicide resistant
crops etc.
• Increasing Health-Care costs: Greater interconnections of the world has also led
to the increasing susceptibility to diseases. Whether it is the bird-flu virus or Ebola,
 the diseases have taken a global turn, spreading far and wide. This results in greater
investment in healthcare system to fight such diseases.
• Child Labour: Despite prohibition of child labor by the Indian constitution, over 60 to
a 115 million children in India work. While most rural child workers are agricultural
laborers, urban children work in manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs.
Globalization most directly exploits an estimated 300,000 Indian children who work
in India’s hand-knotted carpet industry, which exports over $300 million worth of
goods a year.

Socio-Cultural Impact on Indian Society

Nuclear families are emerging. Divorce rates are rising day by day. Men and women
are gaining equal right to education, to earn, and to speak. ‘Hi’, ‘Hello’ is used to
greet people in spite of Namaskar and Namaste. American festivals like Valentines’
day, Friendship day etc. are spreading across India.

• Access to education: On one hand globalisation has aided in the explosion of

information on the web that has helped in greater awareness among people. It has
also led to greater need for specialisation and promotion of higher education in the
country.
• On the flip side the advent of private education, coaching classes and paid study
material has created a gap between the haves and have-nots. It has become
increasingly difficult for an individual to obtain higher education.
• Growth of cities: It has been estimated that by 2050 more than 50% of India’s
population will live in cities. The boom of services sector and city centric job creation
has led to increasing rural to urban migration.
• Indian cuisine: is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe. Historically,
Indian spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities.
Pizzas, burgers, Chinese foods and other Western foods have become quite
popular.
• Clothing: Traditional Indian clothes for women are the saris, suits, etc. and for men,
traditional clothes are the dhoti, kurta. Hindu married women also adorned the red
bindi and sindhur, but now, it is no more a compulsion. Rather, Indo-western
clothing, the fusion of Western and Sub continental fashion is in trend. Wearing
jeans, t-shirts, mini skirts have become common among Indian girls.
• Indian Performing Arts: The music of India includes multiples varieties of religious,
folk, popular, pop, and classical music. India’s classical music includes two distinct
styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. It remains instrumental to the religious
inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. Indian dance too has diverse
folk and classical forms.
• Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Mohiniattam, Kuchipudi, Odissi are popular
dance forms in India. Kalarippayattu or Kalari for short is considered one of the
world’s oldest martial art. There have been many great practitioners of Indian Martial
Arts including Bodhidharma who supposedly brought Indian martial arts to China.
• The Indian Classical music has gained worldwide recognition but recently, western
music is too becoming very popular in our country. Fusing Indian music along with
western music is encouraged among musicians. More Indian dance shows are held
globally. The number of foreigners who are eager to learn Bharatanatyam is rising.
Western dance forms such as Jazz, Hip hop, Salsa, Ballet have become common
among Indian youngsters.
• Nuclear Families: The increasing migration coupled with financial independence
has led to the breaking of joint families into nuclear ones. The western influence of
individualism has led to an aspirational generation of youth. Concepts of national
identity, family, job and tradition are changing rapidly and significantly.
• Old Age Vulnerability: The rise of nuclear families has reduced the social security
that the joint family provided. This has led to greater economic, health and emotional
vulnerability of old age individuals.
• Pervasive Media: There is greater access to news, music, movies, videos from
around the world. Foreign media houses have increased their presence in India.
India is part of the global launch of Hollywood movies which is very well received
here. It has a psychological, social and cultural influence on our society.
• McDonaldization: A term denoting the increasing rationalization of the routine tasks
of everyday life. It becomes manifested when a culture adopts the characteristics of
a fast-food restaurant. McDonaldization is a reconceptualization of rationalization, or
moving from traditional to rational modes of thought, and scientific management.
• Walmartization: A term referring to profound transformations in regional and global
economies through the sheer size, influence, and power of the big-box department
store WalMart. It can be seen with the rise of big businesses which have nearly
killed the small traditional businesses in our society.

Psychological Impact on Indian Society

• Development of Bicultural Identity: The first is the development of a bicultural

identity or perhaps a hybrid identity, which means that part of one’s identity is rooted
in the local culture while another part stems from an awareness of one’s relation to
the global world.
• The development of global identities is no longer just a part of immigrants and ethnic
minorities. People today especially the young develop an identity that gives them a
sense of belonging to a worldwide culture, which includes an awareness of events,
practices, styles and information that are a part of the global culture. Media such as
television and especially the Internet, which allows for instant communication with
any place in the world, play an important part in developing a global identity.

