Digital Electronics Textbook For XII Standard Bifocal Vocational Electronics

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Digital Electronics Textbook for XII Standard Bifocal Vocational Electronics
Book · October 2000
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Dattaraj Vidyasagar
Shri R.L.T. College of Science
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Fresh New Revised Textbook 2018-20
Digital Electronics
Special Textbook for XII Bifocal Electronics Students,,
Useful for Diploma & Degree in Electronics Engineering
D. S. Vidyasagar
M.S. (Elect. & Comm.), A.M.I.E. (Telecom.), Dip: Ind. Elect., A.I., Robotics, Cyber Law,
Webdev & SSL; M.A. (Russian, French), Sanskrit Alankar, Sangeet Visharad
Chairman of Board of Studies

(P.G. Diploma in Animation,
Amravati University, Amravati)
Mentor of ATAL Innovation Mission for ATL

(Expert in Faculty Training in Robotics &
Visit our websites,, exclusively Robotics Laboratory Setup)
designed for the
he students of
electronics & robotics Technical Intelligence Consultant
(Practical Electronics, Robotics, Industrial automation,
www.vsagar.org Medical Instrumentation, A.I., Cyber Law, Webdev,
www.vidyasagarsir.com Engineering & Research Projects)
Contributor to International
rnational Magazines
Electronics For You (New Delhi), Elektor (U.K.),
Wireless World (Australia), Science Today, etc.
Vidyasagar Academy, Akola

Phone: 099-60-991-991
Vidyasagar Sir’s XII std. Textbook on Digital Electronics (Paper-2), www.vsagar.org

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Digital Electronics
Textbook for XII Standard Bifocal Vocational Electronics,
Also useful for Diploma & Degree Courses in Electronics Engineering
(The Textbook also useful with the syllabi of: Indonesian Electronics Technology HSC, NSW,
Nepal Diploma in Electronics Engineering (CTEVT) and Pakistan NISTE DAE Course)
First Edition: June 2000, Revised: 2001, 2002

2002-2008 (revised every year)
Second to Fifth Edition: August 2008 – December 2018 (revised every year)
Sixth Edition: September 2018 (Fully Revised
Revised)
Published By:
Vidyasagar Academy,
Mrs. C.D. Vidyasagar
42/3A, 772, Renuka, Ranpise Nagar, Akola
99-60-06-45-64
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tudents, for further improvement of this
book, at dsvakola@gmail.com.. Visit his profile on www.vsagar.org to know more about him.
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CONTENTS
1. Number Systems .................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Binary number system ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Hexadecimal number system ................................................................................................................. 10
1.4 Concept of codes.................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Binary Arithmetic ................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6 Subtraction using 1’s complement method ........................................................................................... 15

1.7 Subtraction using 2’s complement method ........................................................................................... 16
2 Logic Gates ............................................................................................................................23

2.1 Basic Points (Important Topic) ............................................................................................................... 24
2.2 Boolean Algebra ..................................................................................................................................... 25
2.3 De Morgan’s Theorems .......................................................................................................................... 27
2.4 Basic gates .............................................................................................................................................. 28
2.5 Logic Gates at a Glance .......................................................................................................................... 35
2.6 NAND Gate as Universal Building Block ................................................................................................. 36
2.7 NOR Gate as Universal Building Block .................................................................................................... 39
2.8 Odd/Even Parity ..................................................................................................................................... 40
2.9 Basic applications of Logic Gates ........................................................................................................... 41
2.10 The 4-bit Binary Adder ........................................................................................................................... 43
3 Specifications of Digital ICs ....................................................................................................51

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 52
3.2 Classification of TTL & CMOS ................................................................................................................. 52
3.3 Characteristics of ICs .............................................................................................................................. 52
3.4 Voltage & current Parameters ............................................................................................................... 53
3.5 TTL Technology....................................................................................................................................... 54
3.6 CMOS Technology .................................................................................................................................. 56
3.7 Comparison of TTL & CMOS Families ..................................................................................................... 58
4 Combinational Logic Circuits ..................................................................................................61

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 62
4.2 Multiplexer ............................................................................................................................................. 62
4.3 DeMultiplexer ........................................................................................................................................ 68

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4.4 Encoder ................................
................................................................................................................................
.................................................. 70
4.5 Decoder ................................

................................................................................................................................
.................................................. 71
5 Flip Flops, Registers & Counters ................................................................

.............................................................77
5.1 Introduction ................................
................................................................................................................................
........................................... 78
5.2 Basic terminologies

ologies (Conceptual Topic) ................................................................
................................................................. 78
5.3 Flip Flop ................................

................................................................................................................................
.................................................. 79
5.4 Registers ................................

................................................................................................................................
................................................. 84
5.5 Counters ................................

................................................................................................................................
................................................. 87
6 A/D & D/A Converters ................................

................................................................................................
...........................................97
6.1 Introduction ................................
................................................................................................................................
........................................... 98
6.2 Need of AD & DA Conversion ................................................................................................

................................................. 98
6.3 Weighted Resistor DAC ................................

................................................................................................
.......................................................... 98
6.4 The R-2R Ladder DAC ................................

................................................................................................
........................................................... 100
6.5 Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) ................................................................................................

...................................... 102
7 Computer Fundamentals ................................

................................................................................................
..................................... 109
7.1 Introduction ................................
................................................................................................................................
......................................... 110
7.2 Block diagram

ram of a computer ................................................................................................
............................................... 110
7.3 Types of memories ................................

................................................................................................
............................................................... 111
7.4 Specifications of PC ................................

................................................................................................
.............................................................. 114
............................................................. 118
Model Question Paper:: XII Digital Electronics, Paper II ................................................................

