Unit 3: Semiconductor Physics

Formation of energy Bands in Solids-

Band Theory of Solids:-
A single isolated atom has discrete energy levels. But if two atoms come closer to each other they interact
and significant changes in their energy levels are observed.
A solid is an aggregate of atoms in very close proximity. To form a solid, a large number of atoms are to
be brought close to each other. Every atom is affected by the presence of neighboring atoms. The energy
level of inner shell electrons are not much affected by the presence of neighboring atoms. The energy
levels of outer shell electrons are charged considerably. These electrons are shared by more than one atom
in the crystal.
As per Pauli‘s exclusion principle, not more than two interacting electrons can have same energy level
and hence, new energy levels must be established which are discrete but infinitesimally different. This
group of discrete but closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.
Thus in solids, the allowed energy levels of an atom are modified by the proximity of other atoms. Energy
discrete level of an individual atom gives rise to a band in solid. Each band contains a many discrete level
as the number of atoms in the solid. In a solid containing N atoms, there can be occupied by 2N electrons.
Figure shows the splitting of energy levels as a function of interatomic distance.
The splitting of energy levels is greatest for outermost electrons and least for inner electrons. The
individual energies in the band are so close that each band can be considered continous.
 If a current carrying specimen (conductor or semiconductor)is placed in transverse
magnetic field B, then an electric field EH is induced in the specimen, which is perpendicular to
both ,the current I & the magnetic field B. This phenomenon is called as Hall effect.

Consider the specimen(l ×w × d)carrying current I ,along +ve X-axis, placed in transverse
magnetic field B ,applied along +ve z axis, i.e. along the width of the specimen as shown in
figure. Let the specimen is p-type …so current I ,is due to holes moving in the positive X
direction.

  
Because of the magnetic field B, Lorentz force on charge carriers i.e. on holes is given by

FB  e v  B
  
FB  e vB

The direction of this force is given by Flemming‘s left hand rule to be in the downward
direction. So holes will experience a down ward force of magnitude Bev…because of which
they accumulate at the lower edge of the specimen.
This results in the development of electric field in the +ve Y direction i.e. upward direction. This
is called Hall field EH
Holes will experience a force due to this newly developed Hall field in the upward direction, of
magnitude
 
Fe  eE H
The accumulation of charges continues until, the Hall field becomes strong enough to balance
downward drift due to magnetic field…
So, in equilibrium, the downward drift due to magnetic field is numerically equal to upward drift
due to Hall field…

eEH  Bev
E H  Bv
We know that, current I is given by

I  nvAe where A  w  d
I
v
nAe
VH
As EH  , where d is thickness / depth
d
VH BI 1 BI
 
d nAe ne A
BId
 VH  RH
A
 1
where, RH  ...is Hall coefficient
ne
1 m3
its unit will be C i.e.
1 3 C
m
BId
 VH  RH
A
VH A
 RH 
BId
VH 1 A
 RH 
d B I
EH I
 RH  , where, J   current density
BJ A
VH
& EH 
d
So, Hall coefficient can also be defined as Hall field developed when unit magnetic field is applied, when
unit current density is flowing through the specimen..
So, Hall coefficient is 1/ne, and n is charge carrier density &e is charge of each carrier, then ne is charge
density…so, Hall coefficient can also be defined as reciprocal of charge density….

If the current carriers were electrons, then the force on electrons due to magnetic field would be
negative..Thus Hall voltage or Hall field would be in downward i. e. negative Y direction.
Thus Hall voltage & Hall coefficient would be positive when charge carriers are holes & would be
negative when charge carriers are electrons..
Applications of Hall effect-
* Determination of type of charge carriers
The sign of Hall voltage /Hall coefficient tells us about the type of charge carriers i.e. holes or
electrons
*Determination of density of charge carriers..
Hall coefficient is determined experimentally by the formula
 VH A
RH 
BId
Then charge carrier density is obtained by
1
n
RH e
*Determination of mobility of charge carriers..
Hall coefficient is determined experimentally by the formula
VH A
RH 
BId
Then charge carrier density is obtained by
  ne
   RH