A good example of bicultural identity is among the educated youth in India who
despite being integrated into the global fast paced technological world, may continue
to have deep rooted traditional Indian values with respect to their personal lives and
choices such as preference for an arranged marriage, caring for parents in their old
age.
1. Growth of Self-Selected Culture: means people choose to form groups with like-
minded persons who wish to have an identity that is untainted by the global culture
and its values. The values of the global culture, which are based on individualism,
free market economics, and democracy and include freedom, of choice, individual
rights, openness to change, and tolerance of differences are part of western
values. For most people worldwide, what the global culture has to offer is appealing.
One of the most vehement criticisms of globalization is that it threatens to create one
homogeneous worldwide culture in which all children grow up wanting to be like the
latest pop music star, eat Big Macs, vacation at Disney World, and wear blue jeans,
and Nikes.
2. Emerging Adulthood: The timing of transitions to adult roles such as work,
marriage and parenthood are occurring at later stages in most parts of the world as
the need for preparing for jobs in an economy that is highly technological and
information based is slowly extending from the late teens to the mid-twenties.
Additionally, as the traditional hierarchies of authority weaken and break down under
the pressure of globalization, the youth are forced to develop control over their own
lives including marriage and parenthood. The spread of emerging adulthood is
related to issues of identity.
3. Consumerism: Consumerism has permeated and changed the fabric of
contemporary Indian society. Western fashions are coming to India: the traditional
Indian dress is increasingly being displaced by western dresses especially in urban
areas. Media- movies and serials- set a stage for patterns of behavior, dress codes
and jargon. There is a changing need to consume more and more of everything.

Globalisation is an age old phenomenon which has been taking place for centuries
now. We can experience it so profoundly these days because of its increased pace.
The penetration of technology and new economic structures are leading to an
increased interaction between people. As with other things there have been both
positive and negative impacts on India due to it.

Conclusion: We cannot say that the impact of globalization has been totally positive
or totally negative. It has been both. Each impact mentioned above can be seen as
both positive as well as negative. However, it becomes a point of concern when, an
overwhelming impact of globalization can be observed on the Indian culture.

Every educated Indian seems to believe that nothing in India, past or present, is to
be approved unless recognized and recommended by an appropriate authority in the
West. There is an all-pervading presence of a positive, if not worshipful, attitude
towards everything in western society and culture, past as well as present in the
name of progress, reason and science. Nothing from the West is to be rejected
unless it has first been weighed and found wanting by a Western evaluation. This
should be checked, to preserve the rich culture and diversity of India.
Meaning of Liberalisation
Liberalisation is the process or means of the elimination of the control of the state over economic activities. It
provides greater autonomy to the business enterprises in decision-making and eliminates government
interference.
Liberalisation was begun to put an end to these limitations and open multiple areas of the economy. Though
some liberalisation proposals were prefaced in the 1980’s in areas of export-import policy, technology up-
gradation, fiscal policy and foreign investment, industrial licensing, economic reform policies launched in
1991 were more general. There are a few significant areas, namely, the financial sector, industrial sector,
foreign exchange markets, tax reforms and investment and trade sectors which gained recognition in and
after 1991.

Liberalisation in India
Since the adoption of the New Economic Strategy in 1991, there has been a drastic change in the Indian
economy. With the arrival of liberalisation, the government has regulated the private sector organisations to
conduct business transactions with fewer restrictions.
For developing countries, liberalisation has opened economic borders to foreign companies and
investments. Earlier, Investors has to encounter difficulties to enter countries with many barriers.
These barriers included tax laws, foreign investment restrictions, accounting regulations, and legal
issues. The economic liberalisation reduced all these obstacles and waived few restrictions over the control
of the economy to the private sector.

Objectives
• To boost competition between domestic businesses
• To promote foreign trade and regulate imports and exports
• Improvement of technology and foreign capital
• To develop a global market of a country
• To reduce the debt burden of a country
• To unlock the economic potential of the country by encouraging the private sector and multinational
corporations to invest and expand.
• To encourage the private sector to take an active part in the development process.
• To reduce the role of the public sector in future industrial development.
• To introduce more competition into the economy with the aim of increasing efficiency.

Reforms under Liberalisation

• Deregulation of the Industrial Sector
• Financial Sector Reforms
• Tax Reforms
• Foreign Exchange Reforms
• Trade and Investment Policy Reforms
• External Sector Reforms
 • Foreign Exchange Reforms
• Foreign Trade Policy Reforms

Impact of Liberalisation

Positive Impact of Liberalisation in India

1. Free flow of capital: Liberalisation has enhanced the flow of capital by making it affordable for
businesses to reach the capital from investors and take a profitable project.
2. Diversity for Investors: The Investors will be benefitted by investing a portion of their business into a
diversifying asset class.
3. Impact on Agriculture: In this area, the cropping designs have experienced a huge change, but the
impact of liberalisation cannot be accurately measured. Government restrictions and interventions can be
seen from production to distribution of the crop.

Negative Impact of Liberalisation in India

1. The weakening of the economy: Enormous restoration of political power and economic power will lead
to weakening the entire Indian economy.
2.Technological Impact: Fast development in technology allows many small scale industries and other
businesses in India to either adjust to changes or shut their businesses.
3. Mergers and Acquisitions: Here, small businesses are merging with big companies. Therefore, small
companies employees may need to enhance their skilled and technologically advanced. This enhancing of
skill and the time it might take may lead to non-productivity and can be a burden to the company’s capital.

Economic Reforms during Liberalisation

Several sectors were affected by the outburst of the impact of Liberalization. Few economic reforms were:

• Financial Sector Reforms

• Tax Reforms / Fiscal Reforms
• Foreign Exchange Reforms / External Sector Reforms
• Industrial Sector Reforms