EELT Subject Manual

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES (EnE-

306)
SUBJECT MANUAL
INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

AND RESEARCH (IEER) UET LAHORE
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
(EnE-306)
CLO
PLOs
NO. CLO DESCRIPTION
Students will have
knowledge of water and PLO 4
1
wastewater (Investigation)
characterization
PLO 5
Students will learn about
2 (Modern Tool
latest instrumental usage
Usage)
1.
SR.# CLO EXPERIMENT PLO
Estimation of hardness of PLO 4
1. 1
drinking water (Investigation)
Estimation of alkalinity PLO 4

2. 1
of drinking water (Investigation)
Estimation of chlorides in PLO 4

3. 1
Standardization of the PLO 4

4. 1
solutions (Investigation)
Determination of
PLO 4
5. 1 dissolved oxygen for
(Investigation)
wastewater
Determination of
biochemical oxygen PLO 4
6. 1
demand (BOD) for (Investigation)
wastewater
Determination of
PLO 4
7. 1 chemical oxygen demand
(Investigation)
(COD) for wastewater
Estimation of copper
PLO 5
concentration in drinking
8. 2 (Modern Tool
water using
Usage)
spectrophotometer
SR.# CLO EXPERIMENT PLO
PLO 4
9. 1 Determination of solids
(Investigation)
Estimation of total
coliform and fecal PLO 4
10. 1
coliform in drinking (Investigation)
water
Determination of ph PLO 4
11. 1
curves (Investigation)
Estimation of sulfates in PLO 4

12. 1
Estimation of total
PLO 4
13. 1 nitrogen in wastewater
(Investigation)
using kjeldahl method
Estimation of sodium and
PLO 4
14. 1 potassium by
(Investigation)
conductivity meter
Estimation of turbidity of PLO 4

15. 1
CONTENTS
1. Estimation of hardness of drinking water ................................................................................ 1

1.1 Objective .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Apparatus ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Reagents ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Related theory .................................................................................................................. 1
1.4.1 Hardness of water ..................................................................................................... 1
1.4.2 Units of Hardness ...................................................................................................... 1
1.4.3 Types of hardness ..................................................................................................... 2
1.4.4 Temporary hardness .................................................................................................. 2
1.4.5 Permanent hardness .................................................................................................. 2
1.4.6 Comparison between hard and soft water ................................................................. 2
1.4.7 Environmental significance ...................................................................................... 3
1.5 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Observations & calculations............................................................................................. 5
1.7 Viva questions .................................................................................................................. 6
2. Estimation of alkalinity of drinking water ............................................................................... 7
2.1 Objective .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Apparatus ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Reagents ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Related theory .................................................................................................................. 7
2.4.1 Sources ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.2 Units of alkalinity ..................................................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Environmental significance ...................................................................................... 8
2.5 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.6 Viva questions .................................................................................................................. 8
3. Estimation of chlorides in drinking water ............................................................................. 10
3.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 10
3.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.3. Reagents ......................................................................................................................... 10
3.4. Related theory ................................................................................................................ 10
3.5. Significance of chloride ................................................................................................. 10
3.5.1. For human ............................................................................................................... 10
3.5.2. Corrosion in distribution system ............................................................................. 11
3.5.3. Use in industry ........................................................................................................ 11
3.6. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 11
3.7. Observations & calculations........................................................................................... 13
3.8. Viva questions ................................................................................................................ 13
4. Standardization of the solutions ............................................................................................ 14
4.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 14
4.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 14
4.3. Required chemicals ........................................................................................................ 14
4.4. Indicators ........................................................................................................................ 14
4.5. Related theory ................................................................................................................ 14
4.5.1. Standardization ....................................................................................................... 14
4.5.2. Standard solution .................................................................................................... 14
4.5.3. Types of standards .................................................................................................. 15
4.5.4. Primary standard ..................................................................................................... 15
4.5.5. Secondary standards................................................................................................ 15
4.5.6. Molarity................................................................................................................... 15
4.5.7. Normality ................................................................................................................ 15
4.5.8. Importance of standardization................................................................................. 15
4.6. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.7. Viva questions ................................................................................................................ 19
5. Determination of dissolved oxygen for wastewater .............................................................. 20
5.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 20
5.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 20
5.3. Reagents ......................................................................................................................... 20
5.4. Related Theory ............................................................................................................... 20
5.4.1. Dissolved oxygen .................................................................................................... 20
5.5. Significance of DO ......................................................................................................... 21
5.5.1. For aquatic life ........................................................................................................ 21
5.5.2. For treatment processes........................................................................................... 21
5.5.3. For maintaining aerobic conditions ........................................................................ 21
5.5.4. Basis for bod ........................................................................................................... 21
5.6. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 21
5.6.1. Titration procedure.................................................................................................. 22
5.7. Viva questions ................................................................................................................ 22
6. Determination of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) for wastewater ................................ 24
6.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 24
6.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 24
6.3. Reagents ......................................................................................................................... 24
6.4. Related theory ................................................................................................................ 24
6.4.1. Background Information ......................................................................................... 24
6.4.2. BOD ........................................................................................................................ 25
6.4.3. Significance of BOD ............................................................................................... 25
6.4.4. For aquatic life ........................................................................................................ 25
6.4.5. For treatment plants ................................................................................................ 26
6.4.6. Water quality indication .......................................................................................... 26
6.5. Preparation of dilution media ......................................................................................... 26
6.6. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 26
6.7. Observations and calculations ........................................................................................ 27
6.8. Viva questionS ............................................................................................................... 28
7. Determination of chemical oxygen demand (COD) for wastewater ..................................... 29
7.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 29
7.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 29
7.3. Chemicals required ......................................................................................................... 29
7.4. Related theory ................................................................................................................ 29
7.4.1. Chemical oxygen demand ....................................................................................... 30
7.4.2. Using potassium dichromate ................................................................................... 30
7.4.3. Blanks ..................................................................................................................... 30
7.5. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 30
7.6. Calculation ..................................................................................................................... 31
7.7. Viva questions ................................................................................................................ 31
8. Estimation of copper concentration in drinking water using spectrophotometer .................. 32
8.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 32
8.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 32
8.3. Chemicals required ......................................................................................................... 32
8.4. Caliberation solutions..................................................................................................... 32
8.5. Related theory ................................................................................................................ 32
8.5.1. Lambda max............................................................................................................ 32
8.5.2. Calibration curve ..................................................................................................... 32
8.5.3. Spectrophotometry .................................................................................................. 33
8.5.4. Excitation and deexcitation ..................................................................................... 33
8.5.5. Movement of electrons ........................................................................................... 33
8.5.6. Wavelength and energy levels ................................................................................ 33
8.5.7. Types of light .......................................................................................................... 34
8.5.8. Energy level of compounds .................................................................................... 34
8.5.9. Quartz cell ............................................................................................................... 34
8.6. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 34
8.7. Viva questions ................................................................................................................ 36
9. Determination of solids ......................................................................................................... 37
9.1. Objective ........................................................................................................................ 37
9.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 37
9.3. Related theory ................................................................................................................ 37
9.3.1. Total solids (TS) ..................................................................................................... 37
9.3.2. Total suspended solids (TSS).................................................................................. 38
9.3.3. Total dissolved solids (TDS) .................................................................................. 38
9.3.4. Settle able solids ..................................................................................................... 38
9.3.5. Fixed and volatile solids ......................................................................................... 38
9.3.6. Environmental significance .................................................................................... 38
9.3.7. For plants ................................................................................................................ 38
9.3.8. For corrosion ........................................................................................................... 38
9.3.9. For humans.............................................................................................................. 39
9.3.10. For irrigation ....................................................................................................... 39
9.4. Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 39
9.5. Observations and calculations ........................................................................................ 41
9.6. Viva questions ................................................................................................................ 42
10. Estimation of total coliform and fecal coliform in drinking water .................................... 43
10.1. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 43
10.2. Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 43
10.3. Chemicals ................................................................................................................... 43
10.4. Related theory ............................................................................................................. 43
10.4.1. Environmental effect ........................................................................................... 43
10.4.2. Guideline ............................................................................................................. 44
10.4.3. Health effects....................................................................................................... 44
10.4.4. Indicators of drinking water quality .................................................................... 45
10.5. Procedure .................................................................................................................... 45
10.5.1. Presumptive phase ............................................................................................... 46
10.5.2. Confirmation phase ............................................................................................. 46
10.6. Viva questions ............................................................................................................ 47
11. Determination of ph curves ................................................................................................ 48
11.1. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 48
11.2. Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 48
11.3. Chemicals ................................................................................................................... 48
11.4. Related theory ............................................................................................................. 48
11.4.1. Significance of pH in environmental engineering............................................... 48
11.4.2. Protection of life of freshwater............................................................................ 48
11.4.3. Problems and impacts of acidic water ................................................................. 48
11.4.4. In drinking water ................................................................................................. 48
11.4.5. In wastewater....................................................................................................... 49
11.4.6. pH relating to health ............................................................................................ 49
11.4.7. pH curves............................................................................................................. 49
11.4.8. Important pH curves ............................................................................................ 50
11.5. Procedure .................................................................................................................... 50
11.5.1. Calibration of ph meter ....................................................................................... 50
11.5.2. Determination of ph curve................................................................................... 51
11.6. Observations and calculations .................................................................................... 52
11.7. Viva questions ............................................................................................................ 52
12. Estimation of sulfates in drinking water ............................................................................ 53
12.1. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 53
12.2. Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 53
12.3. Chemicals used ........................................................................................................... 53
12.4. Related theory ............................................................................................................. 53
12.4.1. Principle .............................................................................................................. 53
12.4.2. Environmental significance ................................................................................. 54
12.4.3. Sulfate in water supplies ..................................................................................... 54
12.4.4. Health risks for humans....................................................................................... 54
12.4.5. Other problems caused by sulfate ....................................................................... 55
12.4.6. Turbidity .............................................................................................................. 55
12.4.7. Who guideline ..................................................................................................... 55
12.4.8. Turbidity meter .................................................................................................... 55
12.5. Procedure .................................................................................................................... 55
12.6. Observations and calculations .................................................................................... 57
12.7. Viva questions ............................................................................................................ 57
13. Estimation of total nitrogen in wastewater using kjeldahl method .................................... 58
13.1. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 58
13.2. Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 58
13.3. Reagents...................................................................................................................... 58
13.4. Principle ...................................................................................................................... 58
13.5. Related theory ............................................................................................................. 58
13.5.1. Basic steps involved ............................................................................................ 59
13.5.2. Importance ........................................................................................................... 59
13.5.3. Applications of kjeldahl apparatus ...................................................................... 59
13.5.4. Importance of nitrogen ........................................................................................ 60
13.5.5. Health effects of nitrogen .................................................................................... 60
13.5.6. Procedure equations ............................................................................................ 61
13.6. Procedure .................................................................................................................... 61
13.6.1. Digestion ............................................................................................................. 61
13.6.2. Distillation ........................................................................................................... 62
13.6.3. Titration ............................................................................................................... 63
13.7. Viva questions ............................................................................................................ 63
14. Estimation of sodium and potassium by conductivity meter ............................................. 64
14.1. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 64
14.2. Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 64
14.3. Chemicals ................................................................................................................... 64
14.4. Related theory ............................................................................................................. 64
14.4.1. Environmental effects of sodium ........................................................................ 64
14.4.2. Health effects of sodium ..................................................................................... 64
14.4.3. Other application of sodium ................................................................................ 65
14.4.4. Environmental effects of potassium .................................................................... 65
14.4.5. Health effects of potassium ................................................................................. 65
14.4.6. Electrical conductivity meter .............................................................................. 66
14.4.7. Principle .............................................................................................................. 66
14.4.8. Temperature dependence..................................................................................... 66
14.5. Procedure .................................................................................................................... 67
14.6. Viva questions ............................................................................................................ 69
15. Estimation of turbidity of drinking water .......................................................................... 70
15.1. Objective ..................................................................................................................... 70
15.2. Related theory ............................................................................................................. 70
15.2.1. Measurement of turbidity .................................................................................... 70
15.3. Procedure .................................................................................................................... 71
15.3.1. Calibration ........................................................................................................... 71
15.3.2. Sample Analysis .................................................................................................. 71
15.4. Observations ............................................................................................................... 72
15.5. Viva questions ............................................................................................................ 72
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY TECHNIQUES (EnE-306)
1. ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF DRINKING WATER