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Number
1. Number Systems
Systems
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study different types of number systems useful in digital electronics, they are:
binary number system and hexadecimal number system.
1.2 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

In this number system there are only two digits: ‘0’ (zero) and ‘1’ (one). Hence, the base or radix of
binary number system is ‘2’. Remember that radix is a number which indicates a specific number
system, for example, radix of decimal number system is ‘10’. Using these two digits we can write any
binary number as follows:
1101 , 101011101 , 111 , 10000010 , 1111111 , …
Each binary digit is called a bit. The word “bit” stands for binary digit. In a binary number, the leftmost
digit is called MSB i.e. Most Significant Bit and rightmost digit is called LSB i.e. Least Significant Bit.
Now we have to see the process of converting binary number into its unique equivalent decimal value.
1.2.1 Conversion of integer binary into integer decimal

This is a very simple process in which we convert any integer binary number into its unique equivalent
integer decimal value. For that we use following method.
Suppose we have to convert a binary number 11010 into its unique equivalent decimal value –
Step #1: Write down decimal value starting from 1, 2, 4, 8… below each binary digit from right to left,
below the binary number, as follows:
1 1 1 0 1 given binary number
16 8 4 2 1 write decimal value starting from 1, 2, 4, 8...
direction of writing decimal values
Step #2: If there is a ‘0’ in given binary number then strike it out, as follows:
1 1 1 0 1
16 8 4 2 1
Step #3: Now add the remaining decimal values to get the answer of this conversion, as follows:
16 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 29
So the decimal equivalent is 29 . In this way, we can convert any binary number into its unique
equivalent decimal value.
E X E R CI S E 1.1 (A N S WE RS ON L AS T P A G E )
1) Convert into decimal value: 110, 10010, 11, 11110101, 1010101, 1111, 10000011
2) Write down all the following binary numbers in a table and then convert them into their
equivalent decimal value. Note down the sequence of binary and decimal.
0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111,
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111

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1.2.2 Conversion of fractional binary into fractional decimal
The binary number is also written as follows. Just like the decimal number it contains a point known as
“binary point”. On the left of binary point, it is integer part and on right it is fractional part.
Now we have to see the conversion process of fractional binary number into its unique equivalent
fractional decimal value using following method.
integer fractional
part part
1101.101
binary point
Suppose we have to convert a binary number 1101.101 into its unique equivalent decimal value –
Step #1: Split the given binary number into two parts integer part and the fractional part as follows:
1 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
Step #2: Now below each binary digit write down the decimal value in proper direction, as follows:
1 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
8 4 2 1 . 1/2 1/4 1/8
write integer decimal values write fractional decimal values
OR
1 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
8 4 2 1 . 0.5 0.25 0.125
write integer decimal values write fractional decimal values
Step #3: Now strike out the decimal values below binary ‘0’ –
1 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
8 4 2 1 . 0.5 0.25 0.125

Step #4: Finally add the remaining decimal values to get the equivalent decimal value –
8 + 4 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.125 = 13.625
So the decimal equivalent is 13.625 . In this way, we can convert any binary number into its unique
equivalent decimal value.
1) Convert into decimal value: 110.11, 111.01, 100.001, 1111.1111, 1010.1010, 1.1, 110.0001
2) Write down all the following binary numbers in a table and then convert them into their
equivalent decimal value. Note down the sequence of binary and decimal.
0000.0000, 0001.0001, 0010.0010, 0011.0011, 0100.0100, 0101.0101, 0110.0110, 0111.0111,
1000.1000, 1001.1001, 1010.1010, 1011.1011, 1100.1100, 1101.1101, 1110.1110, 1111.1111

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1.2.3 Conversion of integer decimal into integer binary
In this process, we convert any integer decimal number into its unique equivalent integer binary value.
This method is just opposite to the method of converting binary into decimal. Suppose we have to
convert a decimal number 47 into its unique equivalent binary value –
Step #1: Divide the given decimal number successively by binary radix ‘2’ until we get a ‘0’ quotient,
as shown below. This method is called as double dabble method.
remainders
47/2 = 23 1
23/2 = 11 1
11/2 = 5 1
direction to read
5/2 = 2 1
2/2 = 1 0
1/2 = 0 1
here the So the answer is: 101111
quotient is ‘0’
So the binary equivalent is 101111 . In this way, we can convert any decimal number into its unique
equivalent binary value.
1.2.4 Conversion of fractional decimal into fractional binary

In this process, we convert any fractional decimal number into its unique equivalent fractional binary
value. This method is just opposite to the method of converting binary into decimal.
Suppose we have to convert a decimal number 0.375 into its unique equivalent binary value –
Step #1: Multiply the given decimal number successively by binary radix ‘2’ until we get a ‘0’ as carry,
as shown below:
move the carry here
0.375 x 2 = 0.75 0
direction to read
0.75 x 2 = 1.5 1
0.5 x 2 = 1.0 1
0.0 x 2 = 0.0
process So the answer is: 0.011
ends here
as carry = 0
Important Note
1) If the given decimal value is other than 0.5, 0.25, 0.125 or 0.0625… and so on, then you get
approximate answer. In such case, obtain the approximate answer after 5 to 7 steps.
2) If the given decimal value is like this: 34.27 then convert integer and fractional values
separately and then add both values to get the answer.

