Ceramic glaze

Composite body, painted, and glazed bottle. Iran,

16th century (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Detail of dripping rice-straw ash glaze (top), Japan,

1852

Ceramic glaze is an impervious layer or

coating of a vitreous substance which
has been fused to a ceramic body
through firing. Glaze can serve to color,
decorate or waterproof an item.[1]
Glazing renders earthenware vessels
suitable for holding liquids, sealing the
inherent porosity of unglazed biscuit
earthenware. It also gives a tougher
surface. Glaze is also used on stoneware
and porcelain . In addition to their
functionality, glazes can form a variety of
surface finishes, including degrees of
glossy or matte finish and color. Glazes
may also enhance the underlying design
or texture either unmodified or inscribed,
carved or painted.
Most pottery produced in recent
centuries has been glazed, other than
pieces in unglazed biscuit porcelain,
terracotta, or some other types. Tiles are
almost always glazed on the surface
face, and modern architectural terracotta
is very often glazed. Glazed brick is also
common. Domestic sanitary ware is
invariably glazed, as are many ceramics
used in industry, for example ceramic
insulators for overhead power lines.
The most important groups of traditional
glazes, each named after its main
ceramic fluxing agent, are:

Ash glaze, important in East Asia,

simply made from wood or plant ash,
which contains potash and lime.
Feldspathic glazes of porcelain.
Lead glazes, plain or coloured, are
shiny and transparent after firing,
which need only about 800 °C
(1,470 °F). They have been used for
about 2,000 years in China e.g. sancai,
around the Mediterranean, and in
Europe e.g. Victorian majolica.
Salt-glaze, mostly European
stoneware. It uses ordinary salt.
Tin-glaze, which coats the ware with
lead glaze made opaque white by the
addition of tin.[2] Known in the Ancient
Near East and then important in
Islamic pottery, from which it passed
to Europe. Includes Hispano-Moresque
ware, maiolica (also called majolica),
faience, and Delftware.
Modern materials technology has
invented new vitreous glazes that do not
fall into these traditional categories.

Composition
Glazes need to include a ceramic flux
which functions by promoting partial
liquefaction in the clay bodies and the
other glaze materials. Fluxes lower the
high melting point of the glass formers
silica, and sometimes boron trioxide.
These glass formers may be included in
the glaze materials, or may be drawn
from the clay beneath.

Raw materials of ceramic glazes

generally include silica, which will be the
main glass former. Various metal oxides,
such as sodium, potassium, and calcium,
act as flux and therefore lower the
melting temperature. Alumina, often
derived from clay, stiffens the molten
glaze to prevent it from running off the
piece.[3] Colorants, such as iron oxide,
copper carbonate, or cobalt carbonate,[3]
and sometimes opacifiers like tin oxide
or zirconium oxide, are used to modify
the visual appearance of the fired glaze.

Process

İznik tiles in the Enderûn Library, Topkapi Palace,

Istanbul
Glaze may be applied by dry-dusting a
dry mixture over the surface of the clay
body or by inserting salt or soda into the
kiln at high temperatures to create an
atmosphere rich in sodium vapor that
interacts with the aluminium and silica
oxides in the body to form and deposit
glass, producing what is known as salt
glaze pottery. Most commonly, glazes in
aqueous suspension of various
powdered minerals and metal oxides are
applied by dipping pieces directly into the
glaze. Other techniques include pouring
the glaze over the piece, spraying it onto
the piece with an airbrush or similar tool,
or applying it directly with a brush or
other tool.

To prevent the glazed article from

sticking to the kiln during firing, either a
small part of the item is left unglazed, or
it is supported on small refractory
supports such as kiln spurs and Stilts
that are removed and discarded after the
firing. Small marks left by these spurs are
sometimes visible on finished ware.
Decoration applied under the glaze on
pottery is generally referred to as
underglaze. Underglazes are applied to
the surface of the pottery, which can be
either raw, "greenware", or "biscuit"-fired
(an initial firing of some articles before
the glazing and re-firing).[4][5][6] A wet
glaze—usually transparent—is applied
over the decoration. The pigment fuses
with the glaze, and appears to be
underneath a layer of clear glaze. An
example of underglaze decoration is the
well-known "blue and white" porcelain
famously produced in Germany, England,
the Netherlands, China, and Japan. The
striking blue color uses cobalt as cobalt
oxide or cobalt carbonate.[7]

Sancai lead-glazed figure of heavenly guardian, Tang

dynasty
Decoration applied on top of a layer of
glaze is referred to as overglaze.
Overglaze methods include applying one
or more layers or coats of glaze on a
piece of pottery or by applying a non-
glaze substance such as enamel or
metals (e.g., gold leaf) over the glaze.

Overglaze colors are low-temperature

glazes that give ceramics a more
decorative, glassy look. A piece is fired
first, this initial firing being called the
glost firing, then the overglaze
decoration is applied, and it is fired again.
Once the piece is fired and comes out of
the kiln, its texture is smoother due to the
glaze.

History
Historically, glazing of ceramics
developed rather slowly, as appropriate
materials needed to be discovered, and
also firing technology able to reliably
reach the necessary temperatures was
needed.