1.1 OBJECTIVE
To determine the calcium hardness, magnesium hardness & total hardness of the given samples by
EDTA titration method
1.2 APPARATUS
 Burette
 Pipette
 Erlenmeyer flask
 Measuring Cylinder
1.3 REAGENTS
 Standard EDTA titrant (0.01 M)
 Eriochrome black T indicator (EBT)
 Ammonia buffer solution
 Eriochrome blue black R indicator (EBBR)
 Sodium Hydroxide
1.4 RELATED THEORY

1.4.1 HARDNESS OF WATER
Water hardness is one of the most common water quality concerns reported by consumers in the
United States. Water that is considered to be “hard” is high in dissolved minerals, specifically
calcium and magnesium. As the concentration of the dissolved minerals increase, the water
becomes harder.
OR
Hardness is defined as a characteristic of water, which represents the total concentration of mainly
the calcium and the magnesium ions expressed as calcium carbonate. However, if present in
significant amounts, other hardness producing metallic ions (iron, zinc etc) should be included.
1.4.2 UNITS OF HARDNESS

Hardness is most commonly expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate per liter (mg/ as
CaCO3). It is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate equivalent because its molecular weight is
INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 1

100, and also it's equivalent weight is 50, moreover it is the most insoluble salt that can be
precipitated in water treatment.
1.4.3 TYPES OF HARDNESS

 Temporary hardness
 Permanent hardness
1.4.4 TEMPORARY HARDNESS

Temporary hardness is a type of water hardness caused by the presence
of dissolved bicarbonate minerals (calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate). When
dissolved these minerals yield calcium and magnesium cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) and carbonate
and bicarbonate anions (CO32-, HCO3-). The presence of the metal cations makes the water hard.
This "temporary" hardness can be reduced either by boiling the water, or by the addition
of lime (calcium hydroxide) through the softening process of softening. Boiling promotes the
formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates calcium carbonate out of solution,
leaving water that is softer upon cooling.
1.4.5 PERMANENT HARDNESS

The permanent hardness caused by sulfate and chloride compounds.
Total Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness
The calcium and magnesium hardness is the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions
expressed as equivalent of calcium carbonate.
1.4.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN HARD AND SOFT WATER

Soft water
In a soft water, ordinary soap lathers quickly and easily and the soap is easy to rinse out of the
clothes in the laundry of from hair and the skin. A problem with very soft water is that because of
its purity, the copper pipes used in the house will start to dissolve in the water; the green mark on
the porcelain under the dripping tap is an accumulation of copper from the pipes. The cleaner the
water more corrosive it is.

Hard water
Calcium and magnesium ions in the water join with the soap to form as insoluble curd and reduce
the effectiveness of the soap as a washing agent.
Hardness mg/L as Type of water

CaCO3
0 – 75 Soft water
75 – 150 Moderately hand water
150 – 300 Hard water

above 300 Very hard water
1.4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

 The World Health Organization says that "there does not appear to be any convincing
evidence that water hardness causes adverse health effects in humans", concluded in 1984.
But it has some effects on fish health.
 Some studies have shown that hard water may contribute to a worsening of existing eczema
in some individuals. The reason for this is uncertain and the evidence is very limited.
 Hard water can cause scale to form in kettles, steam irons and around taps and shower
heads.
 Using hard water for washing can require slightly more soap or washing powder and can
leave a scum around basins and baths. Washing powders and detergents are designed to
wash perfectly well with hard water and most automatic dishwashers have built-in water
softeners, to avoid “spotting” of crockery and glassware.
 It is also objectionable for laundry and domestic purposes since it consumes large quantity
of soap.
 As in different industries steam is used for different industrial purposes & this steam is
formed by the help of boiler in which water is used. If this water is hard then it will cause
scaling, due to this scaling energy for making steam will be wasted as there has been
formed a layer of insulator at inside walls of the boiler.
 Scaling is corrosive in nature & if this process continues pores will be appeared in the inner
surface of the boiler walls that can lead to blast too.

 For most pond fish, i.e. koi and goldfish, moderate to hard water is best. The optimum
hardness range for most pond fish would be between 100 - 300 mg/liter CaCO3.
1.5 PROCEDURE
 TOTAL HARNESS
1. Take 25mL of sample and add 25 mL of distilled water in an Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Add 1 mL of NH3 buffer solution.
3. Add pinge of EBT if solid and 1mL of EBT if liquid or in solution form.
4. The solution turns magenta in color.
5. Add the standard EDTA titrant slowly until the color changes to blue.
6. Note down the volume of EDTA added and label as “A” mL.
7. Repeat same procedure for blank (50 mL of distilled water).
8. Note down the volume of EDTA added and label as “B” mL.
A-B = C mL
(𝐴−𝐵(𝑚𝐿)∗𝑁(0.02)∗𝐸𝑞.𝑊𝑡(50)∗1000)
Total hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿)
 CALCIUM HARDNESS
1. Take 25mL of sample and add 25 mL of distilled water in an Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Add 2 mL of NaOH solution in it.
3. Add pinge of EBBR in it.
4. The solution turns magenta in color.
5. Add the standard EDTA titrant slowly until the color changes to blue.

6. Note down the volume of EDTA added and label as “A” mL.
7. Repeat same procedure for blank (50 mL of distilled water).
8. Note down the volume of EDTA added and label as “B” mL.
A-B = D mL
(A−B(mL)∗N(0.02)∗Eq.Wt(50)∗1000)
Calcium hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) = (Volume of sample in mL)
 MAGNESIUM HARDNESS
(C−D(mL)∗N(0.02)∗Eq.Wt(50)∗1000)
Magnesium hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(Volume of sample in mL)
1.6 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sample 1
 TOTAL HARDNESS
EDTA Volume 1
EDTA Volume 2
EDTA volume 3
Mean Volume of EDTA (A mL)
A mL – B mL = 13.23 mL – 0.5 mL = 12.73 mL (C mL)
(C)∗(0.02)∗(50)∗1000)
Total hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(25)

 CALCIUM HARDNESS
EDTA Volume 1
EDTA Volume 2
EDTA volume 3
Mean Volume of EDTA (A mL)
(D∗(0.02)∗(50)∗1000)
Calcium hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(25)
(11.07 mL∗(0.02)∗(20)∗1000)
Hardness due to calcium ions =
(25 mL)
 MAGNESIUM HARDNESS
(C−D(mL)∗N(0.02)∗Eq.Wt(50)∗1000)
Magnesium hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(Volume of sample in mL)
1.7 VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) Name the species that are responsible for causing hardness?
(ii) What is hard and soft water?
(iii) EDTA stands for?
(iv) EBT stands for?
(v) Why NH3 buffer is added?
(vi) Why it is measure in terms of CaCO3?

2. ESTIMATION OF ALKALINITY OF DRINKING WATER

2.1 OBJECTIVE
To find alkalinity of given set of water samples titrating with sulfuric acid.
2.2 APPARATUS
 Burette
 Pipette
 Measuring Cylinder
2.3 REAGENTS
 0.02N sulphuric acid
 Phenolphthalein indicator
 Methyl orange indicator
2.4 RELATED THEORY

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water or any solution to neutralize or “buffer” acids. This
measure of acid-neutralizing capacity is important in figuring out how “buffered” the water is
against sudden changes in pH.
2.4.1 SOURCES
One source of alkalinity is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is dissolved in water flowing
through geology that has limestone and/or marble. In addition to rocks and soils, the alkalinity of
streams can be influenced by:
 Salts
 Wastewater.
2.4.2 UNITS OF ALKALINITY

Alkalinity is expressed in units of milligrams per liter (mg/l) of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).
Sources (mg/L CaCO3)
Rainwater < 10
Typical surface water 20 - 200

Surface water in regions with alkaline soils 100 - 500
Groundwater 50 - 1000
Seawater 100 - 500
2.4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

Wastewater can have higher alkalinity because it typically has higher concentrations of nutrients
and ions. In watersheds where calcium carbonate isn’t available, carbonic acid is an important
source for carbonate and bicarbonate. Carbon dioxide and water are converted to carbonic acid.
Alkalinity is important to aquatic organisms because it protects them against rapid changes in pH.
Alkalinity is especially important in areas where acid rain is a problem.
2.5 PROCEDURE
1. Take 50 mL of sample into a clean Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Add 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator in it.
3. If the pH is above 8.3, color of solution becomes pink.
4. Start adding 0.02N sulphuric acid drop wise in it, till the color just disappears.
5. Note down the volume of H2SO4 and label it as “P” mL
6. Now in same solution add two drops of methyl orange indicator, the color turns to orange.
7. Again titrate it against sulphuric acid, until the color turns to red.
8. Note down the volume of H2SO4 and label it as “M” mL
9. If no pink color appears then no OH- present means phenolphthalein alkalinity is zero.
10. Then add at the same time methyl orange in it (methyl orange alkalinity).
(P(mL)∗N(0.02)∗Eq.Wt(50)∗1000)
Phenolphthalein alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) = (Volume of sample in mL)
(M(mL)∗N(0.02)∗Eq.Wt(50)∗1000)
Methyl orange alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) = (Volume of sample in mL)
((P+M)(mL)∗N(0.02)∗Eq.Wt(50)∗1000)
Total alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) = (Volume of sample in mL)
2.6 VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) Why is water alkaline in nature?
(ii) Why it is measured in mg/L as CaCO3?

(iii) If pink color does not appear on adding phenolphthalein indicator, what does it means?
(iv) Can OH-, CO32- and HCO3- can exist together?

3. ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDES IN DRINKING WATER

3.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the amount of chloride present in the given water sample by mercuric nitrate method.
3.2. APPARATUS
 Burette
 Pipette
 Measuring cylinder
 Test tube
3.3. REAGENTS
 Potassium dichromate
 0.0141N AgNO3
 Mixed indicator (di-phenylcarbazone + Xylene cyanol FF) (concentration of chlorides
< 100mg/L)
 Mixed indicator (di-phenyl carbazone + Bromophenol) (concentration of chlorides >
100mg/L)
3.4. RELATED THEORY

Chlorides are salts resulting from the combination of the gas chlorine with a metal. Some common
chlorides include sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and calcium chloride
(CaCl2). Chlorine alone as Cl2 is highly toxic and it is often used as a disinfectant. In combination
with a metal such as sodium it becomes essential for life. Chloride is an “essential” mineral for
humans. It is abundant in ionic trace mineral preparations. It is a major mineral nutrient that occurs
primarily in body fluids. Chloride is a prominent negatively charged ion of the blood, where it
represents 70% of the body’s total negative ion content.
3.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF CHLORIDE

3.5.1. FOR HUMAN
Too much chloride can Increase blood pressure. Chloride is a chemical the human body needs for
metabolism (the process of turning food into energy). The amount of chloride in the blood is

carefully controlled by the kidneys. Chloride combines with hydrogen in the stomach to make
hydrochloric acid, a powerful digestive enzyme that is responsible for the breakdown of proteins.
3.5.2. CORROSION IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Chloride concentrations above 250 mg/L in drinking water may cause corrosion in the distribution
system. In metal pipes, chloride reacts with metal ions to form soluble salts thus increasing levels
of metals in drinking-water.
3.5.3. USE IN INDUSTRY
Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide), chlorine, soda ash (sodium carbonate), sodium chlorite, sodium bicarbonate
and sodium hypochlorite.
QUICK TEST
First perform quick test for determining concentration of chlorides
Take 1mL of sample in test tube and 1 – 2 drops of potassium dichromate and add 1 mL of 0.0141N
AgNO3 in it.
If magenta color appears then concentration is less than 100 mg/L.
If orange color remains, then concentration is more than 100 mg/L.
3.6. PROCEDURE
1. If sample is colorless take 50 mL of it and if it is colored, then take 25 mL of sample & 25 mL
of distilled water.
2. Add mixed indicator in it.
For concentration, less than 100 mg/L:
Then add 1 mL of mixed indicator (di-phenyl carbazone + Xylene cyanol FF) in it.
For concentration, greater than 100 mg/L:
Then add 0.5 mL of mixed indicator (di-phenyl carbazone + Bromophenol) in it.

