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Environmental geophysics: Conceptual models, challenges, and the way forward

Article  in  The Leading Edge · May 2002

DOI: 10.1190/1.1481253

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 Environmental geophysics: Conceptual
models, challenges, and the way forward
MAX MEJU, University of Leicester, U.K.
Environmental geophysics deals with issues ranging from
local-scale fluid-rock changes to large-scale climatic
changes caused by anthropogenic activities and natural
processes. It is enjoying rapid growth for two reasons: (1)
the present sociopolitical climate of increasing awareness
of the effect of man’s past activities on the environment;
and (2) new technological and multidimensional model-
ing advances that may have brought geophysical meth-
ods close to their theoretical resolving power.
However, there are some outstanding problems:
Realistic whole-site multidimensional imaging of contam-
inated land, understanding fluid-rock interactions, opti-
mal data integration, and remote prediction of flow and
subsoil compositions are currently the most pressing sci-
entific issues.
This article stresses that due to increasingly stringent
statutory requirements, the road ahead will call for more
than purely physical models of the subsurface. Integrated
investigative approaches need to become routine, espe-
cially when there may be postsurvey legal connotations.
Thus, more work needs to be done on integration of dis-
parate data types, prediction of hydrochemistry from non-
invasive profiling, and time-lapse characterization for
monitoring natural attenuation or remediation processes
(Table 1).
Land and groundwater contamination. The decline in
heavy industrial activities, past waste disposal practices
Table 1. Envisioned multidisciplinary approaches to problem solving
Topical issues
Air quality/gas emission monitoring
Noise/vibration monitoring, induced seismicity
Urban geologic mapping
Forensic/crime scene investigations
Lithology and geological structure, depth to bedrock /water table.
Cavities, mine entrances, subsidence
Soil/rock physical properties
Roads/bridges, railways, tunnels, canals, pipelines, cable detec-
tion and condition
Groundwater distribution, quality, and usage
Groundwater pollution
Landfill leachate (formation, migration, and chemistry/reactivity)
Fate of organic pollutants (light and dense petroleum liquids)
Public health: geochemical factors, medical factors
Safe repositories for toxic wastes
Landslide, volcanic eruption, earthquake prediction, and ameliora-
tion planning
Sea-level variations, global warming, catastrophic floods
460 THE LEADING EDGE MAY 2002
and accidental spills, military decommissioning activities,
and past legislative inadequacies have left a legacy of
closed and/or abandoned mines and quarries, military
bases, oil and gas fields, petroleum refineries, etc. Many
derelict sites are contaminated by petroleum liquids—such
as light nonaqueous phase liquids (gasoline-based benzene,
toluene, or xylene) or dense nonaqueous phase liquids
(cleaning solvents such as trichloroethylene or heavy oils
such as crankcase oils), mine spoils, and other inorganic
pollutants. Accidental spills or poor disposal practice at
these sites would result in significant concentrations of
numerous types of both organic and inorganic contami-
nation and would pose a severe threat to groundwater
aquifers. Petroleum liquids occur in the subsurface as pure-
phase organic liquids, vapor phase (in the vadose zone),
and in very low concentrations in the dissolved phase. The
presence of dissolved organic phases in drinking water,
even at a low parts per billion level, is hazardous to human
health.
A network of boreholes is often used to determine the
spatial distribution of such contaminants before remedia-
tion operations. Boreholes are expensive, furnish poor con-
straints on the distribution of contaminants (and hydraulic
parameters), and risk liberating the organic compounds
or triggering further migration of pure-phase organic con-
taminants. The ever-increasing urban population and the
concurrent need for urban regeneration mean that some
contaminated sites are increasingly being redeveloped.
Multidisciplinary collaboration
Pollution chemistry, fluid dynamics, radiometry/gas emanometry
Seismic monitoring, engineering signal processing
Geophysical imaging, remote sensing, geologic mapping
Geophysical imaging, medical/engineering imaging, toxicology
Geotechnics, geophysical imaging
Geophysical imaging, civil engineering, archaeology
Sedimentology, geotechnics, materials engineering, soil/rock
physics
Geophysical imaging, engineering, archaeology, history
Geology, geophysics, water engineering, aqueous chemistry
Geophysics, geotechnics, engineering, aqueous chemistry, microbi-
ology, toxicology
Hydrogeology, aqueous chemistry, engineering, toxicology, microbi-
ology, fluid transport modeling, environmental law
Geophysical imaging, chemistry, fluid flow modelling, reactivity mod-
elling, environmental law
Toxicology, medical statistics, geochemistry, geophysics
Geophysics, engineering, toxicology
Volcanology, seismology, mathematical modeling, geophysical imag-
ing, engineering, geography-GIS, fluid dynamics
Stratigraphy, paleobiology, volcanology, mathematical modeling,
fluid dynamics, geophysics, geography-GIS, atmospheric physics
Current statutory regulations impose tight constraints on
such developments and there is an urgent need for reli-
able noninvasive methods for subsurface characterization.
