CHAPTER FOUR

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

By:
Wubamlak A. (MSc in Transportation Engineering)
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 Geometric design of highways

Geometric design of highways deals with the following elements.

• Sight distance considerations

• Horizontal alignment

• Vertical alignment

• Cross section elements

• Intersection elements

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 Sight distance
• Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead visible to the driver.

• The sight distance available at each point of the highway must be such that,
when a driver is traveling at the highway’s design speed, adequate time is given
after an object is observed in the vehicle’s path to make the necessary evasive
maneuvers without colliding with the object.

• The two types of sight distance are:

(1) stopping sight distance and

(2) passing sight distance.

Driver's eye height: 1.05 metres

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.2 metres

Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 metres

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 Stopping sight distance

• The distance a vehicle requires to stop safely is called the stopping sight
distance.
• The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to
enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a
stationary object in its path.
• The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following
formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time and the
distance required to stop the vehicle.
The formula is:

𝑣2
d= 0.278vt +
254(𝑓+𝑔/100)
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 Cont..

Where:

• d = distance (m)

• t = driver reaction time, (normally 2.5 sec.)

• V = initial speed (km/h)

• f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway

• g = gradient of road (downhill is negative)

On a flat road the value of g is zero.

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 Cont..

Minimum stopping sight distance on paved roads

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 Cont..

• Full adherence to the required sight distances is essential for

safety reasons.
• On the inside of horizontal curves it may be necessary to
remove trees, buildings or other obstacles to obtain the
necessary sight distances.
If this cannot be done:
• the alignment must be changed.
• In rare cases where it is not possible and a change in design
speed is necessary, adequate and permanent signage must be
provided.
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 Cont.

• Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on a

two-way road that must be available to enable the driver of one
vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without interfering with
the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design
speed.

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 Cont..

• The passing sight distance is generally determined by a

formula with four components, as follows:
• d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception
and reaction
• d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing
lane
• d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the
maneuver
• d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle

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 Cont..
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a.t1/2)
Where
• t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
• a = average acceleration, km/h/s
• v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
• m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 v.t2.
Where

• t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s

• v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

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 Cont.

• d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver,

and is dependent on ambient speeds.

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal

to d2 minus the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left
lane, estimated as:

d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

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 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment consists of:

• Tangents

• Circular curves and

• Possibly transition curves

• Super elevation

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 Cont.

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 cont.

In order to calculate the minimum horizontal radius of curvature,

Rmin, for a particular design speed, the equation is:

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 Example

A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 km/hr. At one

horizontal curve, it is known that the super elevation is 8.0% and the
coefficient of side friction is 0.10. Determine the minimum radius of
curve (measured to the traveled path) that will provide for safe
vehicle operation.

This value is the minimum radius, because radii smaller than Rmin
will generate centripetal forces higher than those that can be safely
supported by the super elevation and the side frictional force.

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 Cont..

There are four types of horizontal curves:

• simple,

• compound,

• reversed, and

• spiral.

Computations required for each type are presented in the

following sections.

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 Simple circular curve

Circular curves: are described by radius (R), central angle (∆), tangent (T),
middle ordinate (M), external distance (E), and chord (C).

Degree of curvature (arc definition)

Arc definition- angle subtended by an arc of 20 m

Chord definition- angle subtended by a chord of 20m

20 1145.916 ------ Arc definition

R 
Drad Ddeg

10
R ------- Chord definition
sin D / 2
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 Cont…

T  R tan
2
𝜋𝑟Δ
L=
180
 1 
E  R
 cos  2  1

 

 
M  R1  cos 
 2


C  2R sin  
 2 

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 Cont.

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 Example 2

• The intersection angle of a 4° curve is 55°25, and the PC is located at

station 238+44.75. Determine the length of the curve, the station of the
PT, the deflection angles and the chord lengths for setting out the curve
at whole stations from the PC.

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 Example 3

• A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000-ft radius. The curve

has a tangent length of 400ft and the PI is at station 103 + 00.
Determine the stationing of the PT.

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 cont..

Solution:

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 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design

• Adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the design of

horizontal curves.

• Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves occur when obstructions

are present.

• When such an obstruction exists, the stopping sight distance is measured

along the horizontal curve from the center of the traveled lane.

• As shown in Figure, for a specified stopping distance, some distance M

must be visually cleared so that the line of sight is such that sufficient
stopping sight distance is available.
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 Cont..

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 Cont..

Example: A horizontal curve with a radius of 800ft connects

the tangents of a two-lane highway that has a posted speed

limit of 35 mi/h. If the highway curve is not super elevated,

determine the horizontal sightline offset (HSO) that a large

billboard can be placed from the centerline of the inside lane

of the curve, without reducing the required SSD. Perception-

reaction time is 2.5 sec, and f 0.35.