Conductivity of Semiconductor:-
In a semiconductor, the current is due to free electrons as well as holes.
Consider a semiconductor of length l, carrying current I as shown in fig.
ne=electron density in conduction band
np= hole density in conduction band
µe= electron mobility
µp = hole mobility
νe= drift velocity of electron
νp = drift velocity of holes
A = Cross section of semiconductor
V- Voltage applied across the semiconductor
then Ie  neeAe
Ip  nppAe
I  Ie  Ip
I  neeAe  nppAe
I  Ae (nee  npp )
We know that
e  eE And p  pE
 I  AeE (nee  npp )
V
Also, E 
l
 V
 I  Ae (nee  npp )
l
V l 1
R 
I A (nee  npp)e
l
We know that R   . where  =resistivity of semiconductor
A
1

(nee  npp)e
Conductivity of given semiconductor is
1
  e(nee  npp )

Thus conductivity of semiconductor is a sum of conductivity due to both electron and holes
sc  e  p
Case (I) Intrinsic Semiconductor
ne  np  ni
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is
i  eni(e  p)
Case (II) N-type extrinsic semiconductor
For N-type semiconductor electron concentration is much grater than the hole concentration.
ne  np
 N  enee
If nd is concentration of donor atoms then,
N  ende
Case (III) P-type extrinsic semiconductor
If P-type semiconductor electron concentration is negligibly small in comparison to hole
concentration,
Then, np  ne
P  enpp
If na is acceptor atom concentration then,
P  enap
Effect of external Factors on conductivity
Temperature-The resistivity increases with temperature in metals because as temperature
increases number of collisions of electrons with lattice ions increases…
For semiconductors, as temperature increases, more number of electrons move from valance
band to conduction band & they contribute to conduction. So, conductivity increases with
temperature
The optical radiation i.e. light does not affect resistivity of metals..
When semiconductor is exposed to light, few electrons move from valance band to conduction
band. So, photoconductivity increases & resistivity decreases
The resistivity of metals increases with impurity concentration as collisions of electron with
impurity atoms increase
Conductivity of semiconductor is drastically improved with the concentration of lower or higher
valance impurity atoms

Classification of Solids on the basis of Band theory-

Electrical conduction properties of solids dependent on valance band and conduction band energies of
electrons.
Completely filled bands and completely empty bands do not contribute to electrical conduction. The
electrons in the innermost filled shells do not take place part in conduction process. Electrons in the
conduction band are free and more easily under an electric field. The electrons valance band is attached to
lattice and are not free to move. If they acquire sufficient energy to cross the forbidden energy gap Eg,
they can occupy the conduction band states and are available for conduction.
Hence Eg is the parameter which divides whether the material acts as conductor, insulator or
semiconductor.
Conductors: - The conductors have free or conduction electrons at room temperature. These electrons take
place part in conduction and they are free to move within specimen hence electrical resistivity of
conductor is very low, of the order of 10-6Ω cm.
In terms of energy band, they have overlapping valance band and conduction band and they do not have
band gap at all, hence large numbers of free electrons are available or conductors have partially filled
conduction band. The free electrons from conduction band contribute in the current and therefore holes
are not created in the current in valance band.
Insulator: - In an insulator the valance electrons are tightly bound with nucleus and free electrons are
totally absent. As valance electrons are tightly bound, they need very high energy to separate them from
the nucleus. The resistivities of insulator are very high, of the order of 1012 Ω cm.
In terms of energy band, insulator have completely filled valance band and conduction band is completely
empty. The energy gap is large ( 15 eV).Under ordinary circumstances, no electrons can jump to
conduction band. But when very high temperature or electric field is applied, same electrons can jump to
conduction band and become poor conductors. E.g. Mica, diamond, quartz.
Semiconductor: - In semiconductors, electron is loosely bound to nucleus hence requires less energy for
separating them from nucleus. The electrical resistivity of semiconductors lies in between insulator and
conductor and is about 106Ω cm. The electrical resistivity of semiconductors decrease with increase in
temp. i.e. they have negative temp. coeff. of resistance.
In terms of energy band, valance band is completely filled and conduction band is completely empty,
separated by small energy gap ( 1 to 2 eV). Therefore small energy is required to push electrons from
valance band to conduction band. The migration of electron to conduction band create hole in the valance
band.