Other sources of heavy chemical loading of the near-
surface and underlying groundwater aquifers are inten-
sive agricultural development, unlined landfill sites over
aquifers, and other activities. Because aquifers are not eas-
ily replenished and may be regarded as nonrenewable
resources, it is vital to monitor the quality and quantity of
water they contain. The determination of water quantity
requires accurate permeability estimates, traditionally fur-
nished by pump test analysis or more recently by geo-
physical (resistivity, neutron-neutron porosity, density, and
sonic velocity) borehole logging. Cost-effective, noninva-
sive prediction of petrophysical properties of aquifers is
the current research focus. The quality or economic value
of a groundwater resource is dependent on the concen-
tration of dissolved solids in the water, and this concen-
tration can vary laterally and vertically in a given aquifer.
Traditional water-quality assessments require hydro-
chemical measurements on samples from sparse monitor-
ing wells. It will be more cost-effective if the water quality
of an aquifer can be reliably determined without drilling.
Understanding the habitat of groundwater and its vul-
nerability to contamination is vital for resource protection,
modern town planning, and predictive transport model-
ing studies.
Challenges for environmental geophysics. Geophysical
methods are well established in groundwater and con-
taminated land investigations; their utility is underpinned
by three factors. (1) Groundwater distribution is controlled
by mapable geologic factors; (2) groundwater quality is
controlled by geochemical factors; (3) rock resistivity is
inherently related to porosity, fluid content, and chem-
istry. The electrical conductivity of the subsurface is highly
influenced by dissolved solids in groundwater, making
electrical and electromagnetic (including ground-probing
radar, GPR) methods indispensable in groundwater qual-
ity studies.
Geophysics plays a role in engineering, mining, and
natural disaster assessment/amelioration planning (Table
1) and several of its methods enable rapid, noninvasive
evaluation of the lateral and vertical extents of the impacted
volume in contaminated land.
Technological and multidimensional modeling
advances have brought geophysical methods close to their
theoretical resolving power. Advances in digital technol-
ogy and concurrent developments in numerical modeling
and instrumentation have improved data acquisition and
interpretation techniques, especially for bulk data. In par-
ticular, novel technical developments in GPR, shallow seis-
mic reflection, spectral induced polarization, dc resistivity,
and electromagnetics have enhanced the resolution of typ-
ical near-surface targets in model experiments. It is now
possible to collect large volumes of field data of the high-
est achievable quality, push the methods to their limits, and
quantify their utility and resolving power in environmental
(particularly groundwater and derelict or contaminated
land) investigations. However, some problems remain:
Sophisticated integrative mathematical models and con-
trolled field experimental studies. Many recent papers high-
light the prospects and problems of 3D geophysical
modeling and inversion (see “Suggested reading”) but for
idealized structures. What is now needed is a demonstra-
tion of the resolving capability of 3D geophysical model-
ing/imaging of complex natural hydrogeological systems
and urban waste sites. The ultimate aim will be to fully
MAY 2002 THE LEADING EDGE 461
 Table 2. Some industrial wastes buried in landfill sites
Sources
Food products: additives, grain mills, meat/fish
Paper and paper products
Soaps, detergents
Textiles: silk, cotton, wool, synthetics
Leather products
Wood products
Paints, varnishes
Energy and petroleum: coal, nuclear, petroleum refining
Metals, fabricated/scrap metals
Mining/mineral processing
Chemicals, fertilizers
understand the prospects and problems of 3D geophysi-
cal surveying and data interpretation in realistic environ-
mental sites with forward models that incorporate
contributions from pipes, fences, and other common infra-
structure.
There is also an urgent need for improved joint multi-
dimensional inversion of bulk data. The capability for joint
modeling of multiple physicochemical systems in complex
media holds the key to cost-effective and improved geoen-
vironmental predictions. Thus, integrating disparate
hydrochemical, sedimentological, and geophysical “soft”
data in hydraulic permeability determinations and inverse
hydrofacies modeling requires further work. Also, the
impact of local heterogeneity in the unsaturated zone on
Approximate composition
Organics and inorganic acids
Sulfates, organics, soaps, mercaptans
Surfactants, polyphosphates, aluminium-copper-oxides
Acids, alkalis, metallic salts, solvents
Chrome salts, oils, dyes
Solvents, preservatives
Metallic salts, toxic liquids
Hydrocarbons, acids, metallic salts, radioactive materials
Sulfur, chlorides, phenols, PCBs, oils, grease, chrome, alkalis,
acids, metallic salts
Acids, cyanide, metallic salts
Sulfuric acids, organo-phosphates, copper sulfate, mercury arse-
nates
solute transport to the water table is not precisely under-
stood. Realistic controlled experiments (that upscale from
laboratory to field size) can furnish vital constraints on
hydrological models of flow in the near-surface. Current
effort is directed at using diffuse source tracers and sub-
sequent 3D monitoring measurements to accurately char-
acterize solute transport processes in the vadose zone.