3. After indicator addition solution becomes blue color.
Then add drop wise concentrated HNO3 till solution becomes colorless.
4. Start titrating it against 0.0141N Hg (NO3) for concentration less than 100 mg/L and 0.141N
Hg (NO3) for concentration greater than 100 mg/L.
5. Keep on adding till deep violet color appears.
6. Note down volume of Hg (NO3) and label it as “A” mL.
FOR BLANK SOLUTION:
1. Take 50mL of distilled water.
Add pinge of HCO3-1.
Then add 1 mL of mixed indicator (di-phenyl carbazone + Xylene cyanol FF) in it.
Add 0.5 mL of mixed indicator (di-phenyl carbazone + Bromophenol) in it.
2. After indicator addition solution becomes blue color.
Then add drop wise concentrated HNO3 till solution becomes colorless.
3. Start titrating it against 0.0141N Hg (NO3) for concentration less than 100 mg/L and 0.141N
Hg (NO3) for concentration greater than 100 mg/L.
4. Keep on adding till deep violet color appears.
5. Note down volume of Hg (NO3) and label it as “B” mL.

((A−B)(mL)∗N(0.0141)∗Eq.Wt(35.48)∗1000)
Cl- (mg/L) =
(Volume of sample in mL (50))
((A−B)(mL)∗N(0.141)∗Eq.Wt(35.48)∗1000)
Cl- (mg/L) =
(Volume of sample in mL (50))
3.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

 Sample 1 (Tap Water)
Concentration less than 100 mg/L
Initial volume
Final volume
Total volume
Blank Solution:
Initial volume
Final volume
Total volume
3.8. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) Effects of chlorides present in water?
(ii) What are the sources of chlorides in water?
(iii) What is the permissible limit of chloride in drinking water?
(iv) Why there is a need to perform quick test?

4. STANDARDIZATION OF THE SOLUTIONS

(OXALIC ACID, SODIUM HYDROXIDE, SULFURIC ACID, CALCIUM CARBONATE
AND ETDA)
4.1. OBJECTIVE
To standardize the given solution.
4.2. APPARATUS
 Burette
 Pipette
 Titration flask
 Calibration flask
4.3. REQUIRED CHEMICALS

 Oxalic acid
 Sodium hydroxide
 Sulphuric acid
 Calcium carbonate
 EDTA
4.4. INDICATORS
 Phenolphthalein
 EBT
4.5. RELATED THEORY

4.5.1. STANDARDIZATION
The process whereby the concentration of a reagent is determined by reaction with a known
quantity of a second reagent is called as “standardization” (Analytical chemistry)
4.5.2. STANDARD SOLUTION

In analytical chemistry, a standard solution is a solution containing a precisely known
concentration of an element or a substance. The concentrations of standard solutions are normally
expressed in units of moles per liter (mol/L, often abbreviated to M for molarity), moles per cubic
decimeter (mol/dm3), kilo moles per cubic meter (k mol/m3) or in terms related to those used in
particular titrations (such as titers).

4.5.3. TYPES OF STANDARDS

 Primary standards
 Secondary standards
4.5.4. PRIMARY STANDARD

A primary standard is a reagent that is:
 Extremely pure
 Stable
 Has no waters of hydration
 Has a high molecular weight
For-example oxalic acid
4.5.5. SECONDARY STANDARDS

A secondary standard is a standard that is prepared in the laboratory for a specific analysis. It is
usually standardized against a primary standard.
4.5.6. MOLARITY
A measurement of the concentration of a solution. Molarity or molar concentration is a unit of
concentration, symbolized by "M".
It is the ratio of the number of moles of solute and the volume of solution (in liters).
Molarity = Moles of solute ÷ Liters of solution = moles/liter = M
4.5.7. NORMALITY
Normality is a measure of concentration equal to the gram equivalent weight per liter of solution.
It is denoted by N.
N = Gram equivalent / volume (Litres)
4.5.8. IMPORTANCE OF STANDARDIZATION

By standardization we can find the exact concentration of the chemicals.
 It is necessary to know the exact concentration of the solutions taking part in reaction, so
that exact reaction can be determine.
 We also do standardization to lower the concentration of the solutions.

 It is necessary to lower the concentration of toxic and hazardous solutions so that when
they are discarded or came in contact with environment, they cause less harm.
4.6. PROCEDURE
 Prepare 0.1N of Oxalic acid in 100 ml
 Mass of oxalic acid for preparing one normal solution was calculated.
Formula of oxalic acid (COOH)2 .H2O
Normality (N) =equivalent weight /volume (dm3)
0.1=equivalent weight /0.1 L
100 ml =0.1 L
Equivalent weight = 0.01 g eq
Equivalent weight = given mass / Equivalent weight
0.01= mass /63
Mass = 0.63 g
 0.63 grams of di-hydrated oxalic acid was measure with the help of weighing balance.
 It was taken in the calibration flask and distilled water was added to fill it up to 100 ml.
 This gives 0.1 N standardize solution of Oxalic acid.
 Prepare 0.1N of Sodium hydroxide in 100 ml

 Mass of sodium hydroxide for preparing one normal solution was calculated.
Formula of sodium hydroxide NaOH
0.1= equivalent weight /0.1 L
100 ml =0.1 L

Equivalent weight = 0.01 g eq
0.01= mass /40
Mass = 0.40 g
 0.4 grams of sodium hydroxide was measured with the help of balance.
 0.4 grams of sodium hydroxide was taken in the calibration flask and the distilled water
was added to make it 100 ml.
 Then titration was done to find the exact concentration of the solution.
 10 ml of NaOH was pipette out in the flask.
 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein were added, this gives pink color.
 Then this solution was titrated against 0.1 N oxalic acid taken in burette.
 End point was colorless.
H2C2O4 (aq) + 2 NaOH (aq) --> Na2C2O4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)
NaOH Oxalic acid

N1 V1 = N2 V2
 Prepare 0.1N of Sulfuric acid in 100 ml

We were given with 0.1 N H2SO4. We take 100 ml of that sulphuric acid.
 Then this 0.1 N H2SO4 was titrated against standardize NaOH.
 10 ml of H2SO4 was pipette out in the titration flask.
 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein were added.
 It was titrated against standardized NaOH taken in burette.
 End point was pink color.
NAOH + H2So4  (Na)2So4 + 2H20

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acidsodium sulphate + water

H2SO4 NaOH
N1 V1 = N2 V2
 Prepare 0.01N of calcium carbonate in 100 ml

 Mass of calcium carbonate for preparing one normal solution was calculated.
100 ml =0.1 L
Equivalent weight of CaCO3 = 50 g eq
0.001= mass /50
Mass = 0.05 g
 0.05 grams of CaCO3 was taken in the calibration flask.

 As CaCO3 is insoluble in water so few drops of was HCl were added in it (V< 1ml). it
produces effervescence.
 Then 30 -40 ml of distilled water was added in it.
 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein was added in it.
 Then NaOH was added in it till pink color appears.
 Then it was diluted up to 100 ml.
 This gives standard solution of CaCO3.
 Prepare 0.1 N EDTA in 100ml
 Mass of sodium salt of EDTA for preparing 0.1 N solution was calculated.
100 ml =0.1 L

Equivalent weight of sodium salt of EDTA = 186 g eq
0.01= mass /186
Mass = 1.86 g
 1.86 g of sodium salt of EDTA was weighed and was taken in the calibration flask.
 Distilled water was added in it to make it up to 100 ml.
 Then titration of this solution was done against the standardize CaCO3 taken in the burette.
 10 ml of solution of sodium salt of EDTA was taken in the titration flask.
 1 ml of ammonia buffer solution was added in it.
 EBT was added as an indicator.
 Then 90 ml of distilled water was added in it. This dilutes our sample.
Sodium salt of EDTA : CaCO3
N1 V1 = N2 V2
4.7. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) What is difference between primary and secondary standards?
(ii) Give some examples of primary standard solution?
(iii) What are the concentration units for standard solutions?
(iv) What is secondary standard solution?
(v) How we can standardize NaOH?

5. DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN FOR

WASTEWATER
5.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in the given sample(s) by using Azide
modification method.
5.2. APPARATUS
 BOD bottles
 Pipette
 Burette
 Measuring cylinder
5.3. REAGENTS
 Sample
 MnSO4
 Alkali Azide
 Conc. H2SO4
 Sodium thiosulphate
 Starch
5.4. RELATED THEORY

5.4.1. DISSOLVED OXYGEN
“The Dissolved oxygen is the oxygen that is dissolved in water.” The dissolved oxygen analysis
measures the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution. A simplified
formula is given below:
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Industrial and municipal wastewater discharges, as well as storm water runoff associated with
urban, industrial and agricultural sources, contribute oxygen-demanding substances into receiving
streams that can diminish dissolved oxygen levels.
5.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF DO
5.5.1. FOR AQUATIC LIFE
Fish, plants and aerobic bacteria all require oxygen for respiration. The decrease in the oxygen
supply in the water has a negative effect on the fish and other aquatic life. Fish kills and an invasion
and growth of certain types of weeds can cause dramatic changes in a stream or other body of
water and also reduce reproduction rates. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/L for a few
hours can result in large fish kills.
Very high DO concentrations can also be harmful to aquatic life. Fish in waters containing
excessive dissolved gases may suffer a condition in which bubbles of oxygen block the flow of
blood through blood vessels, causing death. Abrupt changes in dissolved oxygen induce stress and
subsequently make fish more susceptible to disease.
5.5.2. FOR TREATMENT PROCESSES
In aerobic biological treatment processes, the limited solubility of oxygen is of great importance
because it governs the rate at which oxygen will be absorbed by the medium and therefore the cost
of aeration. It is important to ensure that adequate amounts of air are supplied to maintain aerobic
conditions and also to prevent excessive use of air and energy.
5.5.3. FOR MAINTAINING AEROBIC CONDITIONS
The DO measurements are vital for maintaining aerobic conditions in natural waters that receive
pollution matter.
5.5.4. BASIS FOR BOD

Determinations of DO serve as the basis of the BOD test. The rate of biological oxidation can be
measured by determining residual dissolved oxygen in a system at various intervals of time.
5.6. PROCEDURE
1. Take BOD bottle and fill it completely with sample so that it overflows.
2. After that place cap on it and dispose of extra volume of sample.