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 Cont..
Solution:

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 Example
A sound wall is to be constructed at the edge of shoulder, along the inside of a
horizontal curve of an urban freeway. The inside lane is 3.8 m wide, with a
shoulder of 1.20 m. The radius of the curve, measured up to the outer edge of the
shoulder is 45 m. Determine the sight distance of this section of the curve with the
sound wall.

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 Cont.
Exercise

• A horizontal curve is designed for a two-lane road in mountainous terrain. The following data are
known.

Intersection angle: 40 degrees

Tangent length: 436.76 feet

Station of PI: 2700 + 10.65

fs = 0.12

e = 0.08

Determine the following.

(a) Design speed

(b) Station of the PC

(c) Station of the PT and PC

(d) determine the horizontal sightline offset (HSO) that a large billboard can be placed from the centerline of
the inside lane of the curve.

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 Compound curve
• Compound curves consist of two or more simple curves in succession, turning in
the same direction, with any two successive curves having a common tangent point.

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 Cont..

Basic equations

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 Reverse curve

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 Transition curve
• Spiral Transition curves are curves which provide a gradual
change in curvature from tangent to a circular path.
Advantages:
• Provides an easy-to-follow path so that centrifugal force
increases and decreases gradually; lesser danger of overturning/
side-slipping
• Vehicle could keep to the middle of lane while traversing a
curve.
• Is convenient for the application of super-elevation
• Improved visual appearance, no “kinks”(sharp curve)
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 Cont…

For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk

and link road segments having a design speed of equal to or
greater than 80 km/hr.

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 Cont…

Figure Main Elements of A Circular Curve Provided with Transitions

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 Cont..
θs = spiral angle

Δ = total central angle

Δc = central angle of the circular arc extending from BC to EC = Δ - 2 θs

Rc = radius of circular curve

L = length of spiral from starting point to any point

R = radius of curvature of the spiral at a point L distant from starting point.

Ts = tangent distance

Es = external distance

S = shift

HIP = horizontal intersection point

BS = beginning of spiral

BC = beginning of circular curve

EC = end of circular curve

ES = end of spiral curve

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 Cont…
Some of the important properties of the spirals are given below:

• L = 2Rθ

• θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs

• θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)

• Ts = Ls /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)

• S = Ls2 / 24Rc

• Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc

The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration,

• Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc)

Where:

V = speed (Km/hr)

Rc 5/20/2021
= radius of the circular curve (m) 36
 Widening on curves and embankments

• Widening of the carriageway where the horizontal curve is

tight is usually necessary to ensure that the rear wheels of the
largest vehicles remain on the road when negotiating the
curve; and, on two lane roads, to ensure that the front
overhang of the vehicle does not encroach on the opposite
lane.

• Widening is therefore also important for safety reasons.

• Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and

should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle.
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 Cont…

• Widening on high embankments is recommended for design classes DC8

through to DC4.

• The steep drops from high embankments unnerve some drivers and the
widening is primarily for psychological comfort although it also has a
positive effect on safety.

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 cont.

The widening required can be calculated from

We = n *B2/ 2R + Vd / 10

Where:

We = total widening

B = wheel base

R = radius of curve

V = design speed (Km/hr)

n = number of lanes
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 super elevation

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 Cont..

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 Cont..

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 Attainment of super elevation

• The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is

changed into a super elevated surface into two stages.

• In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised

until it is level.

In the second stage, three methods may be adopted to attain the

full super elevation.

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 Cont..

• The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the

carriageway, gradually lowering the inner edge and raising the
upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline constant.

• The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising
the center and the outer edge.

• The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge

depressing the center and the outer edge.

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 Cont.
Tangent runout: This is the distance required to change from a normal
crown section to a points where the adverse cross slope of out side lane is
remove
Transition runoff: The distance required for accomplishing the transition
from a normal to a superelevated section.
• In alignment design with spirals, the super-elevation runoff is provided
over the whole of the transition curve.

• The length of runoff is the spiral length, with the tangent to spiral (TS)
transition point at the beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) transition
point at the end.

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 Cont.
Cont.

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 Cont.
Cont.

• For curves without transition is to place approximately two-thirds

of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third on the curve.

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 Vertical Alignment
• Consists of straight sections of the highway known as grades, or
tangents, connected by vertical curves.

• The design involves the selection of suitable GRADES for the

tangent sections and appropriate length of vertical curves.

• The topography of the area through which the road traverses has a
significant impact on the design of the vertical alignment.

• Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one

tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as they
traverse the highway.

• These curves are usually parabolic in shape.

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 Cont.
Cont.

• When the profile grade line is increasing from a level or flat

alignment, this condition is referred to as a “plus grade”, and
when the grade is decreasing from a level alignment, the grade
is termed a “minus grade”.

• In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in

which the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal
of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted.