Integrated decimeter-scale surface and borehole geo-
physical (EM, resistivity, radar, and seismic) monitoring
of the unsaturated zone combined with core characteri-
zation may unravel this problem and provide insights into
the temporal and spatial dynamics of moisture migration
in the vadose zone.
Development of robust surface-process models and corre-
spondence principles for geophysical anomalies. Understanding
the interplay between physical, chemical, and biological
processes in the near surface might lead to the develop-
ment of robust integrated process models and correspon-
dence principles for geophysical anomalies. This will in
turn lead to improved success and consistency of approach
in environmental geophysical investigations. In reviewing
the biogeomorphic, geochemical, and physical processes
operative in landfill sites, I developed a model for geo-
electrical soundings that is consistent with these processes.
A correspondence between geochemical and geoelectrical
anomalies is explored and used to propose a novel scheme
for estimating the age of fill (and associated leachate) anal-
ogous to current geochemical practice (see “Suggested
reading”). Data from borehole geoelectrical probes at sev-
eral sites in the U.S. Michigan Basin and constraints pro-
vided by biogeochemical observations elsewhere (Sauck)
provided a model for the electrical response of light non-
aqueous phase liquids in contaminated land. A compara-
ble model needs to be developed for dense nonaqueous
phase liquids.
Improved integration of field techniques and time-lapse char-
acterizations. It is highly desirable to adopt integrated geo-
physical, geochemical, and microbial methods in routine
high-resolution temporal and spatial characterization of
near-surface environments. For example, coworkers and
I successfully combined dc resistivity, TEM, and AMT
methods for regional aquifer mapping in Brazil. Shtivelman
and Goldman (see “Suggested reading”) demonstrated
the improved resolution obtained by integrating shallow
seismic reflection and TEM methods in the study of a
coastal aquifer in Israel. Interestingly, however, despite
the large number of recent publications and symposia pre-
sentations of environmental geophysical results for cont-
aminated land and groundwater environments, it is hard
to find unequivocal models describing the variations in the
relevant physical properties in the near surface.
Many field studies employed individual surface tech-
niques without adequate attention to temporal-spatial
property variations, especially the geochemical-hydraulic-
biologic characteristics of the respective sites and envi-
ronments. For improved problem solution, there is a need
for an integrated approach to contaminated land studies. For
example, it may be instructive to investigate temporal and
spatial variations in dielectric permittivity, electrical resis-
tivity/phase and biogeochemical characteristics associated
with plumes originating from free product LNAPL sources
in granular sediments so as to understand better the behav-
ior and migration pattern of low-density hydrocarbons in
the subsurface and also resolve some existing discrepancies
between field and controlled experiments.
The study of the diverse properties of materials deposited
in landfill sites (Table 2) requires an integrated approach. We
need a better understanding of the anatomy and physiology
of old buried landfills and attenuation processes in the host
aquifers using noninvasive geophysical imaging. Integrated
geophysical, hydrogeological, microbial, and geochemical
time-lapse studies of contaminated sites and/or ground-
water aquifers can help push geophysical methods to their
limits to establish whether they can furnish diagnostic data
to resolve the characteristics and properties of subsurface tar-
gets and to establish whether there is a relationship between
hydrogeochemical patterns and 3D physical signatures across
the investigated sites.
Tracking or monitoring remediation processes. The effec-
tiveness of new remediation techniques depends on timely
 detection and delineation of causative bodies; expensive
pilot wells only provide point samples (i.e., an incomplete
picture) of the subsurface. Geophysical methods can image
the region inaccessible to sparse monitoring wells and add
valuable stratigraphic information to any model of contam-
inant transport for the sites. In combination with biogeo-
chemical data, there is excellent potential for optimizing
exploratory drilling and positioning of monitoring wells
with attendant savings in expensive saturation drilling in con-
ventional remediation operations. Geophysical, geotechni-
cal engineering, and microbial methods are now becoming
integral parts of remediation programs; understanding the
temporal-spatial changes in contaminant behavior from con-
current geophysical imaging or time-lapse characterizations
could furnish novel techniques for noninvasive monitoring
of the onset and progress of natural attenuation of contam-
inants in the subsurface.