3. Now volume is exactly 300mL. Ensure that there is no air bubble.

4. Add 1 mL of MnSO4 + 1mL of Alkali Azide solution.
5. If sample contains oxygen, after adding Alkali Azide, precipitates of yellow (O2 intensity is
low) or brown (O2 intensity is high) color will appear. These precipitates are indicators of
presence of oxygen. If white precipitates are formed it means that sample contain no oxygen.
Then we will stop our procedure otherwise continue procedure.
6. Place cap again and then dispose of extra solution. Now, shake it and after that leave the bottle
for 10-15 min till all precipitates are settled down.
7. Remove the cap and add 1mL of concentrated sulfuric acid to dissolve all precipitates. The
solution will turn to reddish brown color. Again, place cap on it and discard excess solution.
8. Shake it and take 100 ml of that reddish-brown solution from 300 mL solution and titrate it
against sodium thiosulphate solution whose normality is 0.025N.
5.6.1. TITRATION PROCEDURE
1. Take 100 mL of reddish brown solution in titration flask.
2. Titrate it against sodium thiosulphate drop wise till pale yellow color appears.
3. Add 0.5mL of starch solution. Color will change to violet.
4. If add starch at yellow color the color of solution will become black and If add starch at the
point after pale yellow solution becomes colorless.
5. Now titrate this solution with drop wise addition of sodium thiosulphate till solution gets
colorless. Note that volume.
6. Repeat the same procedure for other 100 mL, 100 mL.
7. Add these three volumes of sodium thiosulphate and label sum as “A” mL.
8. Find DO by the given formula:
((A)(mL)∗N(0.025)∗Eq.Wt(8)∗1000)
DO (mg/L) = F∗(Volume of sample)
300 (mL)−Volume of all reagents added (mL)

F= BOD Bottle Volume (mL)
5.7. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) Which parameters effect the concentration of dissolve oxygen?
(ii) What is effect of temperature on dissolve oxygen?
(iii) If white color appears in sample, what does it indicates?

(iv) What is minimum level of dissolve oxygen for the survival of aquatic life?
(v) What does “F” represent in the calculation of DO formula?

6. DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

(BOD) FOR WASTEWATER
6.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the biological oxygen demand of a given sample.
6.2. APPARATUS
 300 mL BOD bottles
 Incubator- capable of maintaining 20 ± 2°C
 Graduated cylinders
 Pipettes
 Beakers
 Erlenmeyer flasks
 Burettes
6.3. REAGENTS
 MnSO4 solution
 Alkali Azide solution
 Concentrated sulphuric acid
 0.025N Na2S2O3 solution
 Reagents required for the preparation of dilution media
6.4. RELATED THEORY

BOD measurement requires taking two samples at each site. One is tested immediately for
dissolved oxygen, and the second is incubated at 20 ± 2°C for 5 days (it is often referred to as a
“Five Day BOD”, or a BOD5) and then tested for the amount of dissolved oxygen remaining. The
difference in oxygen levels between the first test and the second test, in milligrams per liter (mg/L),
is the amount of BOD. This represents the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to
break down the organic matter present in the sample bottle during the incubation period.
6.4.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Microorganisms such as bacteria are responsible for decomposing organic waste. When organic
matter such as dead plants, leaves, grass clippings, manure, sewage, or even food waste is present
in a water supply, the bacteria will begin the process of breaking down this waste. When this

happens, much of the available dissolved oxygen is consumed by aerobic bacteria, robbing other
aquatic organisms of the oxygen they need to live.
6.4.2. BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms to
decompose waste. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water supply, there will also
be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen
will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or
dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline. The test measures the oxygen
utilized during a specified period for the biochemical degradation of organic material.
6.4.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF BOD

6.4.4. FOR AQUATIC LIFE
Most of the bacteria in the aquatic water are aerobic. That means that they use oxygen to perform
decomposition. Under normal conditions, dissolved oxygen exists in very low concentrations.
Natural levels of oxygen in aquatic systems are always somewhat depleted by normal levels of
aerobic bacterial activity. In most cases, if dissolved oxygen concentrations drop below 5 parts per
million (ppm), fish will be unable to live for very long. All clean water species such as trout or
salmon will die well above this level and even low oxygen fish such as catfish and carp will be at
risk below 5 ppm.
Healthy Water Unhealthy Water

6.4.5. FOR TREATMENT PLANTS

BOD specifies the strength of sewage. In sewage treatment, to say that the BOD has been reduced
from 500 to 50 indicates that there has been a 90 percent reduction. The test has its widest
application in measuring waste loading to treatment plants and in evaluating the efficiency of such
treatment systems. It is also used to determine the effects of discharges on receiving waters.
6.4.6. WATER QUALITY INDICATION

BOD indicates the amount of putrescible organic matter present in water. Therefore, a low BOD
is an indicator of good quality water, while a high BOD indicates polluted water.
6.5. PREPARATION OF DILUTION MEDIA

1. It is very important that the distilled water used for dilution media preparation be of high grade
and free from contaminants (such as copper and chlorine) which could inhibit the growth of
bacteria.
2. For 1L of distilled water add 1 mL of each nutrient (soluble salts of Ca, Mg, Fe, Al). These
can be chlorides/sulphates. Add 1mL of buffer solution.
3. Aerate for 30-45 minutes to allow the water to become saturated with dissolved oxygen
(approximately 8 mg/L at room temperature).
6.6. PROCEDURE
1. Take 11 BOD bottles, take these bottles, note their numbers and arrange them in four groups.
Three bottles in group A (A1, A2, A3),
Three bottles in group B(B1,B2,B3),
Three bottles in group C(C1, C2, C3),
Two bottles in group four i.e. of blank (blank1, blank2)
2. Half-fill each of these bottles with dilution media.
3. Add 2 ml of waste water sample in A1, B1, and C1 each.
6. Now fill the bottles completely with dilution media and place the stopper such that no air
bubbles are trapped.
7. Do not throw excess dilution media, this excess media will prevent from any leakage.

8. Remaining two bottles of blank are completely filled with dilution media.
9. Now take three bottles of group A and blank1. Estimate there DO. This will be DO at 0 day.
10. Discard excess dilution media in case of determining DO.
11. Place rest of the seven bottles in the incubator at 20 ± 2°C for 5-days.
12. After five days find the DO in all the remaining bottles.
13. Now find difference of DO at zero day and five day this will be DO depletion.
14. Calculate the BOD5 for the sample using the following relationship:
mg
DO depletion ( L )×300 (mL)
BOD5(mg/l) =
volume of sample in bottle(mL)
6.7. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
 At Zero Day:
Bottle no. Bottle Name Sample added Volume of Volume of DO (mg/L)

(mL) sample Na2S2O3
(mL) (mL)
A1
A2
A3
Blank1

 After 5 Days:
Bottle Bottle Volume of Volume of Volume of DO Mean

no. name Sample Added sample Na2S2O3 (mg/L) DO
(mL) (mL) (mL) (mg/L)
B1
C1
B2
C2
B3
C3
Blank2
BOD5 :
Sample DO at zero DO at 5 days DO depleted BOD at 5 days

added(mL) day(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
6.8. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) What is meant by BOD?
(ii) Which is measuring parameter for the organic matter in waste water?
(iii) What is the composition of dilution media?
(iv) Where is BOD measured?
(v) What is the purpose of incubator in BOD procedure?

7. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

(COD) FOR WASTEWATER
7.1. OBJECTIVE
The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is important to aquatic life. Decaying mater in sewage,
industrial discharges, agricultural and urban runoff uses up dissolved oxygen in water. COD is a
measure of amount of chemicals (usually organics) that consume dissolve oxygen.
7.2. APPARATUS
 Reflex condenser
 COD flask
 Titration flask
 Burette
7.3. CHEMICALS REQUIRED

 K2 Cr2O7
 AgCl or HgCl2
 H2SO4
 Ferroin solution
 FAS (0.025N)
7.4. RELATED THEORY

For many years, the strong oxidizing agent potassium permanganate (KMnO4) was used for
measuring chemical oxygen demand. Measurements were called oxygen consumed from
permanganate, rather than the oxygen demand of organic substances. Potassium permanganate's
effectiveness at oxidizing organic compounds varied widely, and in many cases biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) measurements were often much greater than results from COD
measurements. This indicated that potassium permanganate was not able to effectively oxidize all
organic compounds in water, rendering it a relatively poor oxidizing agent for determining COD.
Since then, other oxidizing agents such as ceric sulphate, potassium iodate, and potassium
dichromate have been used to determine COD. Of these, potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) has
been shown to be the most effective: it is relatively cheap, easy to purify, and is able to nearly
completely oxidize almost all organic compounds.

7.4.1. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to
indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD
determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or
wastewater, making COD a useful measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter
(mg/L) also referred to as ppm (parts per million), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed
per liter of solution.A strong oxidizing agent will produce nascent oxygen, which will combine
with organic matter for decomposition.
7.4.2. USING POTASSIUM DICHROMATE

Potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions. Most commonly, a 0.25
N solution of potassium dichromate is used for COD determination, although for samples with
COD below 50 mg/L, a lower concentration of potassium dichromate is preferred.
7.4.3. BLANKS
Because COD measures the oxygen demand of organic compounds in a sample of water, it is
important that no outside organic material be accidentally added to the sample to be measured. To
control for this, a so-called blank sample is required in the determination of COD (and BOD -
biochemical oxygen demand - for that matter). A blank sample is created by adding all reagents
(e.g. acid and oxidizing agent) to a volume of distilled water. COD is measured for both the water
and blank samples, and the two are compared. The oxygen demand in the blank sample is
subtracted from the COD for the original sample to ensure a true measurement of organic matter.
7.5. PROCEDURE
 Take 50 ml sample in COD flask and add 6-7 glass beads in it.
 If the sample contains chlorides it will react with Cr2O7-2 and chlorine will be produced,
which is highly toxic. To avoid this, add a pinch of silver or mercuric salt. AgCl or HgCl 2
can be produced. Chlorides salts of Ag or Hg are insoluble and precipitate out so
interference is stopped.
 Then add approx. 20-25 ml of H2SO4 in sample.
 Then add 25 ml of K2 Cr2O7 in it and then add remaining 50 ml H2SO4 in it. Total volume
of sample will be 150 ml.

 Transfer COD flask to a reflex condenser.

 High temperature produce oxygen and that oxygen is assumed to react with organic matter
and decompose it.
 After 2 hrs stop heating and leave COD apparatus for cooling.
 Then add 200 ml distilled water in it. Total volume will be 350 ml.
 Add 1 ml Ferroin solution as indicator, a brownish color will appear.
 Titrate this solution against FAS (0.25N), brown color will change to green, then to orange
and then again brown, that is the end point. Note reading of FAS. Label it as A.
 Repeat same procedure for blank solution. In blank, instead of sample take 50 ml distilled
water while remaining procedure is same. Note the volume of FAS used for blank and label
it as B.
7.6. CALCULATION
COD (mg/l) = [(B - A) *N*Eq.wt*1000]/volume of sample
7.7. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) Define the basic principle of COD?
(ii) What is the relationship between COD and BOD?
(iii)Why COD is higher than BOD?
(iv) Why glass beads are added in COD flask?
(v) What is the purpose of adding AgSO4?
(vi) What will you suggest if green color appears, will sample is on reflex condenser?

8. ESTIMATION OF COPPER CONCENTRATION IN

DRINKING WATER USING SPECTROPHOTOMETER
8.1. OBJECTIVE
Use of spectrophotometry for qualitative (what is it) and quantitative (how much is there of it)
analysis of biological samples and molecules.
8.2. APPARATUS
 Beakers
 Flasks
 Pippete
8.3. CHEMICALS REQUIRED

 Potassium dichromate
 Phenolphthalein
 Methylene blue
 Copper sulfate
 Ammonium hydroxide
 Distilled water
8.4. CALIBERATION SOLUTIONS

 λmax
 Calibration curve
 Unknown solution
 Dilution if required
8.5. RELATED THEORY

8.5.1. LAMBDA MAX
Lambda max corresponds to the wavelength at which maximum number of transitions occurs and
it gives the highest absorption value.
8.5.2. CALIBRATION CURVE

 Calibration curve is a method used in analytical chemistry to determine
the concentration of an unknown sample solution.