Glazed brick goes back to the Elamite

Temple at Chogha Zanbil, dated to the
13th century BC. The Iron Pagoda, built in
1049 in Kaifeng, China, of glazed bricks
is a well-known later example.[8]

Lead glazed earthenware was probably

made in China during the Warring States
Period (475 – 221 BCE), and its
production increased during the Han
Dynasty. High temperature proto-celadon
glazed stoneware was made earlier than
glazed earthenware, since the Shang
Dynasty (1600 – 1046 BCE).[9]

During the Kofun period of Japan, Sue

ware was decorated with greenish
natural ash glazes. From 552 to 794 AD,
differently colored glazes were
introduced. The three colored glazes of
the Tang Dynasty were frequently used
for a period, but were gradually phased
out; the precise colors and compositions
of the glazes have not been recovered.
Natural ash glaze, however, was
commonly used throughout the country.

In the 13th century, flower designs were

painted with red, blue, green, yellow and
black overglazes. Overglazes became
very popular because of the particular
look they gave ceramics.

From the eighth century, the use of

glazed ceramics was prevalent in Islamic
art and Islamic pottery, usually in the
form of elaborate pottery. Tin-opacified
glazing was one of the earliest new
technologies developed by the Islamic
potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes
can be found as blue-painted ware in
Basra, dating to around the 8th century.
Another significant contribution was the
development of stoneware, originating
from 9th century Iraq.[10] Other centers
for innovative ceramic pottery in the
Islamic world included Fustat (from 975
to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to
around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to
1550).
Environmental impact
As of 2012, over 650 ceramic
manufacturing establishments were
reported in the United States, with likely
many more across the developed and
developing world.[1] Floor tile, wall tile,
sanitary-ware, bathroom accessories,
kitchenware, and tableware are all
potential ceramic-containing products
that are available for consumers.[11]
Heavy metals are dense metals used in
glazes to produce a particular color or
texture.[5] Glaze components are more
likely to be leached into the environment
when non-recycled ceramic products are
exposed to warm or acidic water.[12]
Leaching of heavy metals occurs when
ceramic products are glazed incorrectly
or damaged.[12] Lead and chromium are
two heavy metals commonly used in
ceramic glazes that are heavily
monitored by government agencies due
to their toxicity and ability to
bioaccumulate.[12][13]
Metal oxide chemistry …

Metals used in ceramic glazes are

typically in the form of metal oxides.

Lead(II) oxide …

Ceramic manufacturers primarily use

lead(II) oxide (PbO) as a flux for its low
melting range, wide firing range, low
surface tension, high index of refraction,
and resistance to devitrification.[14] Lead
used in the manufacture of commercial
glazes are molecularly bound to silica in
a 1:1 ratio, or included in frit form, to
ensure stabilization and reduce the risk
of leaching. [15]

In polluted environments, nitrogen

dioxide reacts with water (H2O) to
produce nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitric
acid (HNO3).[13]

H2O + 2NO2 → HNO2 + HNO3

Soluble Lead(II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) forms

when lead(II) oxide (PbO) of leaded
glazes is exposed to nitric acid (HNO3)
PbO + 2HNO3 → Pb(NO3)2 + H2O

Because lead exposure is strongly linked

to a variety of health problems,
collectively referred to as lead poisoning,
the disposal of leaded glass (chiefly in
the form of discarded CRT displays) and
lead-glazed ceramics is subject to toxic
waste regulations.

Chromium(III) oxide …

Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) is used as a

colorant in ceramic glazes. Chromium(III)
oxide can undergo a reaction with
calcium oxide (CaO) and atmospheric
oxygen in temperatures reached by a kiln
to produce calcium chromate (CaCrO4).
The oxidation reaction changes
chromium from its +3 oxidation state to
its +6 oxidation state.[16] Chromium(VI) is
very soluble and the most mobile out of
all the other stable forms of
chromium.[17]

Cr2O3 + 2CaO + 3⁄2O2 → CaCrO4[16]

Chromium may enter water systems via
industrial discharge. Chromium(VI) can
enter the environment directly or
oxidants present in soils can react with
chromium(III) to produce chromium(VI).
Plants have reduced amounts of
chlorophyll when grown in the presence
of chromium(VI).[17]

Uranium(IV) oxide (UO2)

Urania-based ceramic glazes are dark

green or black when fired in a reduction
or when UO2 is used; more commonly it
is used in oxidation to produce bright
yellow, orange and red glazes[18] Uranium
glazes were used in the 1920s and 1930s
for making uranium tile, watch, clock and
aircraft dials.[19]

Uranium dioxide is produced by reducing

uranium trioxide with hydrogen.

UO3 + H2 → UO2 + H2O at 700 °C (973

K)

Prevention …
Chromium oxidation during
manufacturing processes can be
reduced with the introduction of
compounds that bind to calcium.[16]
Ceramic industries are reluctant to use
lead alternatives since leaded glazes
provide products with a brilliant shine
and smooth surface. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency has
experimented with a dual glaze, barium
alternative to lead, but they were
unsuccessful in achieving the same
optical effect as leaded glazes.
Gallery
Ceramic glazes
 Pottery, Nara period

Meissen porcelain, with blue underglaze

decoration on porcelain
Mug with blue underglaze decoration on
porcelain.
Coloured lead glazes majolica circa 1870

Test slabs of different glazes

 Tin-glazed majolica decorated with
metallic oxide colours, Mintons, circa
1870.
 20th century glazing technique

See also
Celadon
Ceramic chemistry
Frit
Glaze defects
 Pottery#Glazing and firing techniques
Shino ware
Slip (ceramics)
Swatow ware
Uranium tile
Vitreous enamel

References
1. Division, Company Statistics.
"Statistics of U.S. Businesses Main
Page" . www.census.gov. Archived
 from the original on 2015-11-26.
Retrieved 2015-11-27.
2. C D Fortnum, 1875, Maiolica, Chapter
II on Enamelled or Stanniferous
Glazed Wares "It was found that by
the addition of a certain portion of
the oxide of tin to the composition of
glass and oxide of lead the character
of the glaze entirely alters. Instead of
being translucent it becomes, on
fusion, an opaque and beautifully
white enamel…"
3. Madan, Gaurav (2005). S.Chands
Success Guide (Q&A) Inorganic
Chemistry . S. Chand Publishing.
ISBN 9788121918572.
4. "Cleaning Biscuit Fired Ceramic
Ware" Hulse D.K, Barnett W.C. UK
Pat.Appl.GB2287643A
5. Denio, Allen A. (1980-04-01).
"Chemistry for potters". Journal of
Chemical Education. 57 (4): 272.
doi:10.1021/ed057p272 .
 . "Roller Kilns For The Fast Biscuit And
Glost Firing Of Porcelain" Rodriguez
Mamolar M.J., De La Fuente Revuelta
J. Ceram. Inf.(Spain) 20, No.202.
1994. Pg. 25–27
7. 'Ceramics Glaze Technology.'
J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull. The Institute Of
Ceramics & Pergamon Press. Oxford.
1986
. Daiheng, Gao (2002). Chinese
Architecture – The Lia, Song, Xi Xia
and Jin Dynasties (English ed.). Yale
 University Press. pp. 166, 183 .
ISBN 978-0-300-09559-3.
9. Zhiyan, Li (2002). Chinese Ceramics -
- From the Paleolithic Period through
the Qing Dynasty (English ed.). New
York & London, Beijing: Yale
University Press, Foreign Languages
Press. pp. 144, 145, 152. ISBN 978-0-
300-11278-8.
10. Mason (1995), p. 5
11. Environmental Protection Agency.
(February 2003) Economic Impact
 Analysis of the Clay Ceramics
Manufacturing NESHAP: Final Rule
(EPA Publication No. EPA-452/R-03-
007). Research Triangle Park, NC:
Environmental Protection Agency.
12. Omolaoye, J.A,, A. Uzairu, and C.E.
Gimba. "Heavy Metal Assessment of
Some Ceramic Products Imported
into Nigeria from China." Archives of
Applied Science Research 2.5 (2010):
120-25. Web. 15 Oct. 2015
13. Baltrusaitis, Jonas; Chen, Haihan;
Rubasinghege, Gayan; Grassian, Vicki
H. (2012-12-04). "Heterogeneous
Atmospheric Chemistry of Lead
Oxide Particles with Nitrogen Dioxide
Increases Lead Solubility:
Environmental and Health
Implications" . Environmental
Science & Technology. 46 (23):
12806–12813.
doi:10.1021/es3019572 . ISSN 0013-
936X . PMC 3518381 .
PMID 23057678 .
14. Lehman, Richard. Lead Glazes for
Ceramic Foodware. 1st ed. Research
Triangle Park: International Lead
Management Center, 2002.
International Lead Management
Center
15. Pan, De'an (20 February 2018).
"Characteristics and properties of
glass-ceramics using lead fuming
slag" . Journal of Cleaner
Production. 175: 251–256 – via
Elsevier Science Direct.
1 . Verbinnen, Bram; Billen, Pieter; Van
Coninckxloo, Michiel; Vandecasteele,
Carlo (2013-06-04). "Heating
Temperature Dependence of Cr(III)
Oxidation in the Presence of Alkali
and Alkaline Earth Salts and
Subsequent Cr(VI) Leaching
Behavior". Environmental Science &
Technology. 47 (11): 5858–5863.
doi:10.1021/es4001455 . ISSN 0013-
936X . PMID 23635007 .
17. Oliveira, Helena (2012-05-20).
"Chromium as an Environmental
 Pollutant: Insights on Induced Plant
Toxicity". Journal of Botany. 2012:
1–8. doi:10.1155/2012/375843 .
1 . Örtel, Stefan. Uran in der Keramik.
Geschichte - Technik - Hersteller
19. Uranium tile

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Ceramic glazing.
 Hamer, Frank and Janet (1991). The
Potter's Dictionary of Materials and
Techniques (Third ed.). London,
England: A & C Black Publishers,
Limited. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0.

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Ceramic_glaze&oldid=951600507"

Last edited 18 days ago by OAbot

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.