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 Grades and grade control
• In the analysis of grades and grade control, one of the most important
considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor
vehicle.
• An increase in gasoline consumption, a reduction in speed, and an
increase in emissions and noise are apparent when grades are increased.
• Minimum grades are governed by drainage conditions. Level grades
may be used in fill sections in rural areas when crowned pavements and
sloping shoulders can take care of the pavement surface drainage.
• However, it is preferred that the profile grade be designed to have a
minimum grade of at least 0.3 percent under most conditions in order to
secure adequate drainage.
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 Cont.
Cont.
• The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile grade tangents.

• When a vertical curve connects a positive grade with a negative grade, it is referred to as
a “crest curve”.

• Likewise, when a vertical curve connects a negative grade with a positive grade, it is
termed a “sag curve”.

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 Vertical curve design

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Cont.
Cont.

Vertical curve equations:

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 Design Procedure for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
The design of a crest or sag vertical curve will generally proceed in the following
manner:

• Step 1. Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance

requirements and other criteria for sag curves (comfort, appearance, drainage).

• Step 2. Determine from the layout plans, the station and elevation of the point
where the grades intersect (PVI).

• Step 3. Compute the elevations of the beginning of vertical curve, (BVC) and
the end of vertical curve (EVC).

• Step 4. Compute the offsets, Y, as the distance between the tangent and the
curve. Usually equal distances of 100 ft (1 station) are used, beginning with the
first whole station after the BVC.

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 Cont.
Cont.

• Step 5. Compute elevations on the curve for each station as:

elevation of the tangent plus or minus offset from the tangent,
Y.

- For crest curves the offset is (-) and

- For sag curves the offset is (+).

• Step 6. Compute the location and elevation of the highest

(crest) or lowest (sag) point on the curve.

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 Example

• A vertical curve joining a +3 percent and a -4 percent grade is

to be designed for 75 mi/h. If the tangents intersect at station
(345 + 60.00) at an elevation of 250 ft, determine the stations
and elevations of the BVC and EVC. Also, calculate the
elevations of intermediate points on the curve at the whole
stations.

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 Cont.
Cont.
Solution: For a design speed of 75 mi/h, K = 312.

L=K*A = 312*[(-4-3)]=312*7=2184ft

Station of BVC = station of PVI – (L/2) =1345 + 602 –(2184/2)=334 + 68

Station of EVC = (334+68) + (2184) = 356+52

Elevation of BVC = 250 – (0.03*2184/2) = 217.24

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 Cont.
Cont.

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 Exercise
Exercise

A -2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by means of a

180m vertical curve. The P.I. is 100+00 and the P.I. elevation is
100.0 m above sea level. What are the station and elevation of the
lowest point on the vertical curve?

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 Exercise

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 Length of vertical curves
Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves

Criteria for determination:

– Sight distance- dominant factor in highway design

– Comfort standard with regard to vertical acceleration

– Appearance criteria

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 Cont.
Cont.
Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves

• Crest Vertical Curves- minimum length depends on:

– Sight distance, ht. of driver’s eye, and ht. of object

AS 2
Lmin  when S  L
200  h1  h2 
2

Lmin  2 S 
200  h1  h2 
2

when S  L
A

Where: h1= height of eye

S= sight distance (table)
L= length of vertical curve h2= height of object
A= |g2-g1| absolute value of
difference in grades
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 Cont.
Cont..

Crest Vertical Curves- substituting the standard values

For Stopping sight distance: For Passing sight distance:

AS 2 AS 2
Lmin  when S  L Lmin  when S  L
404 946
404 946
Lmin  2S  when S  L Lmin  2S  when S  L
A A

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 Cont.
Cont.
Sag Vertical Curves- minimum length depends on:
– Distance illuminated by headlight at night
– Height of headlight= 0.600 m
– Upward divergence of headlight beam= 1o

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 Cont.
Cont.

The formula becomes:

 AS 2 AS 2
  when S  L
 2000.6  S tan 1 120  3.5S

Lmin 
 2000.6  S tan 1 120  3.5S
2 S   2S  when S  L

 A A

Design charts or tables are provided to determine the minimum

length of vertical curve to provide stopping sight distance.

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 Cont.
Cont.

Sag Vertical Curves- to ensure comfort against radial

acceleration Where:
r= rate of change of grade
a
r 2 a= max. radial acceleration permitted
v V= speed

AASHTO suggests a value a= 0.3

m/s2 of and the following formula:
Where:
L= length of vertical curve, m
AV 2 A=g2-g1, (%)
L V= design speed
395

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 Cont.
Cont.

Provision of Clearances:

• Minimum/ Maximum Lengths of Vertical Curves

L  4w  2 z  4 w  wz
2

y
w
A
Where:
L= Maximum or minimum vertical curve length
C= critical clearance
z= horizontal distance from P.V.I. to the critical point
y‘=offset b/n the critical point and the tangent
passing through PVC
A=g2-g1
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 Thank you !!!

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