 It is a graph generated by experimental means, with the concentration of solution

plotted on the x-axis and the observable variable on y-axis.
 The curve is constructed by measuring the concentration and absorbance of several
prepared solutions, called calibration solutions.
8.5.3. SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
 Once the curve has been plotted, the concentration of the unknown solution can be
determined by placing it on the curve based on its absorbance or other observable variable.
 Chemical solutions absorb different amounts of light based on their concentration.
 This fact is quantified in an equation known as Beer’s law, which shows a linear relation
between a solution’s light absorbance and its concentration.
 Researchers can measure the absorbance of a solution using a laboratory instrument called
a spectrophotometer. This process as a whole is called spectrophotometry.
8.5.4. EXCITATION AND DEEXCITATION

Moving of electrons from lower energy level to higher energy level is called excitation and moving
of electrons from higher energy orbit to lower energy is called de-excitation.
8.5.5. MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS

Electrons move from orbit to orbit.one electron moves in clockwise direction and the other in
anticlockwise direction. If an electron is on x axis, it can transfer to any other x axis orbit but not
in y axis or z axis. Some energy transitions are favorable but some are forbidden. Like electrons
cannot move from σ to π or π*.electrons from 2s,3s can move on any 3s,3ps orbit but they cannot
enter in 3py.
8.5.6. WAVELENGTH AND ENERGY LEVELS

Each element has its own energy level. specific wavelength means a specific energy level and it is
different for each element.
E=hc/λ

E∞1/λ
λmax. is particular wavelength which produces maximum number of transitions.
 For 1st transition, it provides 13.6eV.
 For second, it provides 15.1eV.
 For third, it produces 20.6 Ev.
The maximum energy which can produce maximum wavelength is called λmax.
8.5.7. TYPES OF LIGHT

Depending upon the wavelength light is divided into:
 Visible(400-800nm)
 Ultraviolet(200-400nm)
 Infrared (800-1100nm)
8.5.8. ENERGY LEVEL OF COMPOUNDS

The energy level depends upon number of protons so every compound has its own energy.
8.5.9. QUARTZ CELL

Quartz cell is made up of quartz which is a purest form of silica and is in molten form.it has 4
walls in which 2 are opaque and two are transparent sides. Transparent sides must be in line with
source and detector. The side on which S is written is placed on source side. Always handle it from
opaque side.
8.6. PROCEDURE
Weight to Be Taken Copper Sulfate:
CuSO4.5H2O : Cu+2
249.5:63.5

X:100
X=392.9mg/1L
X=39.3mg/100ml
 For copper ammonia complex,10g of CuSO4 and 10ml of ammonia buffer solution and
dilute it up to 100ml.take 39.3mg of copper sulfate in a 100ml flask and add 20ml of
ammonia buffer solution. The light blue of CuSO4 changes to dark blue color.
 Now, take 6 volumetric flasks of 100ml volume and label hem as 10,20,30 ,40 and blank
and sample.
 Using this solution prepare 10,20,30 and 40ppm solutions of Cu2+ in 100ml solution. For
this, take 10 of sample in 100ml of water it gives 10ppm solution. Same procedure is done
for 20,30 and 40 ppm solutions.
 C1V1=C2V2
 10*v1=10*100
 V1=10ml
 Same is done for 20,30 and 40 ppm solutions
 For sample flask add 20ml of sample solution and 20ml of ammonia buffer solution in it
and dilute it up to 100ml by distilled water.in blank ,add 20ml of ammonia buffer ,also
dilute it up to 100ml using distilled water. for calibration solutions, add respective volume
of stoke solution in each of volumetric flasks and then dilute all these flasks up to 100ml
using distilled water.
 After preparing these solution, take a quartz cell.3-5 ml sample can be added in it.then
thickness of external volume is 5 and internal is 3.
 Continue adding adding sample unless it is full. Then place cap there should be no air
bubble between liquid air bubble. Then clean the transparent sides with the help of filter
paper. there must be no dust particles no finger prints on it. Now place quartz cell inside
cell holder in such a way that transparent side must be in line with sources detector.
 Transmittance is always in percentage. it measures that how much light passes through
cell.
T=E/Eo

A =EO-E
 Usually λmax is related to absorbance.

 If a solution is colored, it means it is invisible.
 Instead of reflection when 100%, absorbance takes place ,black appearance will occur.
 Set λ as 400nm ,note absorbance from screens then set with difference of 50 nm like
450,500 up to 800and note corresponding absorbance.
 Draw graph between absorbance and λ.
 Then again find absorbance from its peak. find range from which draw graph, its peak is
λmax.Keeping that λmax constant ,determine absorbance of all 6 solutions. Draw
calibration curve which is a best fitted straight line.
 Find concentration of sample from graph.
8.7. VIVA QUESTIONS

 Define the basic principle of UV/Visible Spectrophotometer?
 Why quartz cell is preferred over glass cell?
 What is intermediate solution and why it is preferred?
 What is the concentration in terms of ppm, if 6 g of copper sulphate?

9. DETERMINATION OF SOLIDS
9.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the total solids, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids & total settle-able solids
in given water sample.
9.2. APPARATUS
 China dish
 Drying oven
 Desiccators
 Weighing balance
 Imhoff cone
9.3. RELATED THEORY

9.3.1. TOTAL SOLIDS (TS)
The usual definition of solids (referred to as "total solids") is the matter that remains as residue
upon evaporation at 101+2 or 101-2°C. Total Solids (TS) are the total of all solids in a water
sample. They include the total suspended solids and total dissolved solids.
Classification of Solids:

9.3.2. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is the amount of filterable solids in a water sample. Samples are
filtered through a fiber filter. The filters are dried and weighed to determine the amount of total
suspended solids in mg/l of sample. Suspended solids include silt and clay particles, plankton,
algae, fine organic debris, and other particulate matter.
9.3.3. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are those solids that pass through a filter. They are said to be non-
filterable. After filtration the filtrate (liquid) is dried and the remaining residue is weighed and
calculated as mg/l of Total Dissolved Solids. Dissolved solids consist of calcium, chlorides, nitrate,
phosphorus, iron, sulfur, and other ions particles
9.3.4. SETTLE ABLE SOLIDS

“Settle able solids” is the term applied to the material settling out of suspension within defined
period.”
9.3.5. FIXED AND VOLATILE SOLIDS

“Fixed solids” is the term applied to the residue of total, suspended or dissolved solids after ignition
for a specified time at a specified temperature; and “Volatile solids” is the term used for the weight
lost on IGNITION OF ABOVE SAMPLE
9.3.6. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

9.3.7. FOR PLANTS
Total solids also affect water clarity. Higher solids decrease the passage of light through water,
thereby slowing photosynthesis by aquatic plants. Water will heat up more rapidly and hold more
heat and lead to an increase in water temperature. Many aquatic organisms cannot survive in high
temperatures.
9.3.8. FOR CORROSION

High TDS can result in corrosion of metal equipment and accessories. The concentration of the
dissolved ions may cause the water to be corrosive and salty or brackish taste. TDS above 500
mg/L result in excessive scaling in water pipes, water heaters, boilers and household appliances.

9.3.9. FOR HUMANS

High TDS can cause eye and skin irritation, even though the pH is right and there are no
chloramines in the water. The salts act to dehydrate the skin of animals.
9.3.10.FOR IRRIGATION
Salt in the soil may harm crops. Certain salt constituents alone can prove toxic to some plant
varieties. Also, high salt concentrations in the soil around plant roots may cause plant
dehydration. In some cases, rather than destroying a crop, elevated salt levels may
simply reduce crop yields and leave the plants prone to disease.
9.4. PROCEDURE
 For total solids:
1. Take a pre-weighted china dish
Weight of china dish=W1
2. Take well shaken 100ml sample in that china dish and place the china dish on steam bath
3. Keep on heating till all the solvent in china dish evaporated
4. Now place the china dish in oven and temperature is 101+2 or 101-2 till complete dryness
is achieve
5. Transfer the china dish in desiccators (silica gel is present which absorb the moisture and
also used for cooling)
6. After that weight the china dish again
China dish+ residue=W2
mg ((w2 − w1) ∗ 1000 ∗ 1000)
TS ( )=
L volumeof sample im ml
 For TSS:
1. First step is vacuum filtration
2. Take a pre-weighted filter fiber paper
Wt of fiber filter paper=W1
3. Perform vacuum filtration by taking 100ml well shaken sample
4. Transfer filter paper in oven till complete dryness and place it in desicator for cooling
5. After that weight, again

Wt of filter paper + residue=W2
mg 1000 ∗ 1000
TSS( ) = (W2 − W1) ∗
L Sample volume in ml
 For TDS:
1. Transfer the filtrate in the pre weighted china dish
Wt of china dish=W3
2. place the china dish on steam bath

3. Keep on heating till all the solvent in china dish evaporated
4. Now place the china dish in oven and temperature is 101+2 or 101-2 till complete dryness
is achieve
5. Transfer the china dish in desiccators (silica gel is present which absorb the moisture and
also used for cooling)
China dish+ residue=W4
mg 1000 ∗ 1000
TDS( ) = (W4 − W3) ∗
L Sample volume in ml
 Total Settle-able Solids:

1. Take a well shake sample in imhoff cone and wait for 2-3 hours. All the particle having
settling velocity greater than water will be settle down
2. Note the volume in ml of the settled solids
1ml=1g
3. Wt of settle able solids=W
T.Se.S (mg/L) = W*1000/volume of sample

 Total Volatile Solids:

1. Take a pre-weighted china dish
i. Weight of china dish=W1 (g)
2. Take well shaken 100ml sample in that china dish and transfer china dish in furnace at
550ºC for 1-2 hours.
3. After 1-2hours all organic compound is removed and now cool china dish in desiccators.
a. China dish+ residue (NVS) =W2 (g)
mg 1000∗1000
5. TNVS ( ) = (W2 − W1) ∗ Sample volume in ml
L
6. TS – TNVS = total Volatile solids (TVS)

 Sludge Volume Index:
(Settle able solids/suspended solids)*1000= S.V.I
% Non settle able solids = ((T.S.S-T.Se.S)/T.S.S)*100

 Total Solids:
W1 = (Initial wt. of China Dish)
W2= (Final wt. of China Dish after evaporation, Drying and Cooling)
Total Solids = (W2 – W1)x106/ml of sample
 Total Suspended Solids:

W1= (Weight of Filter Paper)
W2 = (Weight of Filter Paper after drying)
Total Suspended Solids = (W2 – W1)x106/ml of sample

 Total Dissolved Solids:

W3= (Initial wt. of China Dish)
W4 = (Final wt. of China Dish after evaporation, Drying and Cooling)
Total Dissolved Solids = (W4– W3)x106/ml of sample
 Total Settle-able Solids:

volume Settle able Solids from Imhoff Cone
Wt Settle able Solids from Imhoff Cone
Total Settle able. Solids= W*1000/volume of sample
Sludge Volume Index:
(Settle able solids/suspended solids) *1000 = S.V.I
9.6. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) What are dissolved solids?
(ii) Differentiate between volatile solids and non-volatile solids?
(iii) What is the acceptable TDS level of drinking water?
(iv) What is sludge volume index?
(v) What are volatile solids?

10. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL COLIFORM AND FECAL

COLIFORM IN DRINKING WATER
10.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the total coliform and fecal coliform in drinking water.
10.2. APPARATUS
 Incubator
 Test Tube
 Autoclave
 Incubator
 Sample bottles
 Fermentation tubes with inverted vials
 Dilution bottles
 Pipettes and pipette stand
10.3. CHEMICALS
 LB Broth
 BGBB Broth
 EC Broth
10.4. RELATED THEORY

Total coliform bacteria are a collection of relatively harmless microorganisms that live in large
numbers in the intestines of man and warm- and cold-blooded animals. They aid in the digestion
of food. A specific subgroup of this collection is the fecal coliform bacteria, the most common
member being Escherichia coli. These organisms may be separated from the total coliform group
by their ability to grow at elevated temperatures and are associated only with the fecal material of
warm-blooded animals.
10.4.1.ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT
The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environments indicates that the water has been
contaminated with the fecal material of man or other animals. At the time this occurred, the source
water may have been contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses which
can also exist in fecal material. Some waterborne pathogenic diseases include typhoid fever, viral

and bacterial gastroenteritis and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal contamination is an indicator
that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water. Fecal coliform bacteria may
occur in ambient water as a result of the overflow of domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of
human and animal waste.
10.4.2.GUIDELINE
 The maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) of total coliforms in water leaving a

treatment plant in a public system and throughout semi-public and private supply systems
is none detectable per 100 mL.
 For distribution systems in public supplies where fewer than 10 samples are collected in a
given sampling period, no sample should contain total coliform bacteria. In distribution
systems where greater than 10 samples are collected in a given sampling period, no
consecutive samples from the same site or not more than 10% of samples should show the
presence of total coliform bacteria.
 Testing for total coliforms should be carried out in all drinking water systems. The number,
frequency, and location of samples for total coliform testing will vary according to the type
and size of the system and jurisdictional requirements.
10.4.3.HEALTH EFFECTS
The health effects of exposure to disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in drinking water
are varied. The most common manifestation of waterborne illness is gastrointestinal upset (nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhoea), and this is usually of short duration. However, in susceptible individuals
such as infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals, the effects may be more severe,
chronic (e.g., kidney damage) or even fatal. Bacteria (e.g., Shigella and Campylobacter), viruses
(e.g., norovirus and hepatitis A virus), and protozoa (e.g., Giardia and Cryptosporidium) can be
responsible for severe gastrointestinal illness. Other pathogens may infect the lungs, skin, eyes,
central nervous system, or liver.
If the safety of drinking water is in question to the extent that it may be a threat to public health,
authorities in charge of the affected water supply should have a protocol in place for issuing, and
cancelling, advice to the public about boiling their water. Surveillance for possible waterborne

diseases should also be carried out. If a disease outbreak is linked to a water supply, the authorities
should have a plan to quickly and effectively contain the illness.
10.4.4.INDICATORS OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY

Information currently available supports the use of Escherichia coli as the primary indicator of
fecal pollution supported by other measurements such as heterotrophic bacteria, C.t, chlorine
residual and turbidity to verify treatment and disinfection effectiveness and assess system
cleanliness.
10.5. PROCEDURE
This method consists of two phases:
 Presumptive phase
 Confirmation phase
Before the initiation of first phase, following steps were done.
1. All the glass ware was washed and autoclaved for 15 minutes. The conditions in autoclave
were 121oC temperature and 15 psi pressure.
2. Three different Broths were prepared in three different conical flasks and were immediately
covered with cotton after adding the ingredients.
Flask 1 Flask 2 Flask 3
Lactose Broth BGBB EC Broth
3. Prepared the samples.

4. All the prepared solutions were again autoclaved for 15 minutes to ensure that all of them are
free of micro-organisms.
5. After being autoclaved all the conical flasks were allowed to cool down at room temperature.
6. Using ringer tablet solution 3 different dilutions of sample were made.
Dilution A 1 100 ml of sample
Dilution B 1/10 10 ml from solution A + 90 ml of distilled water
Dilution C 1/100 10 ml from solution B + 90 ml of distilled water

10.5.1.PRESUMPTIVE PHASE
1. 15 tested tubes were arranged in three sets, each set have 5 test tubes.
Set A Set B Set C
5 test tubes 5 test tubes 5 test tubes
2. Each of the test tubes were filled with 10ml of Lactose Broth with the help of pipette.
3. Inverted vials were filled with Lactose Broth with the help of syringe and were slide inside the
test tubes in such a way that no air bubble appears in it.
4. These filled test tubes were again autoclaved.
5. Then 10 ml sample prepared as dilution A was added in the test tubes of set A. 10 ml of sample
prepared as dilution B was added in the test tubes of set B. 10 ml of sample prepared as dilution
C was added in the test tubes of set C.
6. Then each set was placed in incubator for 1 day.
7. After one day, each of the test tubes of each set was examined that whether there is production
of gas takes place or note. The presence of gas bubble indicates the presence of micro-
organisms.
8. All the positive tubes (having gas bubbles in the inverted vials) were separated.
10.5.2.CONFIRMATION PHASE
1. In this phase the rest of the 30 test tubes were arranged in 3 sets. Each set have 10 test tubes, 5
for the confirmation of total coliform and 5 for the confirmation of fecal coliform.
2.
Set A Set B Set C
Total Fecal Total Fecal Total Fecal

coliform Coliform coliform Coliform coliform Coliform
5 test tubes 5 test tubes 5 test tubes 5 test tubes 5 test tubes 5 test tubes

3. The test tubes for the confirmation of total coliform were filled with 10 ml of BGBB broth
with the help of pipette and an inverted vial filled with BGBB broth with the help of syringe
was slide in each test tube.
4. The test tubes for the confirmation of fecal coliform were filled with 10 ml of EC broth with
the help of pipette and an inverted vial filled with EC broth with the help of syringe was slide
in each test tube.
5. All these test tubes were again autoclaved.
6. Then test tubes of set A of the confirmatory phase were inoculated with the positive tubes of
the set A from the presumptive phase with the help of inoculator.
7. The test tubes for the confirmation of total coliform after inoculation were placed in water and
the test tubes for the confirmation of fecal coliform were placed in incubator.
8. After 2 days, each of the test tubes was examined that whether there is a gas bubble in inverted
vial or not.
9. Then most probable number of total coliform and fecal coliform was calculated using the
following formula:
𝑀𝑃𝑁 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 ∗ 100
=
100 𝑚𝑙 √𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 ∗ 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
10.6. VIVA QUESTIONS

(i) What are the indicator organisms?
(ii) What are the health effects of coliform bacteria?
(iii) What is E-coli bacteria?

11. DETERMINATION OF PH CURVES

11.1. OBJECTIVE
Determination of equivalence point during acid base titration of H2SO4 and NaOH.
11.2. APPARATUS
 pH meter
 Beakers
 Chemicals
 Burette
 pipette.
11.3. CHEMICALS
 H2SO4
 NaOH

When one metal is brought in contact with another, a voltage difference occurs due to their
differences in electron mobility which is measurement of the pH.
11.4.1.SIGNIFICANCE OF PH IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

11.4.2.PROTECTION OF LIFE OF FRESHWATER
A pH range of 6.0 to 9.0 appears to provide protection for the life of freshwater fish and bottom
dwelling invertebrates.
11.4.3.PROBLEMS AND IMPACTS OF ACIDIC WATER
Water with a pH that is less than 6.5 can leach metal ions, including iron, manganese, copper, lead
and zinc from plumbing fixtures and pipes. This, in return, can be quite dangerous.
11.4.4.IN DRINKING WATER

 When water has a low pH, it is often referred to as "soft water." Soft water is more
acidic.
 When water has high levels of pH, it is considered to be "hard water”. And it is
associated with scaling.

 Major portion of earth’s water is not drinkable due to pH.
11.4.5.IN WASTEWATER
 On the other end of the pH scale, water that has a pH greater than 8.0 can be difficult
to disinfect. The World Health Organization recommends that the pH of the water
be less than 8.0, because basic water does not allow for effective chlorination.
11.4.6.PH RELATING TO HEALTH

 The more acidic the blood, the more compromised the body becomes. If pH slips too
far to the acidic side a condition referred to as acidosis; cells can develop a toxic
overload and become debilitated.
 Our bodies function optimally when the blood pH is in a very narrow range of 7.35 to
7.45.
 Bones, are especially susceptible to drops in pH level because they are rich in calcium.
In an acidic environment, bone tissue dissolves. This process destroys the bones.
 As the body becomes even more acidic, immunity and energy levels also suffer.
11.4.7.PH CURVES
Titrations are often recorded on graphs called titration curves or pH curve, which generally
contain the volume of the titrant as the independent variable and the pH of the solution as the
dependent variable .The equivalence point on the graph is where all of the starting solution (usually
an acid) has been neutralized by the titrant (usually a base).The equivalence point and end point
of a titration. When a simple acid-base titration is carried out with a use of an indicator to check
out whether the acid and alkali mixed in exactly the right proportions to "neutralize" each other.
When the indicator changes colour, this is often described as the end point of the titration. The
term "equivalence point" means that the solutions have been mixed in exactly the right proportions
according to the equation to neutralize acid and base at pH 7. That particular mixture is known as
the equivalence point.

11.4.8.IMPORTANT PH CURVES
11.5. PROCEDURE
The procedure of the experiment consists of three parts:
 Calibration of pH meter
 Determination of pH curve
 Determination of the pH of sample
11.5.1.CALIBRATION OF PH METER
First of all, for the calibration of instrument take different buffer solutions. The process of
calibration is follow:
 Start by setting the temperature at room temperature, usually about 25 °C, by pressing the
°C key and adjusting the ‘Temperature’ knob.
 Dip the electrode in the buffer solution of known pH (pH 4.0 buffer).
 Switch on the power supply and take the reading. Standardize the instrument using the
calibrating knob.

 After cleaning, again dip the electrodes in the buffer solution of pH 7. Note the reading. If
it is 7, the instrument is calibrated. If not, correct the value and is manipulated so that the
reading in the dial comes to 7.0.
 The reading on the dial indicates the pH of the solution
11.5.2.DETERMINATION OF PH CURVE
 Take 10ml of H2SO4 (0.1N) in beaker and titrate it against NaOH (0.1N).
 Take 50.00-mL burette and fill it with the 0.10 N NaOH which is prepared by dissolving
0.4 grams of NaOH per 100ml of distilled water. Make sure the base solution meniscus lies
exactly on the 0.0-mL mark on the burette.
 Place the burette in a clamp above the solution.
 Take 10ml of 0.1 N H2SO4 (take 10 ml of 1N HCl in 100ml flask and dilute it up to 100ml)
in beaker and check the pH of this solution i.e. the pH at 0ml addition of base.
 Add 1ml base (NaOH) in acid and measure the pH of acidic sample after complete mixing
by introducing the probe in the sample.
 The addition of NaOH is done until the pH of sample become constant (no considerable
change in pH by the addition of NaOH).
 Now draw a graph between the ml of NaOH and pH than locate the equivalence point. And
repeat the experiment again by changing the arrangement.

Volume of sol.(ml) PH of H2SO4 PH of NaOH

(i) What is ph of wastewater?
(ii) Define the equivalence point?
(iii) What are titration curves?
(iv) What is neutralization point?

12. ESTIMATION OF SULFATES IN DRINKING WATER

12.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the sulfate content of the given water sample
12.2. APPARATUS
 Conical Flasks
 Turbidity meter
 Beaker
 Sample tube
 Spatula
 Wash bottle
 Tissue paper
12.3. CHEMICALS USED

 Hydrated copper sulfate
 Barium chloride
 Distilled water

12.4.1.PRINCIPLE
The turbidimetric method of determining sulfates is based upon the fact that barium sulfates tend
to precipitate in a colloidal form of uniform size.
SO42- + BaCl2 → BaSO4
 Sulfate is one of the major dissolved components of rain.
 Sulfate is one of the 50 chemical and 10 microbiological contaminants/contaminant
groups included on the Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List published on
March 2, 1998.
 Sulfate is the second most abundant anion in seawater. Its high concentration owes to
the high to moderate solubility of the salts that it forms with the major cations in
seawater, namely, Na, Mg2+and Ca+2.