Fermi Level in Conductors or metals:

Fermi level in metals is defined as the highest filled energy state in the highest filled band ,which contains
electrons at 0 Kelvin…

& the corresponding energy is called as Fermi energy….EF

Thus ,at 0 K, all energy levels up to EF are occupied & all energy levels above EF are empty…

Fermi level in Semiconductors

In semiconductors, we have two types of charge carriers, electrons & holes

Fermi level, in semiconductors ,is defined as the reference level, that gives probability of occupancy of
states in the conduction band as well as probability of non occupancy of states in the valance band…
In simple words—
Probability of occupancy of states in the conduction band----i.e. probability that electrons are there in
conduction band
Probability of non-occupancy of states in the valance band----i.e. probability that energy levels in V.B.
are not occupied by electrons ….i.e. probability that holes are there in valance band
For an intrinsic semiconductor, for every electron in C.B., there is a hole in the valance band…so, no. of
electrons in C.B. is equal to number of holes in V.B….so, Fermi level lies at the centre of the forbidden
energy gap..
If no of electrons in C.B. is more than no. of holes in V. B., it will move towards C.B.
If no of holes in V.B.is more than no of electrons in C. B., it will move towards V.B.
So, fermi level in semiconductors can also be defined as the energy which corresponds to the centre of
gravity of conduction electrons & valance holes ,when ―weighted‖ according to their energies…..

Fermi-Dirac Probability Distribution Function

The distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium, for solids ,is
given by Fermi –Dirac statistics…
As per this ,the probability that an energy level E is occupied by an electron at temperature T kelvin is
given by,

Where, K= Boltzmann constant, EF=Fermi energy, &P(E) is Fermi function

So, at positive temperature ,probability of occupancy of Fermi energy level is 50%.

So, Fermi level in solids can also be defined as the energy level where probability of occupancy is ½,for
any positive temperature…

Here T0 is 0K

T1<T2<T3
Fermi level in Intrinsic Semiconductor:
Position of Fermi level in Extrinsic Semiconductor:

When atoms of trivalent impurity are added to a pure semiconductor, there will be
vacancies (holes) at absolute zero temperature which stays at accepter level just above the
top of valence band. At T = 00K, Fermi level is midway between Ea and EV, as shown in
figure 1 (a). As temperature increases (i.e. at T > 00K) Ea gets saturated by the electrons
and more electrons gets excited to the conduction band and Ef moves above Ea but
remains close to valence band than the conduction band as shown in figure 1 (b).

Conduction band
Ec
Eg
Fermi level EFin
Ea
Ev EF
Valence band p

a) T = 0 K

The fermi energy level EF lies between the valance band energy E V and the acceptor
energy level Ea

Ec
Conduction band
c
Eg
Fermi level
EE
p F
Fin
Ea
Ev
Valence band

b) T > 0 K
 The fermi energy level EF may shift above the acceptor level Ea but is always well
below the centre of forbidden band.

Position of Fermi-level in N-type semiconductor:

Conduction band
Ec
EFn
Ed
Fermi level EFin
Eg
Ev
Valence band

a) T = 0 K
The fermi energy level EF lies between the conduction band energy EC and the donor energy level Ed

When atoms of penta-valent impurity are added to a pure semiconductor, there

will be excess electrons at absolute zero temperature which stays at donor level just below
the bottom of conduction band. At T = 0K, Fermi level is midway between Ed and Ec, as
shown in figure 2 (a). As temperature increases (i.e. at T > 00K) the electrons at Ed get
excited to the conduction band and Ef moves below Ed but remains close to valence band
than the conduction band as shown in figure 2 (b).

Conduction band
Ec
Ed
EFn

E
Ev g
Valence band

b) T > 0 K
The fermi energy level EF may shift well below the donor energy level but is always above the
centre of forbidden band.

Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level:

N- type semiconductor

The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to the formation of

discrete levels below the bottom edge of the conduction band. At low impurity concentration, the
impurity atoms are spaced far apart & do not interact with each other.

With increase in impurity concentration the separation tends to decrease & they interact. As a
result the donor level splits & forms a energy band below the conduction band.

Larger doping concentration, the broaden the impurity band & at one stage it overlap to
conduction band. The broadening of donor levels into band is accompanied by decrease in the
band gap and upward displacement of Fermi level. The Fermi level moves closer and closer to
the conduction band and finally moves in to conduction band as donor band overlap the
conduction band.

Conduction band Conduction band Conduction band

E E
c c

EfN

Ed

Eg
Eg
Eg

Ev Ev Ev
Valence band Valence band Valence band

a) Low level doping b) medium doping c) heavy doping

In a similar way in case of P- type semiconductor, the acceptor level broaden & forms into band
with increase in impurity concentration which ultimately overlaps on the valence band. The
Fermi level moves downwards closer to valance band & finally at very high impurity
concentration it will shift in to valence band.

Higher the concentration of doping, wider the impurity band.

With the increase of doping concentration, fermi level moves closer to conduction band and
finally impurity band overlaps the conduction band.