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Example to obtain approximate answer
Suppose we have to convert the decimal value 0.32 into its unique equivalent binary value. Then
use following process to find the approximate answer.
0.32 x 2 = 0.64 0
0.64 x 2 = 1.28 1
0.28 x 2 = 0.56 0
direction to read
0.56 x 2 = 1.12 1
0.12 x 2 = 0.24 0
0.24 x 2 = 0.48 0
0.48 x 2 = 0.96 0
0.96 x 2 = 1.92 1
So the approximate answer is: 0.01010001
Example of integer with fractional conversion

Suppose we have to convert the decimal value 23.94 into its unique equivalent binary value. Then
we first convert integer and fractional values separately and the add them to get the answer.
23/2 = 11 1 0.94 x 2 = 1.88 1
11/2 = 5 1 0.88 x 2 = 1.76 1

5/2 = 2 1 0.76 x 2 = 1.52 1
2/2 = 1 0 0.52 x 2 = 1.04 1
1/2 = 0 1 0.04 x 2 = 0.08 0
So the integer part is: 10111 0.08 x 2 = 0.16 0

0.16 x 2 = 0.32 0
0.32 x 2 = 0.64 0
So the approximate answer is:
0.64 x 2 = 1.28 1
10111 + 0.111100001 =
10111.111100001
So the fractional part is: 0.111100001
1) Convert into binary values: 23, 95, 67, 71, 137, 83, 10, 17, 511, 2048
2) Convert into binary values: 0.625, 0.11, 3.8125, 72.34, 1.1, 10.7, 6.99, 5.55

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E X E R CI S E 1.3 A N S WE RS
1) 23 = 10111, 95 = 1011111, 67 = 1000011, 71 = 1000111,
137 = 10001001, 83 = 1010011, 10 = 1010, 17 = 10001,
511 = 111111111, 2048 = 100000000000
2) 0.625 = 0.101, 0.11 = 0.000011100001,

3.8125 = 11.1101, 72.34 = 1001000.01010111,
1.1 = 1.000000101, 10.7 = 1010.1011001,
6.99 = 110.11111101, 5.55 = 101.1000000101
1) Hexadecimal into binary
9AF.20C = 1001 1010 1111 . 0010 0000 11
192.6E0 = 1 1001 0010 . 0110 1110
ABC.CAD = 1010 1011 1100 . 1100 1010 1101
100.0001 = 1 0000 0000 . 0000 0000 0000 0001
33.001 = 11 0011 . 0000 0000 0001
75C.FD4 = 111 0101 1100 . 1111 1101 0100
240.193 = 10 0100 . 0001 1001 0011
A1B2.C3D9 = 1010 0001 1011 0010 . 1100 0011 1101 1001
2) Binary into hexadecimal (inserted zeros are underlined)

0001 1110 0011 . 1010 1100 = 1E3.AC
0101 0100 1010 0100 . 1010 1110 0100 1010 = 54A4.AE4A
0010 1010 1011 . 1101 1010 = 2AB.DA
3) Hexadecimal into decimal

267 = 615
111 = 273
10 = 16
ABC = 2748
1FD = 509
FF = 255
16 = 22
1020 = 4128
4) Decimal into hexadecimal

16 = 10
100 = 64
2989 = BAD
512 = 200
99 = 63
820 = 334
64 = 40
81 = 51

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1) Addition of binary numbers
a) 11001 + 10011 = 101100
b) 10111 + 101111 = 1000110
c) 10011110 + 101110011 = 1000010001
d) 110.1011 + 1011.0111 = 10010.0010
e) 1111111 + 1101000 = 11100111
2) Subtraction of binary numbers

a) 11001 − 1011 = 1110
b) 110111 − 100111 = 10000
c) 1110111 − 10111 = 1100000
d) 110 − 101 = 1
e) 1100 − 111 = 101
1) Solve the following using 1’s complement methods –
a) 1001 − 1101 = −0100
b) 0000 − 1111 = −1111
c) 11011 − 1100 = 1111
d) 1110 − 111111 = −110001
e) 11000001 − 1101 = 10110100
2) Solve the following using 2’s complement methods –

a) 11011 − 11100 = −1
b) 1100 − 1101 = −1
c) 11111 − 1110001 = −1010010
d) 110001111 − 1111 = 110000000
e) 1001 − 1101 = −100
f) 111 − 1111 = −1000
______________________

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SUMMARY
1. As we know that, in decimal number system, there are 10 digits or symbols which can be arranged into
different combinations to obtain any large or small number.
2. Likewise, there is another number system known as binary number system. It contains only two digits: a
0 and a 1. Using these two digits, we can construct any small or large binary number by arranging
number of such digits.
3. Binary number system contains only two symbols: a 1 and a 0. Hence, its base or radix is (2). With their
different combinations, we can obtain any small or big binary number like 11101 , 10101000 etc.
The suffix ‘2’ indicates binary number.
4. Hexadecimal number system contains sixteen symbols: 0 to 9 and , , , , & . Hence, its base or
radix is (16). With different combination, we can obtain any small or big hexadecimal (hex) number like
34 , 345 etc. The suffix ‘16’ indicates hexadecimal number.
5. A code is a computer utility language used in all types of its operations. Each code has specific rules and
Operating System (called as OS).
6. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Code is also known as 8421BCD code. In this code the digits of given
decimal number are ENCODED one at a time, into binary nibble form. Each digit in decimal is separated
and assigned to specific weight w.r.t. binary.
7. The ASCII code is called as American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is mainly used in
digital data communication. It is a 7-bit alphanumeric code to represent 128 different symbols like
English alphabets (capital & small), numerals, punctuation marks etc.
8. This code is known as Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is also used in digital data
communication. It is an 8-bit alphanumeric code to represent 256 different symbols like English
alphabets, numerals, punctuation marks etc.
9. Just like decimal fractional numbers, the binary and hexadecimal numbers are also written in the form
of fractional numbers like 1101.1011 and A45D.24CF, etc.
10. While adding two binary numbers we can add them just as per the rules of decimal addition. The basic
rules of binary addition are: 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 0 with a carry as 1 and 1 + 1 + 1 = 1
with a carry as 1.
11. While subtracting smaller binary number from larger binary number we can subtract them just like the
rules of decimal addition. The basic rules of binary subtraction are: 0 – 0 = 0, 1 – 0 = 1, 1 – 1 = 0, etc.
12. Taking a 1’s complement of given binary number means writing a 0, where it is a 1 and writing a 1
where it is a 0, with respect to the given binary number.
13. Taking 2’s complement of given binary number means, first to take the 1’s complement of given binary
number and then adding a 1 in that 1’s complement to obtain the 2’s complement.