 High concentrations of sulfate in the water we drink can have a laxative effect when
combined with calcium and magnesium, the two most common constituents of
hardness.
 Bacteria, which attack and reduce sulfates, form hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S)
 Sulfates are widely distributed in nature and may be present in natural waters in
concentration ranging from few hundred to several thousand mg/L.
 Sulfates occur naturally in numerous minerals. These dissolved minerals contribute to
the mineral content of drinking waters.
12.4.2.ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
 Sulfates are of considerable concern because they are indirectly responsible for two serious
problems often associated with the handling and treatment of wastewater. They cause odor
and sewer corrosion problem results from the reduction of sulfates to hydrogen sulfide
under anaerobic conditions.
 The amount of Sulfates in wastewater is a factor of concern in determining the magnitude
of problems that can arise from reduction of Sulfates to hydrogen sulfide. For example,
knowledge of the sulfates content of the sludge or waste fed to digestion units provides a
means of estimating the hydrogen sulfide content of the gas produced.
From this information, the design engineer can determine whether scrubbing facilities will
be needed to remove hydrogen sulfide and size of the units required.
12.4.3.SULFATE IN WATER SUPPLIES

Some soils and rocks contain sulfate minerals. As groundwater moves through these, some of the
sulfate is dissolved into the water. Some minerals that contain sulfate are sodium sulfate (Glauber's
salt), magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), and calcium sulfate (gypsum).
12.4.4.HEALTH RISKS FOR HUMANS
People not used to drink water with high levels of sulfate can experience dehydration and diarrhea.
Kids are often more sensitive to sulfate than adults. As a safety measure, water with a sulfate level
exceeding 400 mg/l should not be used in the preparation of baby food. Older children and adults
become used to high sulfate levels after a few days.

12.4.5.OTHER PROBLEMS CAUSED BY SULFATE

 Sulfate gives a bitter or medicinal taste to water if it exceeds a concentration of 250 mg/l.
This may make it unpleasant to drink the water. In fact, it has been compared to the way
dissolved gypsum might taste in water. If the water smells like rotten eggs, it has a
hydrogen sulfide problem.
 High sulfate levels may also be corrosive for plumbing, particularly copper piping. In areas
with high sulfate levels, it is common to use corrosion resistant plumbing materials, such
as plastic pipe.
 EPA estimates that about 3% of the public drinking water systems in the country may have
sulfate levels of 250 mg/L or greater.
12.4.6.TURBIDITY
Turbidity is due to insoluble particles in the sample. So, we must change soluble sulfates into
insoluble sulfates to measure turbidity.
12.4.7.WHO GUIDELINE
It is recommended that, for water to be disinfected, the turbidity should be consistently less than 5
NTU and ideally have a median value of less than 1NTU.
12.4.8.TURBIDITY METER
Turbidity meter is an instrument used to measure the turbidity. Turbidity meter measures the light
that scattered when stroke the solution. More there are number of insoluble particles, more will be
the light scattered. In turbidity meter, there is photoelectric effect.
12.5. PROCEDURE
1. Stock solution of was prepared in the calibration flask.
Prepare 100 ppm solution of SO4 -2 in 100 ml.
CuSO4 .5H2O : SO4 -2
249.5 : 96
X : 100

259.8 mg of CuSO4 .5H2O ------------1000 ml-------100 mg SO4 -2
Dividing by 10
25.9 mg of CuSO4 .5H2O ------------100 ml-------10 mg SO4 -2
Dissolving 25.9 mg of CuSO4 .5H2O will give 100 ppm solution of SO4 -2.
Approximately 26 mg of CuSO4 .5H2O were taken which gives 100.3 ppm solution.
25.9 mg of CuSO4 .5H2O ------------10 mg SO4 -2
26 mg of CuSO4 .5H2O ------------10 .3 mg SO4 -2
10 .3 mg SO4 -2 ---------100 ml
100.3 mg SO4 -2 ---------1000ml
This gives 100.3 ppm solution (stock solution)
2. Then 2 % BaCl2 was prepared by dissolving 2 g of barium chloride in 100 ml water.

SO42- + BaCl2 → BaSO4
3. Then calibration solutions were made of 0, 10 20, 30, 40 ppm.
Concentration Volume from BaCl2 Distilled Total volume

ppm stock solution water ml
ml Ml
C1 V1 = C2 V2

4. Now solutions are ready for calibration curve. For calibration curve, we’ll take the units as
mg/L
5. Now determine the turbidities of all. Completely fill quartz cell with the calibration sample.
6. Using the values, draw standard graph.
7. Using the equation from the graph, calculate the concentration of sulfate.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before adding the solution in quartz cell, solution must be well shaken.
2. Use calibration solutions in increasing order
3. Every solution will give you readings in terms of NTU (nephlometric turbidity unit).
4. Turbidity for drinking water must be 0-5 NTU.

Concentration Turbidity
in ppm NTU

(i) What is environmental significance of sulfate?
(ii) What is the permissible limit of sulfate in drinking water?
(iii) What is the principle method for determining the sulfate?

13. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL NITROGEN IN WASTEWATER

USING KJELDAHL METHOD
13.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the nitrogen present in the given sample of wastewater
13.2. APPARATUS
 Digestion flask
 Glass beads
 Hot plate
 Titration flask
13.3. REAGENTS
 Wastewater sample
 Distilled water
 Digestion reagent
 Alkali thiosulfate
 Phenolphthalein
 Indicating Boric Acid Solution
 Ammonium borate
13.4. PRINCIPLE
In the presence of H2SO4, K2SO4 and CuSO4, ammonia nitrogen of many organic materials is
converted to ammonium sulfate. Free ammonia and ammonia nitrogen also converted to
ammonium sulfate. During sample digestion, a cupric ammonia complex is formed. Which is then
removed by using sodium thiosulphate. Then ammonia is combine with boric acid to produce
ammonium borate that is titrated against sulphuric acid.

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen is the sum of organic nitrogen, ammonia (NH3), and ammonium (NH4+)
in the chemical analysis of soil, water, or wastewater (e.g. sewage treatment plant effluent).The
original total kajeldahl’s nitrogen estimation method was developed by the danish chemist johan
kjeldahl in 1883.

The Kjeldahl method was developed over 100 years ago, for determining the nitrogen contents in
organic and inorganic substances. Although the technique and apparatus have been modified over
the years, the basic principles introduced by Johan Kjeldahl still endure today.
13.5.1.BASIC STEPS INVOLVED

The Kjeldahl method may be broken down into three main steps:
1. Digestion
2. Distillation
3. Titration
13.5.2.IMPORTANCE
Advantages:
 Universality
 high precision
 good reproducibility
has made it the major method for the estimation of protein in foods.
Disadvantages:
 It does not give a measure of the true protein, since all nitrogen in foods is not in the form
of protein
 The use of concentrated sulfuric acid at high temperatures poses a considerable hazard, as
does the use of some of the possible catalysts.
 The technique is time consuming to carry-out.
13.5.3.APPLICATIONS OF KJELDAHL APPARATUS

Kjeldahl nitrogen determinations are performed on a variety of substances such as
 Meat
 Feed
 Grain
 Waste water
 Soil
 Many other samples.

Various scientific associations approve and have refined the Kjeldahl method.Today, TKN is a
required parameter for regulatory reporting at many treatment plants, and as a means of monitoring
plant operations.
13.5.4.IMPORTANCE OF NITROGEN
 Approximately 78% of the earth's atmosphere consists of nitrogen gas (N2).
 As nitrogen naturally cycles through the air, soil and water, it undergoes various
chemical and biological transformations.
 These reactions result in the formation of nitrogen-based compounds and molecules,
which are essential for the growth of plants, animals and humans.
 Agricultural production is dependent, in part, on the cycling of nitrogen within the rural
environment.
13.5.5.HEALTH EFFECTS OF NITROGEN
Nitrates and nitrites are known to cause several health effects. These are the
most common effects:
 Reactions with hemoglobin in blood, causing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood
to decrease (nitrite)
 Decreased functioning of the thyroid gland (nitrate)
 Vitamin A shortages (nitrate)
 Fashioning of nitro amines, which are known as one of the most common causes of
cancer (nitrates and nitrites)

13.5.6.PROCEDURE EQUATIONS
Degradation: Sample + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(g)
Liberation of ammonia: (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Capture of ammonia: B(OH)3 + H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + B(OH)4–
13.6. PROCEDURE
13.6.1.DIGESTION
Take 140 ml of wastewater sample, 140 ml of distilled water and 20 ml of digestion reagent in a
digestion flask.
Digestion reagent:
H2SO4 (conc.) 6N : CuSO4
9 : 1
 Also put 6-8 glass beads in the digestion flask in order to minimize air pressure in the
digestion flask.

 Then place the digestion flask on hot plate for reaction and nitrogen will start converting
into ammonium sulfate and volume starts increasing by evaporation.
 Don’t let the flask dry. Take the flask and shake it. Hitting with the walls, solution
evaporated completely. We dry the flask. Now in the digestion flask, there is white solid
mass with bluish shade.
 Bluish shade is due to the copper ammonia complex and white color is due to (NH4)2SO4.
Now add 100 ml of distilled water in the digestion flask and try to dissolve white mass in
it.
 Then add 20 ml of alkali thiosulfate solution.
 NaOH from alkali thiosulfate will react with H2SO4 and Na2SO4 from alkali thiosulfate
will absorb or react with the complex.
 Now add 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein. If pink color appears, it means that neutralization
has occurred.
 If pink color doesn’t appear, then add 20 ml of sodium thiosulfate (total volume = 120
ml). Dilute it up to 300 ml (by diluting it with 180 ml of distilled water).
13.6.2.DISTILLATION
 Now take a titration flask and add 50 ml of indicating boric acid solution (indicating boric
acid means that indicator is already present in it). Methylene boric acid is added in it. As
solution of boric acid is white, when we add indicating boric acid, it becomes violet in
color. Place that titration flask at the receiving end of distillation apparatus.
 It has two ends. At one end, we have to place sample at hot plate end and at the second
end we have indicating boric acid solution. Start distillation (switch on the hot plate).
 On heating, ammonia leaves the solution and enters the condenser. Ammonia will be
converted into liquid and will be extracted at receiving end.
 That ammonia will react with boric acid. Ammonium boric acid will be produced. This is
indicated by the change in color from violet to green.
 Keep on distillation till volume in titration flask is equal to 250 ml. After that stop
distillation. Now the solution is ready for the titration.

13.6.3.TITRATION
 In case of titration, we have to titrate it against 0.02 N H2SO4. Add H2SO4 drop wise in
titration flask till green color changes to violet again. This is the end point. Note down the
volume as “A”.
 Now starting from digestion, distillation and titration, adopt the same procedure for a
blank solution. In case of blank solution, 280 ml of distilled water +20 ml of diction
reagent is used. All the other steps are same.
 In blank solution, 1-2 drops of H2SO4 will bring the end point.
 Our sample contains the nitrogen added by us and the atmospheric nitrogen, whereas the
blank solution only contains the atmospheric nitrogen.
 Label the volume as B.
 The nitrogen will be calculated by the formula:
Nmg/L = {(A- B)xNx equivalent weight x 100} / mL of sample

(i) What are the basic steps involved in nitrogen estimations?
(ii) What are the digestion reagent in Kjeldahl method?
(iii) What is environmental significance of Nitrogen?

