Lab Session 1

Theory:

Photoconductive Cell:
Photoconductive cells are light-sensitive resistors in which resistance decreases with an
increase in light intensity when illuminated. These devices consist of a thin single-crystal or
polycrystalline film of compound semiconductor substances. The most commercially
available photoconductive cells, which are manufactured from cadmium sulphide(CdS)
which is sensitive to light in the visible spectrum.

Fig.1 Photoconductive Cell

Lamp Filament:
A lamp that produces light by heating up a filament of wire inside a bulb with an electric
current. The itself refers to the wire or thread inside bulb which lights up when you turn it
on. Because the filament usually made of tungsten, would burn from the heat, the bulb is
filled with a nonreactive gas such as argon, which protects protect the wire from burning.

Fig 2.Filament Lamp

Power Amplifier:
A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the magnitude of power of a
given input signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a level high enough to drive
loads of output devices like speakers, headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current
amplifiers, a power amplifier is designed to drive loads directly and is used as a final block in
an amplifier chain.

Fig 3.Power Amplifier

Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. It is connected in parallel. It usually has a high resistance so that
it takes negligible current from the circuit. Voltmeter, measures voltages of either direct or
alternating electric current on a scale usually graduated in volts, millivolts (0.001 volt), or
kilovolts (1,000 volts). Many voltmeters are digital, giving readings as numerical displays.

Fig 4.Voltmeter

Potentiometer:
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a
variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers work by varying the position of a sliding contact
across a uniform resistance. The entire input voltage is applied across the whole length of the
resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding contact.
Potentiometers can be both analog and digital.

Fig 5.Potentiomter
Comparator:
A comparator compares two input voltages and outputs a binary signal indicating which is
larger. If the non-inverting (+) input is greater than the inverting (-) input, the output goes
high. If the inverting input is greater than the non-inverting, the output goes low. The most
frequent application for comparators is the comparison between a voltage and a stable
reference. Comparators have many applications, including threshold detectors/discriminators,
zero-crossing detectors, and oscillators.

Fiq 6.Comparator

Electronic Switch:
A switch is used to complete or break an electric circuit to use an electric appliance according
to our convenience. The working principle of switch depends on ON/ OFF mechanism.
Various electrical or electronic circuits use switches to control the whole circuit .
Some electrical gadgets that have switches built into them are electric lamps, cooler, washing
machines, table fan, TV, radio, etc.

Fig 7.Electronic Switch

Buzzer:
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be electromechanical, or
piezoelectric (piezo for short). Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices,
timers, and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.
Fig 8.Buzzer