P-N Junction:
Unbiased: The energy band picture of an unbiased diode is as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

In p-type semiconductor the Fermi-level is closer to the valence band and in n-type it is closer to
conduction band. When p-n junction is formed the bands on either side shift to equalize the Fermi levels
and attain equilibrium. The shift in the conduction and valence band is equal to eVB, where VB is the
barrier potential across the depletion region.

Forward Bias:

When a d. c. source is connected across the diode such that the positive terminal is connected to
p-region and negative terminal is connected to n-region then the diode is said to be in forward bias as
shown in figure 2.

The majority carrier electrons in the n region are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery.
Therefore the electrons gain some excess energy to cross over the energy barrier. As soon as it reaches the
p-side, it encounters a large number of holes. Somewhere close to the junction the electron is trapped by a
hole so that it becomes a valance electron in the p-side. There is large number of holes in p-side so that
the electron will hop from one hole to other, towards the positive terminal of the battery as it is attracted
by it. Finally leaving the crystal from the p-side it will enter the positive terminal. Thus the applied d. c.
voltage helps the flow of electrons through the junction diode and therefore large forward current flows.
As the forward bias leads to increase the energy of electrons in n-region of the crystal the Fermi-level on
n-side is raised by energy equal to eV. Where V is applied d.c. voltage. The bands adjust their positions to
suite the elevation of the Fermi-level as shown in figure 2.
3. Reverse Bias: When a d.c. source is connected across the diode such that the positive terminal
is connected to n-region and negative terminal is connected to p-region then the diode is said to
be in reverse bias as shown in figure 3.
 In this case the electrons in the n-side move away from the junction towards the positive
terminal of the d. c. source and the holes in the p-side also move away from the junction towards
the negative terminal of the d. c. source. They leave behind ions and the width of the depletion
region increases, until the barrier potential equals the applied voltage. Thus reverse bias should
not lead to any flow of current. However thermal energy continuously creates electron-hole pairs
near the junction on both sides. A small current exists because of flow of minority carriers in
both p and n regions. This reverse current depends more on temperature and less on voltage. This
reverse current is very small. In this case Fermi-level moves down and the bands adjust their
positions accordingly as shown in figure 3.

Solar Cell:
When light falls on a p-n junction produces a potential difference across it. This potential
difference is capable of driving a current through an external circuit, producing useful work. This
phenomenon is called the ‗photovoltaic effect‘.
As thermal energy produces electron-hole pairs in the depletion region to contribute to the
reverse current in a diode, current can also be made to flow by illuminating the diode with light
of energy greater than the energy gap of the semiconductor used for making a diode. The light
energy too creates electron-hole pairs and therefore leads to flow of current.
Construction:

The construction of solar cell is as shown in figure 5.21. A single crystal Silicon solar cell
consists of an n-type Silicon wafer with a very thin (in microns) diffused p-type region at the
surface to form a p-n junction. An ohmic contact is made at the bottom of n-type wafer.
 Another contact is made at the top of the p-type surface in such a way that the maximum
possible area of the p-layer can remain exposed. This surface is used to catch the sunlight. An
antireflection coating is applied to reduce the amount of light lost by reflection form the surface.
The cell is also covered at the top by glass quartz or sapphire plate, with additional antireflection
and uv-rejection filters. The uv photons can degrade the cell performance by damaging it

Working:

When light falls on the P-region and reaches at the junction or absorbed by the junction,
the electron-hole pairs are generated. They are generated as a minority carriers i.e. electrons in
the P-region and holes in N-region. When they come at the junction they face the built in voltage
(barrier potential) which separates them. The electrons moves from Pregion to N-region (and the
holes from Nregion to P-region) because there are number of lower energy levels are available in
N-region. This is shown in figure 1. This leads to an increase in the number of holes in P-region
and electrons in N-region. The accumulation of charges on the two sides of the junction produces
a voltage or emf known as photo emf. It is known as open circuit voltage and is proportional to
the illumination as well as the illuminated area. When an external circuit is connected across the
solar cell terminals, current flows through it. Thus solar cell behaves as battery with N side as a
negative terminal and P side as a positive terminal.
 When the voltage is measured between the two ends of the cells, it will be maximum,
which is called ‗open circuit voltage‘ (VOC). If the load is connected to cell, then carriers move
in the circuit creating current and when value of load is minimum, current will be maximum
which is called ‗short circuit current‘ (ISC).

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell:

When the solar cell is exposed to the light its IV characteristics is as shown in figure 3.