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2.10.2 Binary Adder/Subtractor
When we combine the 4-bit binary adder circuit and Ex-OR gate inverter circuit, as shown below we
get the circuit of binary adder/subtractor.
A3 B3 A2 B2 A1 B1 A0 B0
Sub
C3 C2 C1 C0
F.A. F.A. F.A. F.A.
S4 S3 S2 S1 S0
Block diagram of 4-bit binary adder/subtractor
Working of the circuit as Adder

When we want to add two binary numbers, then keep =0.
Let there are two binary numbers: = 1101 and = 1100. Then the two numbers
will be added just like usual method of binary addition.
So we get the output as:
= +
= 1101 + 1100 = 11001
Working of the circuit as Subtractor
Suppose we want to subtract ‘B group’ number from ‘A group’ number. Then keep = 1.
Now the subtraction process takes place just like the subtraction using 2’s complement method, studied
in Chapter-1 (refer Page-16).
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 2’s complement
+ +
=
of 1100
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 carries
? ? ? ? ?
1 0 0 0 1 answer
ignore this
‘end around carry’

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SUMMARY
1. A logic circuit is so named, because it can simulate human mental process like to take decisions. It is a
combination of different electronic components, which obeys laws of Boolean algebra and digital
electronics.
2. An AND gate is a logic circuit, whose output becomes high ONLY WHEN ALL ITS INPUTS ARE HIGH. Its
logic equation is Y = A.B.
3. An OR gate is a logic circuit whose output becomes high WHEN ANY ONE OF ITS INPUTS IS HIGH. Its
logic equation is Y = A + B.
4. A NOT gate has only one input and one output. It gives high output WHEN ITS INPUT IS LOW. Its logic
equation is = ̅. Thus, it shows that Y is complement of A.
5. De Morgan’s first theorem states that the complement of product is equal to the sum of the
complements i.e. . = ̅ +
6. De Morgan’s first theorem states that the complement of sum is equal to the product of the
complements: + = ̅.
7. A NAND gate is a logic circuit, whose output becomes low only when all its inputs are high. In other
words, its output is high when at least one of its inputs is low.
8. A NOR gate is a logic circuit whose output becomes low when any one of its inputs is low. In other
words, i.e. its output becomes high when both of its inputs are low.
9. An Exclusive OR gate is defined as a logic circuit whose output becomes high only when its both inputs
are unequal i.e. = . + ̅. = = ⊕
10. Parity means a single binary 1. Thus, if a binary number is given as: 1101 then it contains three
parities. Such binary number is called as odd parity binary “word”. But if a binary number is given as:
1001101 then it contains four parities. Then such number is called even parity binary “word”.
11. The Ex-OR gate can be used as controlled inverter circuit. When one input terminal of Ex-OR gate is
permanently connected to logic-1 then the other input terminal with output terminal behave like a NOT
gate.
12. In full adder circuit, there are two outputs CARRY and the SUM. Their equations are as follows –
= + ⊕ . = + +
= ⊕ ⊕

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PROBLEMS
Important Note: Some problems given below are only for conceptual study. Such complicated problems are not
asked in HSC Board Exam.
1. Find out the final output Boolean equation of the following circuit with step by step analysis. Obtain the
output equations in each step and simplify the final output equation of each logic circuit.
2. A branch of State Bank of India has five personnel working in the branch. There is one security vault
which requires security keys to open it. The manager of the bank has his own key with which he can
independently open the vault. But there are two assistant managers who also have their own keys
which required to be used simultaneously to open the vault. There are two clerks also who can operate
the vault when both of them apply their keys simultaneously. Then write down the logic equation for
operating the security vault. Also draw the logic circuit.
3. In medical science it is experimentally proved that the possible progeny blood group is related with
maternal and paternal blood groups. The possible combinations are given as follows.
+ = , , , + = , + = , , ,
+ = , , , + = , + = , , ,
+ = , + = , , ,
4. Then draw the logical circuit for total combinations in a single circuit and explain your ideas about it.
5. How can we construct 8-bit adder circuit using half and full adder circuits? Explain your idea about it
and also draw the circuit.
6. Draw the logic circuit of Ex-NOR gate and derive its Boolean equation.
7. Simplify the following logic equations and obtain their simplest form.
8. = + + + = . + +
9. Draw the logic circuits for the following given logic equations –
10. = ̅ + + ̅
11. = ̅+ + . ̅ +
12. = + . + ̅ + . +
13. = + + +

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HSC BOARD PATTERN QUESTIONS

Objective Questions – asked in HSC Board Exam
1. The output of ________ logic gate is equal to ‘1’ when both of its inputs are ‘0’. (Ans: NAND gate)
2. When any one input of OR gate is at logic-1, its output is at ________. (Ans: logic-1 state)
3. The bubbled AND gate is also called as _________. (Ans: NOR gate)
4. In half adder circuit, when both of its inputs are logic-1, then its output is ______. (Ans: 10)
5. When one input of 2-input Ex-OR gate is connected to logic-1, then the circuit behaves as _________
logic circuit. (Ans: NOT gate)
6. According to De Morgan’s theorem, + + = __________. (Ans: . . )

7. To construct an OR gate using NAND gates, as universal building block, the number of NAND gates
required will be _________. (Ans: 3)
8. When both inputs of an Ex-OR gate are at equal logic level, i.e. either at logic-1 or logic-0, then its
output will be at __________. (Ans: logic-0 state)
9. If two NOT gates are connected one after another, such that the output of first is connected to the
input of second, and if initial input is at logic-0 level, then the final output will be _________. (Ans: 0)
10. Addition process of two binary numbers can be performed using ________ gate. (Ans: binary adder)
11. Bubbled OR gate is equivalent to __________ gate. (Ans: NAND gate)
12. + + + 1 = __________. (Ans: 1)
Short Answer Questions (3 Marks) – asked in HSC Board Exam

1. Draw the symbol of NOT gate and explain its working with truth table.
2. Explain why NAND gate is known as universal building block?
3. How Ex-OR gate can be used as NOT gate? Explain.
4. How to convert a NOR gate into a NOT gate? Explain with diagram.
5. Prove that + + + =
6. Explain the working of half adder using proper logic diagram.
7. What is parity? Explain the working of parity checker.
8. What is the basic difference between inclusive OR gate and exclusive OR gate? Explain with diagrams.

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5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we have to study three applications of logic gates. The first topic covers the most
important logic circuit known as flip flop. It is the basic building block of semiconductor memory like
RAM, ROM, etc. used in computers.
The second topic explains the registers. A register is a group of flip flops used to store a large binary
number into its memory.
And the third topic is the counters. It is again a combination of flip flops used to count the number of
events in the form of digital pulses. All these applications of flip flops are very useful to understand the
hardware of computer. So student must concentrate on this chapter and prepare it along with first two
chapters.
5.2 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES (CONCEPTUAL TOPIC)

Enable & Disable States: Consider the following left figure. One input of NOR gate is permanently
connected to positive supply i.e. logic-1 state, keeping other input ‘A’ as open. In this case, whatever
may be the condition of input A, the output will be always LOW. It is called as disabled NOR gate.
Now consider the right figure. One input of NAND gate is permanently grounded i.e. it is in logic-0
state, keeping other input ‘A’ as open. Now whatever may be the condition of input A, its output will be
always HIGH. It is called as disabled condition.
In short, when output of a logic circuit does not respond to the change in input signal then that logic
circuit is disabled.
Now consider following left figure. One input of AND gate is at logic-0, then whatever may be input
condition of the other input ‘A’, its output will be always at logic-0 state. It is called disabled condition.
In the same way, the OR gate given below, will be disabled if its one input permanently connected to
logic-1 state.
Now how to enable the logic circuit?

In following four conditions all the above given gates will be enabled:
1) If one input of NOR gate is permanently grounded, then it will be enabled.
2) If one input of NAND gate is permanently connected to logic-1 i.e. +ve, then it will be enabled.
3) If one input of AND gate is permanently connected to logic-1 i.e. +ve, then it will be enabled.
4) If one input of NOR gate is permanently grounded, then it will be enabled.
In short, when output of a logic circuit responds actively to the input signal and changes accordingly,
then that logic circuit is enabled.

P a g e | 79
Floating input: When an input terminal of TTL logic circuit is in floating state i.e. it is connected to
nothing, just floating in air, then it is treated as HIGH state or logic-1 state of input. This happens
because the emitter current of input transistor inside the circuit is zero. Hence, input is as good as in
logic-1 state (refer the topics of TTL circuits in Chapter-3 for more details).
The ‘x’ state: When the state of input/output of a logic circuit is not known i.e. when the state may be
randomly logic-1 or logic-0, then such state is denoted by ‘x’.
ANDing & ORing: These are the grammatical terms used in logic circuits. The AND, OR, NOT are the
basic terms used as verbs also.
Suppose there is an AND gate with two inputs A & B. Then we can say that A & B are ANDed.
Similarly if there is an OR gate with two inputs A & B, then we can say that A & B are ORed.
These terms are also used in Present Continuous Tense as: ANDing and ORing. However, the terms are
never used in Simple Present Tense.
Clock signal: Some flip flops work on clock signal. Clock is a square wave or rectangular wave
generated by oscillator circuit.
5.3 FLIP FLOP

A flip flop is made up of logic gates. It has two stable states. It works just like a switch. We know that
the switch has two states: ON state and OFF state. These states are stable states.
If we ‘switch on’ the switch, it remains in that state for “infinite time” unless we change the state.
Similarly, if we ‘switch off’ the switch, it again remains in stable state for infinite time, unless we
change the state. Thus the flip flop works just like a switch. Hence, is called as bistable multivibrator,
means having two stable states. The symbol of a flip flop is given below –
Following are the important points about a flip flop:

1) A flip flop is made up of logic gates.
2) It has two stable states: SET state and the RESET state
3) If we put the flip flop in SET state, it remains in that state for infinite time, unless we SET it.
4) If we put flip flop in RESET state, it remains in that state for infinite time, unless we RESET it.
5) Thus the SET and RESET states of the flip flop are stable states.
6) A flip flop has two inputs: ‘R’ and ‘S’ i.e. RESET and SET.
7) It has two outputs: and .
8) To SET the flip flop, make = 1 and = 0 simultaneously.
9) When flip flop is SET, output becomes ‘1’ and becomes ‘0’.
10) To RESET the flip flop, make = 0 and = 1 simultaneously.
11) When flip flop is RESET, output becomes ‘0’ and becomes ‘1’.
12) The property of the flip flop to remain in a particular state, i.e. SET state or RESET state, for
infinite time, is called memory of the flip flop.
13) So flip flop is widely used as the basic unit of computer memory.

P a g e | 80
5.3.1 RS Flip Flop using NOR gate
This circuit is called RS flip flop because R – means RESET and S – means SET. It contains two NOR
gates. The output of each NOR gate is connected in cross connection with the other. Their two outputs
are and . Due to cross connections between inputs and outputs, flip flop gets locked.
0 0 No Change state Remember

The output follows
0 1 1 0
input and output
1 0 0 1
follows input .
1 1 Forbidden state
Working: The circuit has four possible states as given below –

1) When = = 0, the flip flop does not change its output state. It remains in same state known
as no change state.
2) When = 0 and = 1, the flip flop is now .
4) When = = 1, both NOR gates are disabled simultaneously (refer topic 5.2). So the outputs
of both gates become equal. Hence, it is called forbidden state or race condition.
5.3.2 RS Flip Flop using NAND gate

This circuit is also called RS flip flop. It contains two NAND gates. The output of each NAND gate is
connected in cross connection with the other. Their two outputs are and . Due to cross connections
between inputs and outputs, flip flop gets locked.
0 0 Forbidden state
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 No Change state
Working: The circuit has four possible states as given below –

1) When = = 0, both NOR gates are disabled simultaneously. So the outputs of both gates
become equal. Hence, it is called forbidden state or race condition.
4) When = = 1, the flip flop does not change its output state. It remains in same state known
as no change state.
Note: The RS flip flop using NAND gates is NEVER used as memory storage circuit, because its first
state is forbidden state.

P a g e | 81
5.3.3 Flip Flop as 1-bit memory cell (Conceptual Topic)
We know that a flip flop has two stable states. When it is it remains in that state for infinite time,
unless we change the state. When it is it remains in that state for infinite time, unless we change
the state. So this property of the flip flop to maintain a particular state for indefinite time is called as
memory. Hence, a flip flop is called as memory unit.
0 0 This state is not used in memory

0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 This state is not used in memory
When a flip flop is its output = 1 and when it is its output = 0. So it is said that when
the flip flop is a ‘1’ is stored in the memory of the flip flop. Similarly, when the flip flop is
a ‘0’ is stored in the memory of the flip flop. Thus, a flip flop can be used as memory unit. It can store a
single binary digit i.e. a bit in the form of memory.
5.3.4 Clock Signal (Conceptual Topic)

A clock signal is a periodic square wave form. It is used to control digital circuits. There are two types
of clock signals: symmetrical and asymmetrical. Clock signal is generated with the help of electronics
oscillator circuit. The time required for one complete cycle of clock is called clock cycle time. The
clock has two sharp edges – the positive edge and the negative edge as shown in following figure.
5.3.5 Clocked RS Flip Flop

It is modified circuit of basic RS flip flop. It is controlled by applying the external clock signal. The
circuit has three inputs SET, RESET and Clock (clk). Its circuit and symbol are given below.
Clock
0 x x Last State Last State

1 0 0 Last State Last State
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 Forbidden State
Working: The working of the circuit is given below –

1) When = 0 and = = ×, both AND gates are disabled and the output of the circuit
remains in “no change state”.
2) When = 1 and = = 0, both AND gates are still disabled with “no change state”.

P a g e | 82
3) When = 1, = 0 and = 1, output of AND gate-2 become ‘1’ but output of AND gate-1
remains ‘0’. So flip flop is and = 1, = 0.
4) When = 1, = 1 and = 0, output of AND gate-1 become ‘1’ but output of AND gate-2
remains ‘0’. So flip flop is and = 0, = 1.
5) Finally, when = = = 1, the output of the circuit goes in “forbidden state Thus we say
that the output follows and follows .
5.3.6 Clocked D Flip Flop

The clocked D flip flop is the modified circuit of clocked RS flip flop. This circuit does not have
forbidden state. So due to its simplicity, this circuit is widely used in computer memory.
Clock D Remember
The output
0 X No change state follows
1 0 0 1 input .
1 1 1 0
Working: The working of the circuit is given below –

1) When = 0 and = ×, both AND gates are disabled and the output of the circuit remains in
“no change state”.
2) When = 1 and = 0, the output of AND gate-2 is ‘1’ and output of AND gate-1 is ‘0’. So
= 1, = 0. So = 0 and flip flop is .
3) When = 1 and = 1, the output of AND gate-1 is ‘1’ and output of AND gate-2 is ‘0’. So
= 0, = 1. So = 1 and flip flop is .
Advantages
There is no forbidden state. So the circuit is best suitable in computer memory.
Two separate data inputs i.e. R & S are not necessary.
So it’s easy to use in complicated circuits.
5.3.7 Preset & Clear inputs of Flip Flop

Every flip flop has two more input terminals known as PRESET and CLEAR inputs. These inputs are
necessary to fix particular state of the flip flop at the beginning of operation of digital system.
However, in some flip flops these inputs work in opposite condition. So there are two types of PRESET
and CLEAR inputs: positive edge and negative edge PRESET and CLEAR.
Positive edge PRESET & CLEAR preset preset
When PRESET=1, the flip flop is SET. D Q D Q

Similarly when CLEAR=1, the flip flop is RESET. clk D-FF clk D-FF
Negative edge PRESET & CLEAR

When PRESET=0, the flip flop is SET. clear clear
Similarly when CLEAR=0, the flip flop is RESET. posi ve edge type nega ve edge type
The negative edge PRESET & CLEAR are bubbled inputs i.e. connected through NOT gates.

P a g e | 109
Computer
7 Computer Fundamentals
Fundamentals

P a g e | 110
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous six chapters, we have studied the fundamentals of computer hardware. Now in this last
chapter, we shall study the simple and fundamental concepts of general purpose computer system. The
computer consists of main section as CPU along with input and output devices. It also contains
semiconductor memory and auxiliary memory. We shall study all these fundamental concepts in the
following pages.
7.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER

Following figure shows the basic block diagram of general-purpose computer. It has following main
blocks or sections as given below.
7.2.1 Input output devices

The input output devices act as the interface between the human and the computer. The input device
gives information as commanded by the human to the central processing unit (CPU). The information is
in the form of logic-1 and logic-0. i.e. it is in coded form, which is ‘understood’ by the computer. It is
then processed and produced as the result on the output devices. There is a large variety of input/output
devices. Some of them are given below.
Keyboard: It is the most important and common input device. It is just like the keypad of old
typewriter. It is available in different languages.
Mouse: It is particularly used in graphics applications. It gives the visual idea of x–y coordinates to
move the cursor over the screen of computer’s monitor.
MICR: MICR means magnetic ink character reader. It is used to read the coded information (data) on
bar code. The bar codes are generally printed on electronics products, books etc.
Floppy disk: It works as both input/output device. It is
the old type of media on which the information can be
stored in the form of magnetic impressions (like in
audiocassette) for future use.

P a g e | 111
Compact disc (CD): It is the modern input/output device. It has very high storage capacity up to 700MB.
Its different types are: CD-R, CD-RW etc.
Magnetic disk: It is a type of both input and output device. Its working is similar to an audiocassette.
Visual display unit (VDU) or monitor: It is the main output device in computer. On this, we can all the
activities and processes done by the computer.
Dot matrix printer, laser printer, ink–jet type color printer: These are used particularly in document or
object printing.
The x-y plotter: It is used in the recording and monitoring of seismic activities of earth. It is also used
in plotting complicated drawings like industrial plans, site plans, machine plans etc.
7.2.2 Central processing unit

The CPU consists of three main parts as given below –
Control unit: It is used for the controlling and processing the information (data) within the CPU. The
data may be either in calculated form or in comparison form. This data is passed towards output after
processing.
Memory unit: It is used to store the data and programs. The ALU constantly refers to the memory
block to act on the input data. The memory basically consists of two parts –
Random Access Memory (RAM): It is a temporary state of memory. When power supply is switched
OFF every bit of data stored in is lost.
Read Only Memory (ROM): It is the permanent memory. When power supply is switched OFF, it
remains as it is!
Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU): It performs both arithmetic and logical operations. In all, there are four
arithmetic operations – addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (x) and division () and three logic
operations – less than (<), greater than (>) and equal to (=). The ALU consists of adder, subtractor,
comparator etc. to perform all these operations as required.
7.2.3 Address and Data Bus

The input output devices and the CPU are interconnected through two bunch of conducting wires called
as address bus and data bus. The address bus is unidirectional. The CPU sends the related address code
of the required memory or any other device, which it selects for operation. The greater is the width of
address bus (i.e. number of wires in it) the higher is the memory handling capacity of the CPU. The
data bus is bidirectional. On this bus, the CPU can transfer the data to and fro.
7.3 TYPES OF MEMORIES

Auxiliary memory: There is one more facility of auxiliary memory (also called Hard Disk Drive–HDD)
for the computer (not shown in the block diagram). It is used to extend the storage capacity. It is also
called as secondary memory and it is always connected externally with the CPU.
Semiconductor memories: It has seven different types. This memory is faster than the auxiliary
memory. It is available in different configuration like 1kB, 16kB, 32kB, 64kB 1MB, 64MB, 128MB

P a g e | 112
etc. Here note that 1kB of memory means it has 1024 memory cells (i.e. flip-flops) to store 1024 bits of
information. Following are its types given in details –
Random Access Memory (RAM): When it is required to change the data contents of memory constantly
whenever required, the RAM is used. Since its data content can be changed if and when required, it is
called as scratch pad or read/write memory. The data is stored it at random locations. Each cell used in
RAM is a small flip-flop made–up of bipolar transistors or MOSFETs. This memory retains its stored
data as long as the power supply is running. Once the power supply is cutoff, all the contents in it are
lost. Hence, it is called as volatile memory. There are two sub types of RAM as follows –
Static RAM: In this type of RAM, as long as its power supply is on, the stored data remains as it is!
Due to this, the stored data constantly draws electrical energy from the power supply. Hence, the total
power consumption of the RAM increases. Therefore, it is used in medium size memory applications.
Dynamic RAM: In this type of RAM, the data is stored again and again with a particular rate. This
happens because, the memory cells have inter-electrode capacitance, which discharges internally and
the data in it is lost after a short delay. Hence, the memory contents are refreshed repeatedly. To
refresh, a timing signal is produced periodically. Due to such refreshing, the power consumption of this
memory is very less.
Read Only Memory (ROM): It is subdivided into following main types –
Mask Programmable ROM: This is the simple ROM. It is used by the primary manufacturers, who
decide to store a specific data, for their special system or products (like medical equipments, weighing
machines, etc.). Once this memory is programmed, its data content cannot be altered.
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): It is a blank ROM available in the market for general
user. Anyone can purchase this memory and program it as required. Once programmed, it becomes
ROM. Thus, this memory can be written ONCE only.
Erasable & Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): This memory can be programmed a number
of times. Once the data is written in it, it remains intact even if its power supply is cutoff. To reprogram
it, it is exposed to ultraviolet light. There are two disadvantages of EPROM: It must be disconnected
from the main circuit, before reprogramming. Sometimes the old data is not cleared properly, with UV
radiations, and if it is then reprogrammed, we cannot clear old fragments of data.
Electrically Altered Programmable Read Only Memory (EAPROM): In this type of memory the data is
altered by applying external electrical voltage. Due to this procedure, it is not necessary to disconnect
the memory from the main circuit. The time required for alternating the data is very small.
7.3.1 Secondary memories (auxiliary memories)

This memory has a very large storage capacity. It is externally connected to CPU. The auxiliary
memory is useful for storing large-size programs and data, even after the supply of the computer is
switched off. There are many types of such memories available in the market. Some of them are given
below –
Hard Disk: It is a magnetic storage device. It contains a number of flexible platters (disks). Each platter
is coated with iron oxides on both sides. The data is recorded on the surface of platters, in the form of
magnetic impression (just like the audio/video cassette). It can be read, retrieved, or altered as and when
required. All the platters rotate simultaneously on a common axis, at a speed of about 1800 to 7500

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P a g e | 113
r.p.m. A sectional view of hard disk is shown here. There are six platters parallel to each other and
separated by some distance. The read/write heads
(which contain tiny coils) are independently
arranged on both sides of platters. They move to and
fro, to read or write the data from/on the disks. The
read/write heads are fitted at a distance of 10m-
25m from the surface of each platter. The data
transfer on/from the disk is either in serial or in
parallel form. The surface of each platter is
subdivided into a number of concentric tracks called
as sectors. Each sector is further subdivided into
number of clusters. The cluster is the smallest amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file.
A cluster is also called as allocation unit. The total assembly is fitted in a sealed enclosure to protect it
from dust.
Floppy disks: A floppy disk is also used as auxiliary memory. However, its storage capacity is smaller
than the hard disk. It is called as floppy because its disk is made up of flexible plastic. It is coated with
iron oxides. The data is recorded on it, in the form of magnetic impressions. A floppy disk is available
in two types – 3.5”size (with 1.44MB capacity) and 5.25”size (with 1.2MB capacity). The floppies are
very slow in reading/writing the data. Their rotating speed is about 366 r.p.m. and the data transfer rate
is about 20kB/sec. The flexible disk is enclosed in a square plastic/cardboard envelop i.e. cartridge. The
cartridge protects the sensitive disk surface from outer dust and physical damage.
Magnetic tape: It is a sequential accessible auxiliary memory (its working and read/write style is same
as the audio/video cassette). It is used in extremely large
storage of data. However, it is non-addressable memory,
because the data is written on it one after another in a
particular sequence. So if we want to access a particular
type of data, the system searches for it by momentarily
accessing each cluster of whole data. Hence, it is very slow in both reading and writing. It has two reels
on both sides on which a plastic tape of ½” width is wound. The plastic tape is coated with iron oxides
on which the data is recorded by the read/write head, in the form of magnetic impressions of dipoles
(either a 1 or a 0) as shown above. Data is recorded on it in EBCDIC code.
Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CDROM): It is advanced version of floppy disk, having very large
storage capacity. The data is recorded on it in the form of binary codes. The audio/video songs can also
be recorded on it. This device uses sharp laser beam to read/write the data on the disc. The disc is
coated with laser sensitive material and during writing the data, the material actually burns to store the
data on it. Basically, there are two types of CDs available in the market – the CD–R (Writable
Once/Read many times) and the CD–RW (Writable & Readable many times). The CDs are available in
the storage capacity of up to 750MB. It is the modern type of storage device, which is handy and very
easy to operate.

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1.2 Binary number system ............................................................................................................................. 6

1.3 Hexadecimal number system ................................................................................................................. 10

1.4 Concept of codes.................................................................................................................................... 13

1.5 Binary Arithmetic ................................................................................................................................... 14

1.6 Subtraction using 1’s complement method ........................................................................................... 15

2 Logic Gates ............................................................................................................................23

2.2 Boolean Algebra ..................................................................................................................................... 25

2.3 De Morgan’s Theorems .......................................................................................................................... 27

2.4 Basic gates .............................................................................................................................................. 28

2.5 Logic Gates at a Glance .......................................................................................................................... 35

2.6 NAND Gate as Universal Building Block ................................................................................................. 36

2.7 NOR Gate as Universal Building Block .................................................................................................... 39

2.8 Odd/Even Parity ..................................................................................................................................... 40

2.9 Basic applications of Logic Gates ........................................................................................................... 41

2.10 The 4-bit Binary Adder ........................................................................................................................... 43

3 Specifications of Digital ICs ....................................................................................................51

3.2 Classification of TTL & CMOS ................................................................................................................. 52

3.3 Characteristics of ICs .............................................................................................................................. 52

3.4 Voltage & current Parameters ............................................................................................................... 53

3.5 TTL Technology....................................................................................................................................... 54

3.6 CMOS Technology .................................................................................................................................. 56

3.7 Comparison of TTL & CMOS Families ..................................................................................................... 58

4 Combinational Logic Circuits ..................................................................................................61

4.2 Multiplexer ............................................................................................................................................. 62

4.3 DeMultiplexer ........................................................................................................................................ 68

Vidyasagar Sir’s XII std. Textbook on Digital Electronics (Paper-2), www.vsagar.org

4.5 Decoder ................................

5 Flip Flops, Registers & Counters ................................................................

5.2 Basic terminologies

5.3 Flip Flop ................................

5.4 Registers ................................

5.5 Counters ................................

6 A/D & D/A Converters ................................

6.2 Need of AD & DA Conversion ................................................................................................

6.3 Weighted Resistor DAC ................................

6.4 The R-2R Ladder DAC ................................

6.5 Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) ................................................................................................

7 Computer Fundamentals ................................

7.2 Block diagram

7.3 Types of memories ................................

7.4 Specifications of PC ................................

Vidyasagar Sir’s XII std. Textbook on Digital Electronics (Paper-2), www.vsagar.org