Remote prediction of petrophysical, hydrochemical, and foren-
sic attributes of near-surface targets. Reliable porosity/perme-
ability estimation from surface measurements is unresolved
and requires further research. The problem is even more dif-
ficult in fractured crystalline terrains. There are numerical
schemes for predicting the transport properties of fractured
rock from seismic data (Boadu), and multicomponent seis-
mic surveying holds good promise for the future (Bates and
Phillips). An integrated approach involving sedimentologi-
cal, hydrogeologic, petrophysical, complex resistivity, elec-
tromagnetic, surface nuclear magnetic resonance (SNMR),
and seismic/GPR input may be desirable.
Because hydraulic conductivity or permeability is related
to fluid transport and electrical conductivity is related to ionic
transport in fluids, there must be some link between
464 THE LEADING EDGE MAY 2002
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hydraulic and electrical conductivities in aquifers. In my
opinion, coupling these two transport processes is the way
forward and the ultimate challenge. There is also some pos-
sibility of predicting leachate composition and age in old cov-
ered landfill sites using resistivity data. The suggested scheme
is simple: (1) Determine bulk conductivity (σb in mS/m) by
inversion of observed apparent resistivity data; (2) estimate
total dissolved solids (TDS) content, fluid conductivity (σw),
and chloride content using the empirical relations given in
equations 1, 2, and 4 of my paper “Geoelectrical investiga-
tion of old/abandoned landfill sites in urban areas: Model
development with a genetic diagnosis approach”; (3) esti-
mate age of fill. Several sites need to be investigated to ascer-
tain the validity of this potentially useful forensic concept.
Conclusion. Much current work in environmental geo-
physics and geology covers a broad spectrum of quantita-
tive investigation of fundamental fluid-rock processes in the
earth. Numerical methods are used extensively to simulate
earth system processes, and nonlinear optimization tech-
niques then match hypothetical models to experimental data.
Therefore, there are challenges ahead for better interaction
between some research programs in geophysics, microbiol-
ogy, chemistry, physics, mathematical modeling, and med-
ical imaging. The road to effective integration might be
rough, but this path would enable us to go from the purely
physical models in environmental geophysics to becoming
a recognized technology that can be accepted even in legal
proceedings.
Suggested reading. From the Journal of Applied Geophysics,
2000: “Multicomponent seismic surveying for near-surface
investigations: Examples from central Wyoming and southern
England” by Bates and Phillips; “Predicting the transport prop-
erties of fractured rock from seismic information: numerical
experiments” by Boadu; “Environmental geophysics: the tasks
ahead” and “Geoelectrical investigation of old/abandoned land-
fill sites in urban areas: Model development with a genetic diag-
nosis approach,” both by Meju; “A model for the resistivity
structure of LNAPL plumes and their environs in sandy envi-
ronments” by Sauck; “Integration of shallow reflection seismics
and time-domain electromagnetics for detailed study of the
coastal aquifer in the Nitzanim area of Israel” by Shtivelman
and Goldman; “Cross-hole electrical imaging of a controlled
saline tracer injection” by Slater et al.; and “Three-dimensional
inversion of induced polarization data from simulated waste”
by Weller et al. Also in J. of App. Geophysics, 1996: “Development
of noncontact data acquisition techniques in electrical and elec-
tromagnetic explorations” by Shima et al. “Regional aquifer
mapping using combined VES-TEM-AMT/EMAP methods in
the semiarid eastern margin of Parnaiba Basin, Brazil” by Meju
et al. (GEOPHYSICS, 1999). “3D resistivity forward modelling and
inversion using conjugate gradients” by Zhang et al. (GEOPHYSICS,
1995). “The pole-pole 3D dc-resistivity inverse problem: A con-
jugate gradient approach” by Ellis and Oldenburg (Geophys. Jour.
Int., 1994).”Engineering behaviour of urban refuse, compaction
control and slope stability analysis of landfill” by Fang, in Waste
disposal by landfill-GREEN’93, (A A Balkema, Rotterdam, 1995).
“Leachate: Production and characterisation” by Farquhar (Can.
J. Civ. Eng., 1989). “ERT monitoring of environmental remedi-
ation processes” by LaBrecque et al. (Measurement Science and
Technology, 1996). “Pulled array continuous electric profiling”
(First Break, 1996) and “The pulled array TEM method”
(Proceedings of 3rd meeting of Engineering & Environmental
Geophysical Society-European Section, Aarhus, Denmark), both
by Sorensen. L E
Corresponding author: M. Meju, mxw@Le.ac.uk