14. ESTIMATION OF SODIUM AND POTASSIUM BY

CONDUCTIVITY METER
14.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the concentration of sodium and potassium in the unknown sample.
14.2. APPARATUS
 Electrical conductivity meter
 Two 250 ml calibration flasks
 Twelve 50 ml calibration flasks
 Pipette
 Balance
14.3. CHEMICALS
 Sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Potassium chloride (KCl)

14.4.1.ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF SODIUM
Sodium's powdered form is highly explosive in water and a poison combined and uncombined
with many other elements. Environmental fate: this chemical is not mobile in solid form, although
it absorbs moisture very easily. Once liquid, sodium hydroxide leaches rapidly into the soil,
possibly contaminating water sources.
14.4.2.HEALTH EFFECTS OF SODIUM

Positive effects:
Sodium is a mineral element and an important part of the human body.
 It controls the volume of fluid in the body and helps maintain the acid-base level.
 About 40% of the body's sodium is contained in bone, some is found within organs and
cells and the remaining 55% is in blood plasma and other fluids outside cells.
 Sodium is important in proper nerve conduction, the passage of various nutrients into cells,
and the maintenance of blood pressure.

Negative effects:
 Too much sodium can damage our kidneys and leads to successive precipitation, due
to the formation of the sodium hydroxide fumes which are highly irritating to the skin,
eyes, nose and throat,
 Contact to skin causes itching, tingling, thermal burns and permanent damage.
 It may lead to loss of eye sight.
 Very severe exposures may result in difficult breathing, coughing and chemical
bronchitis.
14.4.3.OTHER APPLICATION OF SODIUM

 Sodium in its metallic form is very important in making esters and in the manufacture of
organic compounds.
 Sodium is also a component of sodium chloride (NaCl) a very important compound found
everywhere in the living environment.
 To improve the structure of certain alloys.
Solid sodium carbonate is needed to make glass.
Guide line:
sodium may affect the taste of drinking-water at levels above about 200 mg/litre as NaCl.
14.4.4.ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM

 Potassium permanganate may be used in the drinking-water treatment process.
 The consequences of low potassium levels are apparent in a variety of symptoms:
restricted growth, reduced flowering, lower yields and lower quality produce.
 High water soluble levels of potassium cause damage to germinating seedlings, inhibits
the uptake of other minerals and reduces the quality of the crop.
14.4.5.HEALTH EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM

Positive effects:

 Potassium is an essential element and is present in all animal and plant tissues. The
primary source of potassium for the general population is the diet, as potassium is found
in all foods, particularly vegetables and fruits.
 Potassium and sodium maintain the normal osmotic pressure in cells.
Negative effects:
High dose of potassium can cause
 chest tightness
 Nausea
 Vomiting,
 Diarrhoea,
 Shortness of breath
 Heart failure
 Excessive loss of potassium can cause hyperkalaemia
14.4.6.ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY METER

An electrical conductivity meter (EC meter) measures the electrical conductivity in a solution.
Commonly used in aquaculture and freshwater systems to monitor the amount of nutrients, salts
or impurities in the water.
14.4.7.PRINCIPLE
The common laboratory conductivity meters employ a potentiometric method and four electrodes.
Often, the electrodes are cylindrical and arranged concentrically. The electrodes are usually made
of platinum metal. An alternating current is applied to the outer pair of the electrodes. The potential
between the inner pair is measured.
14.4.8.TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
The conductivity of a solution is highly temperature dependent, therefore it is important to either
use a temperature compensated instrument, or calibrate the instrument at the same temperature as
the solution being measured.

14.5. PROCEDURE
FOR NaCl:
 500 ppm solution of Na+1 was prepared in 250 ml (This is stock solution).
NaCl : Na+
58.5 : 23
X : 500
1271.73913 mg/L
1271.73913 mg of NaCl-------1000 ml----- 500 mg of Na+

1.2 g of NaCl------------------1000 ml------------0.5 g of Na+
0.3g of NaCl---------------250 ml ---------------0.125 g of Na+
0.3 grams on NaCl was taken in the flask and then distilled water was added to make it
250ml.
The concentration of the solution is 500 ppm.

 Then calibration solutions of 0 ppm, 10 ppm, 20 ppm, 30 ppm, 40 ppm were prepared in
50 ml calibration flask.
Concentration Volume from Distilled water in ml Total volume

in ppm intermediate solution ml
C1V1 = C2V2
Ml

 Then each calibration solution was put into the beaker and the conductivity of each was
recorded.
FOR KCl:
 500 ppm solution of K+1 was prepared in 250ml.
KCl : K+
74.5 : 39
X : 500
955.12 mg/L
955.12 mg of NaCl-------1000 ml----- 500 mg of Na+

0.95 g of NaCl------------------1000 ml------------0.5 g of Na+
0.238 g of NaCl---------------250 ml ---------------0.125 g of Na+
Then approximately 0.24 gram of KCl was taken in the flask and then distilled water was
added to make it up to 250 ml.
Dissolving 0.24 gram of KCl results in 504 ppm solution of solution.

 Then calibration solutions of 0 ppm, 10 ppm, 20 ppm, 30 ppm, 40 ppm were prepared in
50 ml calibration flask.
Concentration in Volume from Distilled water in Total volume
ppm intermediate solution ml ml
C1V1 = C2V2
Ml

 Conductivity meter was calibrated and was set to measure conductivity in Siemens.
 Then each calibration solution was put into the beaker and the conductivity of each was
recorded.

(i) What are the environmental effects of sodium?
(ii) What are the environmental effects of potassium?
(iii) What is the principles of conductivity meter?

15. ESTIMATION OF TURBIDITY OF DRINKING WATER

15.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the turbidity in given water sample

The clearer the water, the more sunlight can penetrate the surface, and the deeper you can see. If
the water is cloudy because of solid particles floating in it, less light can pass through it, and an
object submerged beneath the surface will soon be invisible from the boat. Turbidity is a measure
of this cloudiness.
There are three major types of particles that contribute to turbidity. The first is algae, which grows
in all kinds of lakes and streams. Second, dead organic matter (from algae, plants, bacteria, fungi,
etc.) also gets washed into lakes, streams and oceans and adds more particles to the water. Third,
silt and sediment from shoreline erosion and from disturbance of the riverbed or lakebed also
becomes suspended in the water, making it cloudy.
So, Turbidity of water is due to suspended solids such as clay, plankton, silt, finely divided organic
matter, microscopic organisms and similar materials. These solids will deflect (or scatter) light as
it passes through the sample. Turbidity is a measurement of the scattered light as compared to the
amount of light scattered by a standard. The more light that is deflected the higher the turbidity of
the sample.
15.2.1.MEASUREMENT OF TURBIDITY
The measuring device used in today’s laboratories is called a nephelometric meter. This type of
meter does not measure all of the deflected light, only that which is deflected at a right angle (90°)
from the sample and light source. Turbidity is read as nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).
REAGENTS
1. Turbid free water - if the turbidity of the laboratory grade water is 0.05 NTU or higher,
pass the water through a membrane filter having precision-sized holes of 0.2 m m. Rinse
collecting flask twice with filtered water. Discard the next 200 mL of filtered water, then
start collecting filtered water to prepare standards. Commercially prepared water can be
substituted when its turbidity is lower than what is available in the laboratory.

2. Stock Turbidity Suspension Solution – Stock Turbidity Suspension Solution 1 - Weigh

1.00 gram of hydrazine sulfate, (NH2)2·H2SO4. Dissolve the 1.00 gram of hydrazine sulfate
in a 100 mL volumetric flask. Use turbid free water to fill to the 100mL line on the
volumetric flask Prepare stock solution monthly. Caution: hydrazine sulfate is a known
carcinogen: avoid inhalation, ingestion and contact with skin.
3. Stock turbidity Suspension Solution 2 - Weigh 10.00 grams hexamethylenetetramine,
C6H12N4. Dissolve the 10.00 grams of hexamethylenetetramine in a 100mL volumetric
flask. Use turbid free water to fill to the 100-mL mark on the volumetric flask. Prepare
stock solution monthly.
The turbidity test should be determined on the day the sample is taken. If this is not possible,
refrigerate the sample at 4° C for up to 24 hours. Remember to vigorously shake all samples before
examination.
15.3. PROCEDURE
15.3.1.CALIBRATION
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for calibration of your particular meter. If the
instrument does not have a prepared calibration curve, make one by using various values of
turbidity standards. Plot turbidity reading versus the standard concentration to obtain curve.
Check the accuracy of the instrument against bubble-free prepared standards; make adjustments
in readings according to manufacturer’s instructions. Run a minimum of one standard for each
range used during the test, making sure that the meter gives stable readings in all sensitivity ranges
used.
15.3.2.SAMPLE ANALYSIS
 Select the scale.
 Add the standard solution in turbidimeter cell and placed it in turbidimeter.
 Calibrate the instrument.
 Thoroughly shake sample. Wait until air bubbles disappear before pouring sample into
turbidity tube. When necessary, immerse turbidity tube in an ultrasonic bath for 1 to 2
seconds to dislodge bubbles. Letting the sample stand for a period of time to allow air

bubbles to dissipate will also allow solids to settle thus changing the characteristics of the
sample being evaluated.
 Wipe outside of tube to remove fingerprints, dust dirt, and water droplets. Place tube in
turbidimeter.
 Read turbidity from instrument direct reading scale or convert from calibration curve.
15.4. OBSERVATIONS
Sample Turbidity
Source
No. (NTU)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(i) What is turbidity?
(ii) What is the measuring units of turbidity?
(iii) What are the major contributors towards the turbidity of water?
(iv) What would be the effect of turbid water on the disinfectant ability?
(v) What are the Colloidal particles?

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ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY TECHNIQUES (EnE-

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Estimation of alkalinity PLO 4

Estimation of chlorides in PLO 4

Standardization of the PLO 4

Estimation of sulfates in PLO 4

Estimation of turbidity of PLO 4

1. Estimation of hardness of drinking water ................................................................................ 1

1. ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF DRINKING WATER

1.4 RELATED THEORY

1.4.2 UNITS OF HARDNESS

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 1

1.4.3 TYPES OF HARDNESS

1.4.4 TEMPORARY HARDNESS

1.4.5 PERMANENT HARDNESS

Total Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness

1.4.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN HARD AND SOFT WATER

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 2

Hardness mg/L as Type of water

150 – 300 Hard water

1.4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 3

1. Take 25mL of sample and add 25 mL of distilled water in an Erlenmeyer flask.

2. Add 1 mL of NH3 buffer solution.

4. The solution turns magenta in color.

7. Repeat same procedure for blank (50 mL of distilled water).

1. Take 25mL of sample and add 25 mL of distilled water in an Erlenmeyer flask.

2. Add 2 mL of NaOH solution in it.

3. Add pinge of EBBR in it.

4. The solution turns magenta in color.

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 4

7. Repeat same procedure for blank (50 mL of distilled water).

1.6 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Mean Volume of EDTA (A mL)

A mL – B mL = 13.23 mL – 0.5 mL = 12.73 mL (C mL)

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 5

Mean Volume of EDTA (A mL)

1.7 VIVA QUESTIONS

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 6

2. ESTIMATION OF ALKALINITY OF DRINKING WATER

2.4 RELATED THEORY

2.4.2 UNITS OF ALKALINITY

Sources (mg/L CaCO3)

Typical surface water 20 - 200

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 7

Surface water in regions with alkaline soils 100 - 500

Seawater 100 - 500

2.4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

2.6 VIVA QUESTIONS

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 8

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 9

3. ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDES IN DRINKING WATER

3.4. RELATED THEORY

3.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF CHLORIDE

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (IEER) 10

3.5.2. CORROSION IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

3.5.3. USE IN INDUSTRY

If magenta color appears then concentration is less than 100 mg/L.

If orange color remains, then concentration is more than 100 mg/L.

2. Add mixed indicator in it.

For concentration, less than 100 mg/L: